ECEC
Cephalocaudel:
(Latin for cepha, the head and caudel, the tail - head first to tail last) -First the muscles around the neck develop, then shoulders, back, thighs, ankles and feet, last. -The baby will start to control the eyes watching and tracking people and objects. The head starts to turn, but the head will be wobbly for the first two months. -By the third or fourth month, the baby can control her head. Muscles in the back, arms will strengthen. As the baby gets longer, the torso gets bigger and stronger. The legs will look out of proportion to the rest of the body.
Awake states:
* Alert activity, the baby is calm, eyes wide open and attentive. This is the best time to interact with the baby. * Waking activity, the baby is awake, but the eyes are unfocused; the baby moves her/his arms in bursts of motion. A little bit like a baby aerobics session. This is a time to sit and watch the baby. He/she won't be as interested in peek-a-boo. * Crying, this state is important for lung development, blood flow to the brain and limbs. Babies should be immediately comforted in the crying state. Once parents and caregivers get to know the infant, they can discern what the cry might be signifying.
Sleep state -
* There are two sleep states, one is quiet and the baby seems to drift back and forth with regular breathing to deep sleep. The other one is called active sleep; the baby has irregular breathing and may move arms and legs while sleeping. If you have an infant in your life, you may find it interesting to see if you can identify these four states.
operant conditioning
- positive & negative reinforcement This theory is also known by the term Behaviourism. It explains five ways that behaviours can be reinforced or not reinforced. B.F. Skinner believed that if a behaviour was reinforced immediately after it occurred, the likelihood of the behaviour being continued was high. These reinforcers are often used when helping children to change behaviours. Stickers are used as a reward for using the toilet or remembering to put away toys (positive reinforce). Children who see a parent's frown when they break a social rule , like grabbing the first muffin before the company has some, will refrain from the behaviour the next time (negative reinforcer). This theory suggests punishment or pairing an undesirable behaviour with pain or something unpleasant. This seems to work with training dogs, but it hasn't tested well with humans. It seems that the punishment has to be very consistent, rather than intermittent. Intermittent punishment seems to prolong an undesired behaviour. Extinction is the term used for ignoring undesirable behaviours. This theory supposes that if a behaviour is ignored it should disappear. Again, this strategy doesn't always work with humans. Children especially need to understand why they are being ignored. Ignoring a four year old who calls you a "poopyhead" seems to work some of the time, but ignoring a child when they are hitting a friend would not stop her from hitting.
Proximodistal
-(Latin for proxi, near and distal for far-near to far) -The baby will get control over the head and the top of the back. The baby will start moving her arms around. It will be awhile before she is able to control the muscles in her hands and fingers. This trend continues, and the baby's back muscles will strengthen before he begins to sit up and pull up to standing.
Bones and Muscles
-At birth the bones were soft and pliable. During the first year of life the bones get harder. During this process of ossification, the deposit of calcium to the bones, begins and continues until puberty. Different bones ossify at different rates. This process of ossification also follows the patterns of cephalocaudel and proximodistal growth. -Those soft spots on the skull (fontanels) that were there to squeeze that baby's head through the birth canal (vagina) are hardened by 18 months of age. The long bones of the legs are not completely hardened until puberty.
Period of the Zygote (conception to 2 weeks)
-The developing zygote becomes firmly attached to the uterine wall. -These developmental principles govern growth: Cephalocaudal pattern: head to toe (head downwards) Proximosdistal pattern: near to far (center of the body to extremeties) During the prenatal period, for instance, because of this pattern from head downwards (cephalocaudel), the neural tube develops, then the heart, then the limbs. The pattern, near to far or from the center of the body, out (proximosdistal) means the teeth develop, then the palatte, then the ears.
Biological perspective
-main focus: physical development. (perspective helps us understand how growth is predetermined according to a biological blue print). -biological factors are critical in shaping development -whose idea's was it: Arnold Gesell (maturational theory) & Konrad Lorenz (ethological theory) -what drives/explains the theory: genetics drive the theory, perspective identifies critical and sensitive periods of growth, explains growth as continuous / each phase appearing as if on a biological clock, and environment and experience influence growth.
Brazelton's Neonatal Assessment Scale
Another test used for assessing neonate' abilities is a test developed by Barry Brazelton. This assessment score provided more information than the Apgar test. This assessment is for a broad range of abilities. The parents are usually involved with the delivery of the test. It seems that this test is very advantageous in supporting parent-infant interactions, especially for neonates that have neurological damage at birth.
First Sounds: Pre-linguistic expressions
Before a word of language is spoken infants start to engage us in conversations. Theorists tell us that it would be impossible to keep a child from talking. Language will happen without formal teaching. Crying Cooing: vowel sounds like ahhh, oooo, uuuuu. Babbling: string of sounds, dahmahabah-papama. Jargon: (intonation) stringing together sets of different syllables with sentence like inflections. At about nine months of age gestural language appears. Infants use gestures to communicate, pointing to things that they want or that they want adults to do for them. There is evidence that gesturing supports language development. Baby sign language has become popular amongst parents of hearing children. Neural mechanisms exist in the brain for processing language, even sign language.
cognitive developmental perspective
Children go through four sequential stages of cognitive development, 1) sensorimotor stage, 2) pre-operational stage, 3) concrete operational stage, and 4) formal operational stage. Piaget believed that children create theories or schemas about the world and as they experiment, their theories are either reinforced or they are revised and adapted.
chromosomal errors or abnormal chromosomes ->
Down syndrome, Disorders associated with the Sex Chromosome.
Language Delays
Early intervention for language delays is very important. Language learning is so important to the brain in the first two years impairments can happen that are hard to later reverse. Sometimes early childhood educators are the first people in a child's life that notice a language delay. Children communicate wonderfully with their parents. Parents may not notice that a child is using all gestures or that words are not changing to be more understandable. Encourage all parents to have their children's hearing tested. Language delays are due to: * Abnormalities/disorders to mouth, teeth, tongue and breathing * Hearing impairments * Brain damage including aphasia (lack of oxygen at birth) - often characterized by the inability to formulate, to retrieve and to understand symbols and language * Environmental deprivation- abuse, neglect or emotional/mental health
experiments ->
Experiments are studies that test hypothesis or predictions. Researchers might use experiments to test correlations. These studies are usually quick and inexpensive to do. Researchers can gather a lot of data (information) in a short amount of time.
dominant and recessive & genes ->
Eye colour, hair colour, skin colour, shape of eyebrows, ears, length of legs, size of belly..... all of these traits are the outcomes of the combinations of dominant and recessive genes inherited, passed down from one generation to the next.
following traits are strongly influenced by inheritance ->
Height, Intelligence, Personality, Psychological and learning disorders, Artistic ability, and Athletic ability.
inherited disorders ->
High blood pressure, Cystic fibrosis, &Red-green colour blindness.
Fine motor skills
Infants can move their arms around first, brushing objects (prereaching), by about 4-6 months of age they are flexing the whole hand to grasp. When you see a newborn grasp a baby rattle or toy, this is a reflex action, not a controlled grasping action. This grasp reflex turns into the ulnar grasp. When babies are between 12-14 months of age they start picking up chick peas or Cheerios with the forefinger and thumb (pincer grasp).
Genetic Factors: Heredity and Hormones - influence on growth
It is interesting to note, that overall, reducing opportunities for movement does not influence the onset of walking. The timing of when an infant takes the first baby step seems to be determined by a genetic timetable. Handedness seems to have a strong link to heredity. Since much of our environments are set up for right handed people, those that may be ambidextrous may defer to right-handedness. Since there have been fewer restrictions on left handedness there has been an increase in lefties. The pituitary gland is responsible for growth hormones. These are usually released during sleep. Remember when we learned about the value of sleep to brain organization? This is another good reason to encourage families to have sleep routines that help infants and toddlers get enough rest. The thyroid also controls hormones for the development of nerve cells.
Canada's unique contribution
James Baldwin started the first psychological lab in Canada & developed important theoretical ideas about children's development. five broad theoretical perspectives have guided researchers: biological, psychodynamic, learning, cognitive-developmental, and contextual.
Cohort Effects ->
Kail mentions that these are particular events that are historical or cultural that have an impact on a group of people. These events impact development and the researcher needs to take them into consideration.
Habituation
Once people become habituated to a stimulus or as something becomes familiar we can ignore it.
The Fetal Period (2 months to 9 months)
Organs, muscles and the nervous system become organized and connected. Everything gets bigger. At 5 ½ to 7 months a fetus can often survive if born now. The longer the fetus is in the uterus the better the chance for survival. In the eighth month a layer of fat is deposited under the fetus' skin. The fetus receives antibodies from the mother's blood in the nineth month at the end of gestation. There are many environmental influences, some that are very good and some that are very bad, that influence prenatal development. By focusing on the indicators of a healthy pregnancy, many disorders and future problems for this baby can be avoided. During prenatal development, there are risks during each period of prenatal growth. These risks fall into three categories. 1. Nutrition 2. Stress 3. Teratogens
First Words
Out of pre-linguistic speech comes the formation of words. Parents and family members usually remember an infant's first words. Sometimes it's mama or dada, opa, or oma, or baba. It is often made up of a few consonants and a few vowels. Theorists tell us that during the first two years of life children experience a naming explosion. Fast mapping and joint attention support this naming explosion.
Embryonic period (implantation to week 8)
Over the next six weeks an amazing amount of growth occurs. The neural tube (see the picture in your textbook) -3 weeks The heart beating -4 weeks Five fingers on each hand, eyes have corneas, lungs are formed -5 weeks Brain is producing activity -6 weeks Movement begins, skeleton, developed limbs , ears formed, eyelids protect eyes, - 7 weeks Liver and spleen begin to function, the heart is pumping blood, digestive and urinary systems are in place and the brain begins to organize information into neural pathways- 8 weeks At the end of this period all body structures and internal organs are in place and ready to grow. The embryo is the size of one pea.
correlational study ->
Researchers use these studies to look at relationships between variables. Results from these studies help researcher to identify if there is a cause and effect relationship existing between variables that seem to be happening at the same time.
Sequential Designs->
Sequential designs take a little from cross sectional designs and longitudinal designs. Sequential designs follow groups of children who are different ages over three or four years. The data provides both cross sectional and longitudinal comparisons.
gross motor skills
Squirming, scooting, crawling, pulling up to stand, standing, walking, toddling, running, jumping are examples of gross or large muscle development
Labour and delivery
Stage one is often referred to as dilation and effacement of the cervix. Contractions cause the cervix to open and to get thinner. Stage two is the delivery of the baby. During this stage the top of the baby's head appears, known as 'crowning'. It is during this stage the baby is born. Stage three is the birth of the placenta. After a few final contractions the placenta separates from the uterine wall and is also delivered.
cross-sectional designs ->
Subjects of various ages are compared to see if they differ on a particular dimension of development.
Pruning
Synaptic pruning describes the period in infancy through to adolescence when the synapses begin to disappear as the brain shapes and adapts to the environment. This very efficient brain literally weeds out unnecessary connections (downsizing). Neurons and neural pathways begin to decrease after the first year of life and continue to do so until adulthood. Neural connections most used survive and those that are not used atrophy or die off. Although, it seems that once something is learned, we do not completely forget it. For example, a child who has learned to play the piano and then never plays after she is six or seven years old, will find it easier to learn to play the piano again as an adult over someone who has never played the piano at all. Because of this process we can safely assume that a child of three has more neurons than an adult!
Nutrition - influence on growth
The Canadian Pediatric Society highly recommends breastfeeding exclusively for the first six months of a child's life. Infants and toddlers eat a lot and they eat often. Picture a large walnut, that's the size of a toddler's tummy. At 2 years of age, eating patterns slow down as growth rates start to slow down. Malnutrition and disorganized eating, unfortunately, does not just happen in developing countries. In Canada many children go to bed hungry. Many children, even those living in affluent homes, have very inadequate diets and erratic eating habits. Busy schedules, fast foods and uninformed parents contribute to poor nutrition for young children.
hearing & seeing
The auditory system for hearing is fairly developed at birth, but will improve with growth. It seems that infants are fairly acute when discerning distance by sound. Perhaps that explains why crying babies sometimes begin to hush when they hear the sound of their parent's footsteps coming towards them. Seeing improves in the first three months of life. At birth a baby can see clearly for about eight to ten inches, just about the distance from the mother's breast to her face. By the third month colour perception is similar to an adult's, but visual acuity, the ability to discern small patterns, occurs at about six months of age.
validity ->
The degree to which an instrument or procedure (interviews, treatments) measures what it is intended to measure. (For example IQ tests, questionnaires are used to test intelligence, if the test produces good results then it is considered valid).
neurons/brain development
The growth of the brain begins during prenatal development. From that single cell, the brain continues to grow and at birth the brain is about 25% of the weight of an adult brain. More than 4,000 neurons per second grow between 10 weeks (2 months) and 28 weeks (7 months) during the fetal period. By the time the baby is ready to be born there are 100 billion nerve cells, or neurons. These cells are ready and set to make sense of the world. During prenatal development a few neurons are spinning out to connect with other neurons. After birth these billions of neurons connect and grow rapidly. If we could see inside a baby's brain, we would see these electrical impulses happening and it would look like the sparkling lights of a big city from an airplane.
smell, taste, touch
The nose knows - infants can tell the difference between chocolate and onions. They can smell their mothers and fathers in a crowd. Infants are very sensitive to taste. That sweet tooth many of us have now started early. Infants show a preference for sweets and will nurse longer when their mamas have had a vanilla milkshake, yummy. Infants are very skin sensitive. Their little bodies are covered with nerve endings. As the baby grows these nerves spread out, especially along the back and the legs. As an adult, you have denser nerve endings on your fingers than on your back.
Plasticity
There are two current views of brain organization and flexibility. Some neurologists have found the brain is predetermined genetically. The brain is built like a house - go to the left hemisphere and you find the language room. Others scientists have found that experience helps determine functional organization - more like an office building - an all purpose structure with rooms that can be adapted for different functions. Both of these views have support and have merit. For example, the visual cortex is always at the back of the brain. The brain's organization and function is affected by experience -development follows biochemical instructions. Brains of infants possess greater plasticity than those of older children and adults. Time of flexibility and adaptation are also times of vulnerability. Trauma, violence, malnutrition can damage a developing brain. This damage is called 'brain trauma' and can be irreversible. Due to much research in this area, we can now say that the early years are a "sensitive period" for brain growth. Research over the last ten years has demonstrated that continual stress will affect the development of the brain. Stress kills neurons. Children conceived and who are raised in violence or poverty may have language delays and cognitive delays. Ninety percent of brain growth (with pruning) has occurred in the first 2-3 years.
longitudinal designs ->
These designs are in for the long haul. The same subjects are studied several times to find out changes that happen during the lifespan.
Information processing
These theories provide some interesting explanations about thinking and memory. This is a much newer theory than those that we have previously studied. You could call this one the new kid on the block. These theorists imply that human thinking is similar to running hardware and software.
Practice Effects ->
This effect can skew or make a study hard to analyze. When subjects have taken the test or answered similar questions over time, their responses may be due to having done it so many times. Researchers plan to minimize practice effects in longitudinal studies.
Attrition ->
This is probably one of the things that researchers have the least control over. People do drop out of studies that take place over a long time. If you watched the movie 49 UP you will notice that attrition was one of the issues that the Director, Michael Apted has had to consider.
Working Memory or Short-Term Memory
This is the second mental hardware, it's like a tool bench. This is where we put bits of information to retrieve quickly. The shopping list you made this morning to remember to pick up from the grocery store. This is a busy site of cognitive activity, holding chunks that are in use.
Long-Term Memory
This is the third part of mental hardware, the place for storing knowledge, memories from the past and dreams for the future. This is like the Library of Congress in Washington DC. It holds your personal collections of children's songs and books, your personal collection of the best of times and the worst of times. Theorists have noted other forms of memory linked to long term memory. These are procedural memory, semantic memory and autobiographical or episodic memory.
The Pre-Frontal Cortex or PFC
This is the wrinkled outer layer of the brain and the most highly evolved part of the human brain. It is what distinguishes you as smarter than your cat, dog or horse. This part of the brain is located right behind your forehead and it is not fully developed until adolescence. This part of the brain controls motor development, sensory skills, and higher order cognitive skills -decision making, problem solving, and analysis. It is the CEO (chief executive officer) of the human brain.
Cultural Theory:
Vygotsky focused on how adults conveyed knowledge, beliefs and values to children. He was interested in how children learn through guided participation and more learned peers.
Culture - infuence on growth
While certain physical skills may appear at slightly different times during infancy, the sequence of development is pretty much the same all over the world. Culture, beliefs and values about what is best for babies will influence how infants develop locomotion, reaching and grasping skills. Some communities prefer swaddling infants; some prefer binding babies to their backs. These infants won't experience the same amount of free movement as infants raised in communities that put their babies on the floor to move around, or those infants born to parents that massage and stretch their infants' bodies on a daily basis.
Classical Conditioning
While this theory started out looking at dogs, food and bells, we see this same process occurring when a mother decides to wean her baby from breast feeding to bottle feeding. The unconditional response of sucking is paired with the bottle, after a number of times conditioning happens. The unconditional response sucking becomes conditioned when the baby starts sucking at the sight of the bottle. Some of us are conditioned to different foods. I start salivating when I see fresh strawberries on a summer's day. My mouth knows what to expect, I am conditioned. This kind of learning is useful for survival even in the modern world.
Brains and Dress Patterns have a lot in common
While we have many similarities as homo sapiens, each of us has a unique brain. Like a dress or a suit that is tailor made to fit just you - each dart sewn to accentuate your figure, not too tight around the shoulders, the length of the sleeves just right. Through the process of synapse pruning each of us has a brain tailor made through our early experiences. As we mature, the brain matures, we still adapt, let out a dart here or there, add lace, change an old button for a new one, however, the research is telling us, it looks like the pattern is cut and sewn in the first few years of life.
Understanding the World
While we often associate numeracy (understanding numbers) and literacy (understanding words) with later learning that happens in schools, there is much evidence to suggest that numeracy and literacy begin during infancy and toddlerhood. Daily events like playing with blocks, watching someone set the table for three people, sorting socks, all of these events are the building blocks of mathematics. Environments rich in spoken language and written words reinforce literacy.
independent variable->
a condition that is manipulated, added or changed;
locomotion
an act or power of moving from place to place. Babies start moving and doing soon after birth. The textbook provides a graph of how locomotion or motor development proceeds in the first few years of life.
Classical conditioning
associative learning, pairing of stimulus with human reflexes,
Two types of chromosomes ->
autosomes (22 pairs of chromosomes) & sex chromosomes (23rd pair).
information processing->
based on a computer model of human cognition in which memory is like mental hardware and cognitive processes are like mental software. The main focus is cognitive development! what drives this perspective is: this perspective is continuous. Cognitive structures get better over time, gradually. & The child is active, involved in learning and doing.
evolutionary theorists
believe the process of evolution, behaviours, and characteristics of infants and children have been developed because their value in the survival of the child and the entire species.
dentrites
branch like extensions off the neuron
behaviour genetics ->
branch of the study of genetics focuses on the inheritance of behavioural and psychological traits. Today, there is much evidence that there is a genetic predisposition for certain traits and diseases. Breast cancer, alcoholism, heart attacks have genetic predispositions. Diet and lifestyle can limit the tendency of these diseases from occurring. Not all women with the genetic predisposition for breast cancer will develop breast cancer.
neuron
cell that transmits information
maturational theory
child development reflects a natural unfolding of a pre-arranged biological plan.
sampling behaviours with tasks->
children is given a task to perform and the results are recorded. (often timed)
ethological theory
children's behaviour often has survival value (is adaptive).
genotype ->
complete set of genes (all possibilities)that can happen. This genotype is a set of instructions. Yet, every single gene may not be expressed. For example, I have brown eyes. This comes predominantly from my father's side of the family. I have a dominant brown eye phenotype. I am walking around with some recessive blue eye genes, though, I have three brothers with blue eyes-but that sure won't turn these brown eyes blue.
nature & nurture
considers the influences of genetics and the influences of our environment.
polygenic inheritance ->
contribution of many genes to a phenotype expression. The textbook uses the example of introversion and extroversion to explain this inheritance. The study of twins, both maternal (same genotype) and fraternal (separate genotype) , these scientists have been able to isolate many traits that were once considered outcomes of child raising (nurture) and are now considered inherited.
ethnography's->
detailed descriptions of single cultures or subcultures within a dominant culture. The researcher seeks to understand the unique values and social processes of cultural groups. Ethnographers tend to live with and are immersed in the culture or subculture they are studying.
developmental psychopathology
development as a dynamic and hierarchical process that involves continual reorganization and transformation across a person's life span with all variables affecting all other variables.
laboratory observation ->
educators create a setting or do something in the environment to bring about a response from children that is written down.
Psychosocial Theory:
emotional and social development are defined by the resolution of a sequence of stages, each one a unique crisis or social challenge.
ecological Theory
evelopment occurs in the context of interconnected systems; the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, microsystem, and chronosystem. Brofenbrenner envisioned the child embedded in a series of interactive environments he called systems. These many social settings shape and influence children's development. The quality of the interactions between these social settings will influence how children develop.
Chromosomes ->
genes are on these strings of genetic material in the cell's nucleus.
Genes ->
groups of chemical compounds that generates the building blocks of the body (the stuff we inherit).
active & passive->.
how our decisions and actions influence development.
two kinds of genetic disorders ->
inherited disorders & chromosomal errors or abnormal chromosomes.
Donor insemination:
injection of active sperm into the uterus (this has a 70%-80% success rate, 30,000 to 50,000 births per year take place in North America).
systematic observation techniques->
involve careful watching and writing down everything we see and hear.
DNA ->
long strand of molecules of a chemical material that makes up each chromosome and forms the code for specific genes.
Cognitive developmental perspective
main focus: Cognitive development (thinking) - This perspective focuses on how children learn by constructing knowledge through experiences and through discovery. This perspective explains how children developing thinking, and the ability to reason and to plan. what drives this perspective: This perspective describes growth as discontinuous. There are specific stages of intellectual development that the child will progress through. Both biology and environment drive reasoning and language development. The brain matures and with this maturity comes advances in cognition and language development. The environment supports this development. An environment with opportunities for exploration is advantageous to cognitive development. An environment rich in literacy, spoken words and books supports language development. The child is active, constructing knowledge through experiences. Whose big idea: (Jean Piaget)
Contextual Perspective
main focus: Social, cognitive, language development (this perspective focuses on how culture (the environments, beliefs, values, meanings) we live in shape our thinking, how we socialize and how we speak. Parents, our social environments convey meaning, beliefs and customs, teaching children how to live and be in the world). what drives this theory: Development is continuous, unfolding within the context of where, when and who we grow up with & The child is deemed as both active and passive. The environment will influence the child, and the child will influence the environment. idea: bronfrenbronner(ecological theory) & vygotsky (cultural theory)
Indigenous perspective
main focus: holistic and spiritual ( This perspective recognizes that people are inseparable from the natural world in which we live) what drives this perspective: This perspective is focused on the collective, connected to the natural world, instilled with values of generosity, responsibility and dependency.
Psychosexual Development:
motivation through pleasure and gratification of needs.
Phenotype ->
observable set of characteristics. This phenotype is a combination of the genotype and environmental influences. Eye colour, hair colour, eye brow appearance (plucked or not), scars, missing teeth (a bicycling accident) all of these characteristics produces the person you see standing before you in the mirror.
Social Cognitive Theory
observation, imitation and modelling are ways that children acquire knowledge about behaviours. Experiences shape the children's understanding of the world and of themselves.
naturalistic observation ->
observe children in real life situations - using descriptive writing or documentation.
Behavioural theory
operant conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment explains that the future likelihood of a behaviour increases or decreases depending on the immediate consequences of the behaviour,
Receptive language
refers to the language an infant or toddler understands. People who have studied a second language understand this process. Infants and toddlers understand the meaning of many words. Those of you who have learned a second language probably understood many words before you could pronounce them by yourself.
Psychoanalysis:
resolution of unconscious conflicts.
continuity and discontinuity ->
some aspects of development are explained as happening gradually. A continuous process occurs in which the effect of learning happen over time; learning to walk is made possible when the muscles and bones are mature.
Surrogate Motherhood:
sperm from the father is injected into a surrogate (a mother who is not the partner of the man). The surrogate is usually paid a fee and after the birth the partner of the man adopts the baby. There have been many forms of surrogacy, for example, grandmothers and sisters have been surrogates for their daughters and sisters. (There are many ethical and legal problems associated with surrogacy).
Reliability ->
study that shows constancy with various research methods and produces the same or relatively similar results from one assessment to the next demonstrates levels of reliability - the method and design must lead to similar conclusions each time the study has been done.
sensory memory
the first part, the raw stuff. The feelings, the impressions, unanalyzed, stored for only a few seconds. Once we start analyzing the sensation, to compare it to something else, to locate it in memory, we start using new hardware.
dependant variable ->
the measure or the effect of what was manipulated;
Invitro fertilization:
the ovum is fertilized in a dish of nutrients and after cells have begun to multiply the zygote is injected into the mother's uterus. (approximately 3,500 births in Canada and 40,000 births in the US) The costs for this method are high. There are health risks for the mother (miscarriages, ectopic pregnancies) and for infants (premature births and neonatal mortality).
themes in development
theme 1-> early development is related to later development but not perfectly. theme 2-> development is jointly influenced by heredity and environment. theme 3-> children help determine their own development. theme 4-> development in different domains are connected.
Negative reinforcement
these are behaviours that stop something negative from happening. For example, getting soaked in the rain helps us to remember to bring an umbrella.
self reports ->
typically questionnaires with an interviewer asking the questions and recording the answers.
systematic/naturalistic observation ->
way to study development by simply watching children.
The learning perspective
what drives this perspective: This perspective explains that development unfolds continuously as behaviours are reinforced & The child is more of a passive recipient of the experiences, events and responses that happen in her/his world. whose big idea: (Ivan Pavlov and John Watson) Classical Conditioning: (B.F. Skinner) Behavioural Theory: operant conditioning, (Albert Bandura) Social Cognitive Theory main focus: Personality and Cognitive Development (This perspective demonstrates how humans learn and are influenced by experiences from and in their environments. Children's behaviours are shaped by responses in their environments. They learn from the consequences of their behaviours. They learn from observing others and imitating others behaviours.)
Positive reinforcement:
when a behaviour elicits a positive response or reward. Perhaps, you did well on your last assignment. This would motivate you to do well on the next assignment.
experimental group ->
who was the group who received the treatment (independent variable)
psychodynamic perspective
whose big idea: (Sigmund Freud) Psychoanalysis & Psychosexual Development: (Erik Erikson) Psychosocial Theory: what drives this perspective: inner drives and emotions unfold at specific times in life. Biology (genetics) drives the unfolding of stages and environment shapes the outcome of the stages. That development happens in stages - each one quite differently, child is both active and passive. ID, Ego, and superego form the structure of personality.
