edu chap 5

Common Characteristics

Although some students with speech and communication disorders have other disabilities as well, many of them are just typical students in most ways. Nevertheless, the following characteristics are fairly common • Reluctance to speak; embarrassment and self-consciousness when speaking • Difficulties in reading and writing (Fey, Catts, & Larrivee, 1995; Heward, 2009; LaBlance, Steckol, & Smith, 1994; Rice, Hadley, & Alexander, 1993

General recommendations

Although the causes of emotional and behavioral disorders and those of autism spectrum disorders are usually quite different, students with these disabilities can benefit from some of the same classroom interventions. Certainly, we want to promote success on academic tasks, perhaps by using instructional strategies presented earlier for students with specific cognitive or academic difficulties. Following are additional suggestions: Insist on appropriate classroom behavior. Although certain students with disabilities may be more prone to counterproductive classroom behaviors than most of their peers, teachers clearly can help them behave in productive ways—for instance, by putting reasonable limits on their behavior and imposing consequences when they go beyond those limits (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Webber & Plotts, 2008). The Creating a Productive Classroom Environment feature "Encouraging Appropriate Behavior in Students with Social or Behavioral Problems" offers several useful strategies. Foster social cognition and effective interpersonal skills. Students with social or behavioral problems often benefit from training in social cognition and perspective taking. Explicit instruction in and reinforcement of social skills can also be quite powerful. And of course, students need numerous opportunities to practice their new skills (e.g., Chan & O'Reilly, 2008; Myles & Simpson, 2001; Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2004; Schrandt, Townsend, & Poulson, 2009; Theimann & Goldstein, 2004). Be persistent, and look for gradual improvement rather than overnight success. Many students with social or behavioral problems will initially resist our efforts to help them. They may begin to recognize the value of our guidance and support only when they see the natural consequences of their changing behavior—for example, when they start to make new friends or get along better with their teachers. Their progress may be slow, but by focusing on small improvements, we and our students alike can be encouraged by the changes we do see, rather than being discouraged by problems that persis

Learning disabilities

Although there are varying definitions of learning disabilities, students with learning disabilities have significant difficulties in one or more specific cognitive processes that can't be attributed to cultural or linguistic diversity, generally delayed cognitive development, emotional problems, sensory impairment, or environmental deprivation. Such difficulties often appear to result from specific and possibly inherited brain dysfunctions (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013; N. Gregg, 2009; K. Pugh & McCardle, 2009). Figure 5.3 lists several forms that a learning disability might take Common Characteristics In general, students with learning disabilities are different from one another in many more ways than they are similar. They typically have many strengths, but may also face challenges: • Poor reading and writing skills • Ineffective learning and memory strategie • Trouble concentrating on and completing assigned tasks, especially in the face of distractions • Poor sense of self and low motivation for academic tasks, especially in the absence of individualized assistance in areas of difficulty • Poor motor skills • Poor social skills (Estell et al., 2008; Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2006; N. Gregg, 2009; Job & Klassen, 2012; K. Pugh & McCardle, 2009; Swanson, 2014; Waber, 2010). By no means do such characteristics describe all students with learning disabilities. For instance, some are attentive in class, and some are socially skillful and popular with peers. Sometimes learning disabilities reflect a mismatch between students' developing abilities, on the one hand, and grade-level expectations for performance, on the other (Waber, 2010). For instance, as students reach middle school, they're typically expected to work with little or no supervision, yet students with learning disabilities don't always have the time management skills they need to get things done (N. Gregg, 2009). In high school classes, learning may require reading and studying sophisticated textbooks, yet the average high school student with a learning disability reads at a fourth- to fifth-grade level and has few, if any, effective study strategies (Cutting, Eason, Young, & Alberstadt, 2009; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). The following exercise can give you a sense of how these students might feel under such circumstances The passage you just read is a fairly typical one from Educational Psychologist, a professional journal written for people with advanced education (e.g., doctoral degrees) in educational psychology. Hence, it was written well above a typical college student's reading level. We won't really test you on the passage's contents, but we authors hope that the exercise gave you a feel for the frustration that high school students with learning disabilities might experience. For many students with learning disabilities, completing school assignments may constantly seem like fighting an uphill battle. Perhaps for this reason, a higher-than-average percentage of students with learning disabilities drop out of school before graduation (N. Gregg, 2009)

Does it make sense to teach to students right brains or left brains

As a teacher, you will probably hear about lessons, materials, and curricula that have been developed based on the latest findings from neuroscience; sometimes this is referred to as brain-based learning or brain-based education. Neuroscience is a growing area of research with exciting new discoveries emerging all the time; however, most researchers agree that it is too early to be applying this research to daily classroom instruction. One area that has received much attention is the notion of adapting instruction to the "left brain" or the "right brain." Neuroscientists, in fact, have completely debunked the idea that we might teach to students' "left brains" or "right brains": Even the simplest of everyday thinking tasks requires the left and right hemispheres of the brain to work together (Bressler, 2002; Gonsalves & Cohen, 2010; Haxby et al., 2001; Kalbfleisch & Gillmarten, 2013; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2015).

Educating students with special needs in general education classrooms

As teachers, we can typically accommodate many students' varying abilities and dispositions within the context of a single curriculum and everyday classroom lessons. But we're also likely to have students with special needs—students who are different enough from their peers that they require specially adapted instructional materials and practices to help them maximize their learning and achievement. Some of these students have cognitive, personal, social, or physical disabilities that adversely affect their performance in a typical classroom. Others, instead, are so advanced in a particular domain— that is, they are gifted—that they gain little from grade-level activities and assignments. In the United States, most students with special educational needs are in general education classrooms for part or all of the school day—a practice known as inclusion (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2010). In fact, federal legislation mandates that students with disabilities be educated in neighborhood schools and, ideally, in regular classrooms to the greatest extent possible.

General recommendations for working with students who have special needs

Be flexible in approaches to instruction and assessment. Even when students clearly fall within a particular category of special needs, we can't always predict which instructional methods will be most effective for each of them. If we don't succeed with a particular approach, we should try again, but we might also want to try differently. Furthermore, we must keep open minds about how we assess students' achievement; depending on the nature of their disabilities, we may need to give them extra time, let them record their responses, or tailor assessment tasks to an individualized curriculum (Royer & Randall, 2012). Seek new technologies that can facilitate students' learning and performance. As we've seen, assistive technology takes a wide variety of forms—spell checkers, handheld prompters, speech-to-text software, and so on—and exciting new technologies emerge every year. Software also is becoming readily available so that students with disabilities can work with technology that is now fairly common in schools, such as iPads (Chai, Vail, & Ayres, 2015). Frequent searches of the Internet can alert us to recent innovations (e.g., search for "assistive technology devices" on Google or Yahoo!). Design instruction so that it is broad enough to meet the needs of all types of students. Universal design is a principle that allows for flexibility in how information is presented, and how students demonstrate what they have learned; the central tenet of Universal design is that instructional materials should be designed so that there are as few barriers as possible to students using those materials (King-Sears, 2009; Ralabate, 2011; U.S. Department of Education, 2008). When educators incorporate principles of universal design, they consider the full range of students who might engage with the materials being developed. Materials are then written and organized from the start so that the materials can be used by as many students as possible. An example of an application of universal design is the development of an educational software package that is designed from the start to accommodate learners who might experience difficulties; thus, the software might be designed so that it provides appropriate directions for usage, as well as feedback and guidance for learners who use the software incorrectly or who need to repeat various activities within the software package (Darrow, 2010) Unless there is reason to do otherwise, hold the same expectations for students with disabilities as for other students. Sometimes a disability makes it difficult or impossible for students to accomplish certain tasks, and we have to modify our expectations and assessment practices accordingly. Aside from such situations, however, we should generally havve the same expectations for students with special needs that we have for other students. Rather than think of reasons that a student can't do something, we should think about how we can help the student do it. When partnering with a special educator, both the classroom teacher and the special educator need to hold similar high expectations, while simultaneously partnering to provide appropriate supports for the student Identify and teach the prerequisite knowledge and skills students may not have acquired because of their disabilities. As either a direct or indirect result of certain disabilities, some students lack the knowledge and skills essential for school success. For instance, students with visual impairments haven't been able to observe many of the cause-and-effect relationships that form a foundation for learning science— such as the changes in the appearance of wood when it's burned (Ferrell, 1996; M. B. Rowe, 1978). Students also may need assistance using online texts and materials (Greer, Rowland, & Smith, 2014). And students whose medical conditions have limited their contact with peers may have had few opportunities to acquire effective interpersonal skills. Consult and collaborate with specialists. School districts usually employ a variety of specialists, including special educators, counselors, school psychologists, nurses, speech pathologists, and physical and occupational therapists. Some students leave the classroom for part of the day to work with these individuals. However, in today's inclusive schools, many special services are provided within a regular classroom context by teachers and specialists working in close collaboration. Communicate regularly with parents. In accordance with IDEA, parents are part of the multidisciplinary team that determines the most appropriate program for a student with special needs. Parents can often tell us what works and what doesn't, and they can alert us to certain conditions or events at home that may trigger problem behaviors in class. Furthermore, we can bring about desired behavioral changes more effectively if the same expectations for behavior exist both at school and at home. Include students in planning and decision-making. Programs for most students with special needs—especially those with disabilities—are so highly structured that students have little say regarding what and how they learn. But increasingly, educators are recognizing the importance of letting all students make some choices about their academic goals and curriculum (Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, & Wood, 2001; Prout, 2009; Wehmeyer et al., 2007). Keep your eyes open for students who may qualify for special services. The more we work with students in a particular age-group, the more we learn about their age-typical abilities and behaviors. Hence, we teachers are in an excellent position to identify children who, in one way or another, are not typical. Although specialists conduct the in-depth assessments necessary to identify particular special needs, the job of referring students for such assessments—and thereby gaining them access to the specialized services they may need—is ultimately up to teachers in general education classrooms Work with your other students toward acceptance and support of students with special needs. As we've already noted elsewhere in the chapter, many students with disabilities have trouble being accepted by and developing friendships with peers in their classes (de Boer, Pijl, Post, & Minnaert, 2013). Having a student with any type of exceptionality in our classroom is a wonderful opportunity for our other students. When a child or adolescent learns about various disabilities firsthand, and learns to respect and value these differences, such respect may last a lifetime

Adapting Instruction Although we won't necessarily need to modify the academic curriculum for students with physical and health impairments, we will definitely want to make certain accommodations

Be sensitive to specific limitations, and accommodate them flexibly. One student may require extra time with a writing assignment and perhaps should not be held to the same standards of neatness and legibility. Another may need to respond to test Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs questions orally rather than on paper. Still another might tire easily and need to take frequent breaks. Know what to do in emergencies. A student with acute asthma may have trouble breathing; a student with diabetes may go into insulin shock; a student with epilepsy may have a grand mal seizure; a student who is HIV positive might get a cut and bleed. We should consult with school medical personnel ahead of time so that we are prepared to respond calmly and appropriately in such life- and healththreatening situations. If students and parents give permission, educate classmates about the nature of students' challenges. Many children treat peers with physical disabilities kindly and respectfully, but some others do not. Sometimes peers are simply ignorant about the nature of a disability, and giving them accurate information can help them become more accepting and supportive (e.g., R. White & Cunningham, 1991)

Adapting Instruction Dr. Peter Paul is a researcher who has spent his career focusing on improving educational outcomes for children with hearing loss. Dr. Paul notes that:

Children with hearing loss exhibit diverse characteristics with respect to achievement (academic and social) and communication (sign and/or speech). Major challenges for educators involve the teaching of children with severe to profound hearing loss, especially those who are predominantly dependent on signing for receptive and expressive communication. The majority of children with hearing loss use speech, particularly English, as their primary form of communication. A large minority use a combination of speech and sign in English and only a small percentage (fewer than 10%) use a sign language such as American Sign Language. In the United States, there has been an evolving cohort such that a large number of children are beginning their formal education period wearing either advanced digital hearing aids or cochlear implants. Most children with hearing loss up to the severe level should be able to participate in the general education classroom and curriculum, albeit some children will need varying levels of support (e.g., notetakers, oral or sign interpreters)

Adapting Instruction

Children with high functioning autism are typically in general education classes. Students with more severe autism also can sometimes participate in general education classes for all or part of the day, although inclusion of these students can be complex, so the support of a special educator often may be necessary (Crosland & Dunlap, 2012). As with other exceptionalities, it is important to include parents in discussions about the most appropriate setting for their children. The mother of a first grader with autism, who advocated for her son to be in a classroom that also had nonspecial-education students, noted that "If he was in a program that was just with other autistic children, there would be no way for him to pick up the behaviors of typically developing children" (Crane, 2010). Maximize consistency in the classroom layout and weekly schedule. Many students with autism spectrum disorders feel more comfortable when their environments and schedules are predictable. At the beginning of the school year, then, we should arrange furniture and equipment in ways that will be serviceable throughout the school year, making adjustments later only if absolutely necessary. To the greatest extent possible, we should schedule recurring activities at the same times each day or on particular days of the week. If the schedule must change for some reason, we should alert students well in advance (Dalrymple, 1995). Use visual approaches to instruction. Because students with autism spectrum disorders often have strong visual-spatial skills but may have impaired language skills, a heavy emphasis on visual materials may be helpful (Hanley et al., 2017; Ozonoff & Schetter, 2007; C. C. Peterson, 2002; Quill, 1995). We might use objects, pictures, graphic organizers, and photographs to convey ideas about academic topics, or we might use some sort of visual cue to signal the start of a new activity (Finnegan & Mazin, 2016).

Potential benefits and drawbacks of inclusion

Despite the mandates of IDEA, inclusive practices for students with disabilities have been controversial. Some experts argue that students are most likely to develop normal peer relationships and social skills when they participate fully in their school's overall social life. But others worry that when students with special needs are in a regular classroom for the entire school day, they can't get the intensive specialized instruction they may need. Furthermore, nondisabled classmates may stigmatize, avoid, or bully students who appear to be odd or incompetent in some way (Blake, Lund, Zhou, Kwok, & Benz, 2012; Hamovitch, 2007). Research suggests that attending general education classes for part or all of the school day can have several positive outcomes for students with disabilities • Academic achievement equivalent to (and sometimes higher than) that in a selfcontained classroom • More appropriate classroom behavior, better social skills, and more frequent interaction with nondisabled peers • Better sense of self if the school environment is one in which all students accept and respect individual differences among their peers (Halvorsen & Sailor, 1990; Hamovitch, 2007; Hattie, 2009; P. Hunt & Goetz, 1997; MacMaster, Donovan, & MacIntyre, 2002; Slavin, 1987; Soodak & McCarthy, 2006; Stainback & Stainback, 1992) We're especially likely to see such outcomes when students understand the nature of their disabilities and when instruction and materials are tailored to students' specific needs, perhaps in their regular classrooms or perhaps in short resource-room sessions (e.g., H. L. Swanson, Hoskyn, & Lee, 1999). Appropriate assistive technology— electronic devices and other equipment that can enhance students' abilities and performance—is also extremely valuable in helping students successfully participate in the curriculum and social life of general education classrooms. Nondisabled students often benefit from inclusive practices as well. For example, they may be able to take advantage of special supports designed for students with disabilities—perhaps detailed study guides or supplementary explanations (C. M. Cole et al., 2004). Furthermore, they discover that individuals with special needs are in many respects very much like themselves (P. Hunt & Goetz, 1997; D. Staub, 1998). One of us authors often thinks about her son Jeff's friendship with Evan, a classmate with severe physical and cognitive disabilities, during their third-grade year. A teacher had asked Jeff to be a special friend to Evan, interacting with him at lunch and whenever possible. Although largely unable to speak, Evan always made it clear through gestures and expressions that he was delighted to spend time with his friend, giving Jeff—who was quite shy—a boost in social self-confidence. Several years later, Jeff reflected on this friendship: It made me realize that Evan was a person too. It made me realize that I could have a friendship with a boy with disabilities. Doing things that made Evan happy made me happy as well. I knew that Evan knew that we were friends. It's essential, of course, that nondisabled students treat classmates who have disabilities in respectful and supportive ways and, better still, forge friendships with these classmates. As teachers, we can do several things to nurture good relationships between students Explicitly point out the strengths of a student with a disability. Ask students with and without disabilities to assist others in their areas of strength. Plan academic and recreational activities that require cooperation. Encourage students with disabilities to participate in extracurricular activities and community events (Bassett et al., 1996; DuPaul, Ervin, Hook, & McGoey, 1998; Hamovitch, 2007; Madden & Slavin, 1983; Turnbull, Pereira, & Blue-Banning, 2000) There are advantages and drawbacks to inclusion for classroom teachers as well. On the positive side, the inclusion of students with disabilities can lead to greater acceptance of individuals with disabilities among other students and increased opportunities for students to work in diverse groups and explain concepts to one another. Nevertheless, the inclusion of students with disabilities in regular classrooms does introduce some challenges for teachers. For example, teachers may need to differentiate instruction to a greater degree, prepare alternative materials for some students, and spend extra time with students with disabilities

Identifying student special needs

Experts don't completely agree about how to define various categories of special needs—especially those not involving obvious physical conditions—or about how best to identify students who fit into each category. In the United States, IDEA provides specific identification criteria for various disabilities. Students with disabilities who don't meet IDEA's criteria are often eligible for special educational services under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (sometimes referred to simply as Section 504). This act stipulates that institutions that benefit from federal funding (including public schools) can't discriminate against individuals on the basis of a disability. Procedures for assessing and accommodating students' disabilities are less prescriptive in Section 504 than they are in IDEA—a situation that can be either advantageous or disadvantageous, depending on the circumstances. One approach to identification that is gaining increasing support (and that is endorsed in the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA) involves determining response to intervention (RTI). In this approach, a teacher keeps an eye out for any student who has exceptional difficulty with basic skills in a certain domain (e.g., in reading or math) despite normal whole-class instruction and intensive follow-up small-group instruction that have both been shown by research to be effective for most children. Such a student is referred for in-depth assessments of various characteristics and abilities. If the assessment rules out obvious disabling conditions (e.g., significant genetic abnormalities, sensory impairments), the student may be identified as having a cognitive impairment—often, but not always, falling within the category of learning disabilities—and is therefore eligible for special services (e.g., Fletcher & Vaughn, 2009; L. S. Fuchs & Fuchs, 2009; Mellard & Johnson, 2008). An approach that focuses on promoting adaptive behavior is known as Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports (PBIS). When PBIS is used as a program across an entire school, it is known as Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS (Ögülmüs, & Vuran, 2016; Sugai & Horner, 2006). The framework is based on promoting positive or "good" behavior, rather than on punishing bad behavior. Similar to RTI, when students are identified as displaying particular problematic behaviors that cannot be adequately addressed through schoolwide efforts, those students are then provided with more individualized approaches to address specific behavioral issues. We will return to this in Chapter 13, when we discuss strategies for creating a positive classroom environment. Educators often implement broader approaches that can address both learning and behavioral concerns simultaneously. Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) is a term that describes intervention efforts aimed at addressing concurrent issues that affect students' learning (Forman & Crystal, 2015; Jimerson, Burns, & VanDerHeyden, 2016; Leach & Helf, 2016; Sugai, Simonsen, Freeman, & La Salle, 2016). These approaches can be very effective, because all teachers in the school are trained in using evidence-based practices to support the learning and behavior of all students in the school. When all of the staff are aligned in these efforts, they are better able to identify students who need more targeted, individualized interventions. Whenever we identify a student as having a particular disability, however, we run the risk of focusing other people's attention on weaknesses rather than on the student's many strengths and age-typical characteristics. To minimize such an effect, special educators urge us all to use people-first language when referring to students with disabilities—in other words, to mention the person before the disability. For instance, we might say student with a learning disability rather than learning-disabled student, or student who is blind rather than blind student. In upcoming sections of the chapter, we group students with special needs into five general categories. Table 5.2 lists the specific kinds of special needs that fall within each category. Disabilities covered by IDEA appear in red in the table

General Recommendations

Get an early start on appropriate interventions. When students lack basic concepts and skills on which their future learning will depend, intensive instruction to fill in the gaps—and the earlier, the better—can often make a significant difference in their achievement over the long run (L. S. Fuchs et al., 2005; Waber, 2010; Wanzek & Vaughn, 2007 Take skill levels into account when assigning reading materials. Even after intensive reading instruction, many students with specific cognitive or academic difficulties continue to have poor reading skills. Thus, we may sometimes need to identify alternatives to standard grade-level textbooks for presenting academic content. For example, we might reduce the amount of required reading, substitute materials written on a simpler (yet not babyish) level, allow students to have extra time to complete reading assignments, or present information through some medium other than printed text—perhaps audio recordings or text-to-speech computer software (N. Gregg, 2009; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2007). Students may also need extra guidance and support when assignments require them to find and read information online (Sampson, Szabo, Falk-Ross, Foote, & Linder, 2007). Clearly describe expectations for academic performance. Students will have an easier time accomplishing classroom tasks if they're told, in concrete and precise terms, exactly what's expected of them (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). For example, before students begin a science lab activity, we might first remind them to carefully follow the steps described on the lab sheet, then review safety precautions, and finally provide a written list of components that should be included in lab reports Take steps to enhance self-confidence and motivation. Students with a long history of failure at academic tasks need to see that they're making progress and that they do som things quite well. For instance, we can give them daily or weekly goals we know they can attain. We can also have them keep journals in which they describe the successes they've achieved each day. And, of course, we should give them opportunities to do tasks at which they excel (Buchoff, 1990; J. A. Stein & Krishnan, 2007).

Cultural and ethnic diversity in intelligence

Historically, some ethnic groups in the United States have, on average, performed better than other ethnic groups on intelligence tests. Most experts agree that such group differences in IQ scores are due to differences in environment and, more specifically, to economic circumstances that affect the quality of prenatal and postnatal nutrition, availability of stimulating books and toys, access to educational opportunities, and so on (Brooks-Gunn, Klebanov, & Duncan, 1996; Byrnes, 2003; McLoyd, 1998). Furthermore, various groups have become increasingly similar in average IQ score in rece years—a trend that can be attributed only to more equitable environmental conditions (Dickens & Flynn, 2006; Neisser et al., 1996). Yet it's important to note that different cultural groups have somewhat different views about what intelligence is and may therefore nurture somewhat different abilities in their children (Saklofske et al., 2015). Many people of European descent think of intelligence primarily as an ability that influences children's academic achievement and adults' professional success. In contrast, people in many other cultures think of intelligence as involving social as well as academic skills, such as maintaining harmonious interpersonal relationships and working effectively together to accomplish challenging tasks (Greenfield et al., 2006; J. Li & Fischer, 2004; Sternberg, 2004, 2007). In Buddhist and Confucian societies in the Far East (e.g., China, Taiwan), intelligence also involves acquiring strong moral values and making meaningful contributions to society (J. Li, 2004; Sternberg, 2003). Cultural groups differ, too, in the behaviors that they believe reflect intelligence. For example, many traditional measures of intelligence take speed into account on certain test items: Children score higher if they respond quickly as well as correctly. Yet people in some cultures tend to value thoroughness over speed and may be skeptical when tasks are completed very quickly (Sternberg, 2007). As another example, many people in mainstream Western culture interpret strong verbal skills as a sign of intelligence, but for many Japanese and many Inuit people of northern Quebec, talking a lot indicates immaturity or low intelligence (Crago, 1988; Minami & McCabe, 1996; Sternberg, 2003). One Inuit teacher had this concern about a boy whose language was quite advanced for his age group:Do you think he might have a learning problem? Some of these children who don't have such high intelligence have trouble stopping themselves. They don't know when to stop talking. (Crago, 1988, p. 219) As teachers, then, we must be careful not to assume that our own views of intelligence are shared by the students and families of cultures very different from our own

Public law 94-142

In 1975, the U.S. Congress passed Public Law 94-142, which is now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This act has been amended and reauthorized several times since then, most recently in 2004 under the name Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. It currently grants educational rights from birth until age 21 for people with cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities. It guarantees several rights for students with disabilities • A free and appropriate education. All students with disabilities are entitled to a free educational program designed specifically to meet their unique educational needs. • Fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation. A multidisciplinary team conducts an in-depth evaluation of any student who may be eligible for special services. The team's makeup depends on the student's needs, but typically consists of two or more teachers, any appropriate specialists, and the student's parent(s) or guardian(s). Using a variety of tests and other evaluation tools, school personnel conduct a complete assessment of potential disabling conditions. Evaluation procedures must take a student's background and any suspected physical or communication difficulties into account. For example, tests must be administered in a student's primary language. • Education in the least restrictive environment. To the greatest extent possible, students with disabilities should be included in the same academic environment,extracurricular activities, and social interactions as their nondisabled peers. That is, they must have the least restrictive environment, the most typical and standard educational environment that, with sufficient supplementary aids and support services, can reasonably meet their needs. Exclusion from general education is warranted only when others' safety would be jeopardized or when, even with proper support and assistance, a student can't make appreciable progress in a general education setting • Individualized education program (IEP). When an individual age 3 to 21 is identified as having a disability, the multidisciplinary team collaboratively develops an instructional program, called an individualized education program (IEP), tailored to the individual's strengths and weaknesses (see Figure 5.2). The IEP is a written statement that the team continues to review and, if appropriate, revise at least once a year—more frequently if conditions warrant. IEP meetings are most effective when they (a) are well planned; (b) have a designated meeting facilitator, a clear agenda, and ground rules for how to run the meeting; and when participants (c) have sufficient knowledge about these meetings and avoid using jargon (Diliberto & Brewer, 2014). • Due process. IDEA mandates several practices that ensure that students' and parents' rights are preserved throughout the decision-making process. For instance, parents must be notified in writing before the school takes any action that might change their child's educational program. If the parents and school system disagree on the most appropriate placement for a child, mediation or a hearing can be used to resolve the differences IDEA has had a significant impact on the nature of special education. More and more, teachers are realizing that truly inclusive practices require differentiated instruction for all students, not just those with formally identified needs. Rather than provide specialized instruction in a separate classroom, many special education teachers now partner with regular classroom teachers to jointly teach all students—both those with disabilities and those without.

General recomendations

In addition to the strategies just identified for specific physical disabilities, several more general strategies are useful with all students who have physical or sensory challenges: Ensure that all students have access to important educational resources and opportunities. Such access may involve modifying instructional materials (e.g., obtaining large-print copies of textbooks), adjusting a classroom's physical arrangement (e.g., widening aisles and placing bulletin board displays at eye level to accommodate students in wheelchairs), or making special arrangements that enable students to participate in field trips or sports activities. Provide assistance only when students really need it. Out of their eagerness to help students with physical and sensory challenges, many adults inadvertently perform tasks and solve problems that these students are perfectly capable of handling on their own. One of our goals for these students should be to promote their independence, not their dependence on others (Wehmeyer et al., 2007). Use assistive technology to facilitate learning and performance. We've already mentioned the value of print-reading software and speech-to-text software for students with sensory challenges. In addition, some computer printers can create Braille documents, enabling students with visual impairments to read their own class notes and compositions. Specially adapted joysticks and voice recognition systems can supplement or replace keyboards for students with limited muscle control. Finally, machines known as augmentative communication devices provide synthesized speech for students incapable of producing normal speech.

Disposition

In contrast to the mixed research findings regarding cognitive styles and learning styles, research on dispositions has yielded more consistent and fruitful results. Some kinds of dispositions are clearly beneficial for classroom learning • Stimulation seeking: Eagerly interacting with one's physical and social environment in order to gain new experiences and information • Need for cognition: Regularly seeking and engaging in challenging cognitive tasks • Critical thinking: Consistently evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy, credibility, and worth, rather than accepting them at face value • Open-mindedness: Flexibly considering alternative perspectives and multiple sources of evidence, and suspending judgment for a time rather than leaping to immediate conclusions (Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996; DeBacker & Crowson, 2008, 2009; Furnham, 2012; Halpern, 2008; Kang et al., 2009; Raine, Reynolds, & Venables, 2002; Southerland & Sinatra, 2003; Stanovich, 1999; West, Toplak, & Stanovich, 2008) Such dispositions are often positively correlated with students' learning and achievement, and many theorists have suggested that they play a causal role in what and how much students learn. In fact, dispositions sometimes overrule intelligence in their influence on long-term achievement (Dai & Sternberg, 2004; Kuhn & Franklin, 2006; Perkins & Ritchhart, 2004). For instance, children who eagerly seek out physical and social stimulation as preschoolers later become better readers and earn better grades in school (Raine et al., 2002). Students with a high need for cognition learn more from what they read and are more likely to base conclusions on sound evidence and logical reasoning (Cacioppo et al., 1996; Dai, 2002; P. K. Murphy & Mason, 2006). And students who critically evaluate new evidence and open-mindedly listen to diverse perspectives show more advanced reasoning capabilities and are more likely to revise their beliefs in the face of contradictory information (DeBacker & Crowson, 2009; G. Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2006; Southerland & Sinatra, 2003). Researchers haven't yet systematically addressed the origins of various dispositions. Perhaps inherited temperamental differences (e.g., in stimulation seeking) are involved (Raine et al., 2002). Beliefs about the underlying nature of knowledge—for instance, the belief that knowledge is fixed and unchanging, on the one hand, or dynamic and continually evolving, on the other—may also play a role (P. M. King & Kitchener, 2002; Kuhn, 2001b; Mason, 2003). And almost certainly teachers' actions and the general classroom atmosphere they create—for example, whether students are encouraged to pursue intriguing topics, take academic risks, and think critically—make a difference (Flum & Kaplan, 2006; Gresalfi, 2009; Kuhn, 2001b, 2006). In the following classroom interaction, a teacher actually seems to discourage any disposition to think analytically and critically about classroom material: Write this on your paper . . . it's simply memorizing this pattern. We have meters, centimeters, and millimeters. Let's say . . . write millimeters, centimeters, and meters. We want to make sure that our metric measurement is the same. If I gave you this decimal, let's say .234 m (yes, write that). In order to come up with .234 m in centimeters, the only thing that is necessary is that you move the decimal. How do we move the decimal? You move it to the right two places. . . . Simple stuff. (Turner, Meyer, et al., 1998, p. 741) Undoubtedly, this teacher means well, but notice the noncritical attitude she communicates: "Write this . . . it's simply memorizing this pattern."

Case study

In elementary school, Tim earned reasonable grades despite poor reading comprehension skills. Although he often appeared to be in a daze during classroom activities, he was generally well behaved. In middle school, his grades began to decline and teachers complained of his "spaciness" and tendency to daydream. He had trouble staying on task and was so disorganized that he seldom completed homework. When Tim reached high school, he seemed unable to cope with the independence his teachers expected of students, and he failed several ninth- and tenth-grade classes. Now, as a 17-year-old eleventh grader, Tim undergoes an in-depth psychological evaluation at a university diagnostic clinic. An intelligence test yields a score of 96, reflecting average ability, and measures of social and emotional adjustment are also within an average range. However, measures of attention consistently show this to be an area of weakness. Tim explains that he has trouble ignoring distractions and must find a very quiet place to do his schoolwork. Even then, he says, he often has to reread something several times to grasp its meaning. (Based on Hathaway, Dooling-Litfin, & Edwards, 2006, pp. 410-412). • Tim's attention problems have obviously been interfering with his academic achievement. But if you look closely at the facts presented in the case, you might realize that Tim also has strengths on which teachers can build. What particular characteristics might be working in Tim's favor? • As a teacher, how might you adapt your instructional strategies and classroom environment to accommodate Tim's unique needs?

Giftedness

In general, giftedness is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more areas (e.g., in math, science, creative writing, music) to such a degree that special educational services are necessary to help the student meet his or her full potential. In most instances, giftedness is probably the result of both a genetic predisposition and environmental nurturing (Dai, 2010; Simonton, 2001; Winner, 2000b). In some cases, however, special gifts and talents are largely the result of intensive practice and mentoring (Ericsson, 2003; Gladwell, 2006). The emergence and development of these talents also is enhanced when there is ample family support and encouragement for the development of these aptitudes (Olszewski-Kubilius, Worrell, & Subotnik, 2018). The identification of a child as gifted is often a reflection of the values of one's society. Thus, a student who is gifted in sculpting might not be identified as such in a community in which sculpting (or art, more generally) is not valued (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011). When students are recommended by teachers for participation in gifted programs, their likelihood of being recommended may be affected by irrelevant factors. In many cases, students are identified for gifted programs based on academic achievement or test scores. As educators, we need to align selection criteria for gifted programs with the actual curricula being offered. For example, if a program that is called a "gifted education" program is really just an opportunity to take advanced mathematics courses, then selection criteria should probably be based on math achievement (e.g., Rothenbusch, Zettler, Voss Lösch, & Trautwein, 2016). Giftedness is not included in IDEA. In the United States, the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Student Education Act of 1987 (reauthorized in 1994, 2001, and in 2015 as part of the Every Student Succeeds Act) encourages but doesn't necessarily mandate special educational services for students who are gifted. Many state governments also either encourage or mandate such services. School districts often use multiple criteria— sometimes including intelligence test scores, sometimes not—to identify students who show exceptional promise in general academic ability, specific academic fields, creativity, or the arts. A current debate is whether the goal of gifted education should be to develop eminence and talent, or to provide opportunities for students to develop newly emerging talents (Subotnik & Rickoff, 2010; Subotnik, Stoeger, & Olszewski-Kubilius, 2017)

Adapting Instruction

Instructional strategies for students with learning disabilities must be tailored to students' specific strengths and weaknesses. If you become a regular classroom teacher, you will quite likely partner with a special educator when you have students with learning disabilities in your classes. You and the special educator will work collaboratively to adapt your instruction at times. Several strategies should benefit many of these students: Minimize distractions. Because many students with learning disabilities are easily distracted, we should minimize the presence of other stimuli that might compete for their attention—for example, by pulling down window shades if other classes are playing outside, by asking students to put their smartphones away, and by asking students to clear away materials they don't immediately need (Buchoff, 1990). Present new information in an explicit and well-organized manner. Most students with learning disabilities learn more successfully when instruction directly communicates what they need to learn, rather than requiring them to draw inferences and synthesize ideas on their own. Frequent and carefully structured practice of important skills is also critical (Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2007; J. A. Stein & Krishnan, 2007; U.S. Department of Education, 2014). Present information in multiple sensory modalities. Because some students with learning disabilities have trouble learning through a particular sensory modality, we need to think broadly about the modalities we use to communicate information. Thus, we might incorporate videos, graphics, and other visual materials, and we might encourage students to record lectures. Similarly, when teaching young children to recognize letters, we might have them not only look at the letters but also trace large, textured letter shapes with their fingers (Florence, Gentaz, Pascale, & Sprenger-Charolles, 2004; J. A. Stein & Krishnan, 2007; J. W. Wood & Rosbe, 1985). Present stimulating, novel materials, which may be particularly helpful in preventing students from getting bored and maintaining their attention while reading (Beike & Zentall, 2012). For example, stories that have a surprising turn of events may be particularly beneficial for the engagement of students with learning disabilities during reading. Analyze students' errors for clues about processing difficulties. As an example of this strategy, look at 7-year-old Daniel's attempt to write "I trust a policeman" in Figure 5.4. Daniel captured several sounds correctly, including the "s" and final "t" sounds in trust and all of the consonant sounds in policeman. However, he misrepresented the first two consonant sounds in trust, replacing the t and r with an N. He also neglected to represent most of the vowel sounds, and two of the three vowels he did include (I for the article a and the E near the end of policeman) are incorrect. We might suspect that Daniel has difficulty hearing all the distinct sounds in spoken words and matching them with the letters he sees in written words. Such difficulties are quite common in students with significant reading disabilities (Goswami, 2007; N. Gregg, 2009; K. Pugh & McCardle, 2009). Teach study skills and learning strategies. Many students with learning disabilities benefit from being taught specific strategies for completing assignments and remembering subject matter (Joseph & Konrad, 2009; Meltzer, 2007; Wilder & Williams, 2001). For example, we might teach them strategies for taking notes and organizing homework, and we can teach them specific mnemonics, or memory tricks, to help them remember facts. Provide paper or electronic scaffolding that can support students as they study and work. We might develop study guides, outlines, or graphics that help students identify and interrelate important concepts and ideas. We could provide a copy of a highly organized classmate's lecture notes. And we can teach students how to use the grammar and spell checkers in word processing software (N. Gregg, 2009; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1992; Meltzer, 2007).

Intelligence

It is common for teachers, parents, and others to be involved in conversations about students' intelligence. However, there are a variety of ways to talk about intelligence— it's a complex topic. As we will discuss, measures of intelligence can be very useful, but overinterpretation of these scores can sometimes be harmful to students. Theorists define and conceptualize intelligence in a variety of ways, but most agree that it has several distinctive qualities: • It is adaptive: It can be used flexibly to respond to a variety of situations and problems. • It is related to learning ability: People who are intelligent in particular domains learn new information and skills in those domains more quickly and easily than people who are less intelligent in those domains. • It involves the use of prior knowledge to analyze and understand new situations effectively. • It involves the complex interaction and coordination of many different mental processes. • It is culture specific. What is considered to be intelligent behavior in one culture isn't necessarily intelligent behavior in another culture. (Dai, 2010; Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 1982; J. Li, 2004; Neisser et al., 1996; Saklofske, van de Vijver, Oakland, Mpofu, & Suzuki, 2015; Sternberg, 1997, 2004, 2007; Sternberg & Detterman, 1986) With these qualities in mind, we offer an intentionally broad definition of intelligence: the ability to apply prior knowledge and experiences flexibly to accomplish challenging new tasks. For most educators, intelligence is somewhat different from what a person has actually learned (e.g., as reflected in school achievement). At the same time, intelligent thinking and behavior depend on prior learning. Intelligence, then, isn't necessarily a permanent, unchanging characteristic; it can be modified through experience and learning.

Medication and ADHD

Many children and adolescents who have been diagnosed with ADHD are prescribed medication to alleviate symptoms. Although there is debate about the possible over-prescription of drugs for children and adolescents with ADHD (e.g., Corrigan, 2012; Pelham, 2012), current research suggests that medication may be helpful in some instances: • For some, the effects of the medicine are strong; but for others, the effects are modest at best. • Medication alleviates symptoms of ADHD, but does not cure it. • Medication is most effective when the dosage is closely monitored and adjusted as needed. • Some medications are stimulants and others are non-stimulants. The stimulants support more effective communications between various networks of brain cells; the non-stimulants include a variety of other medications. • Medication can be effective in preschoolers, particularly when they have few other additional mental disorders. • Among preschoolers, some behavioral interventions can be implemented successfully instead of medication. • When ADHD symptoms are moderate, non-medical treatments often can be attempted before trying medications (Kortekaas-Rijlaarsdam, Luman, Sonuga-Barke, & Oosterlaan, 2018; National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, 2009; National Resource Center on ADHD, 2018; National Institutes of Health, 2013; Clinical Guidelines, 2009).

Distributed Intelligence

Many educators are beginning to realize that not only does a supportive environmental context enhance people's intelligence over time, but in fact it can facilitate intelligent behavior in the here and now. People are far more likely to think and behave intelligently when they have assistance from their physical, cultural, and social environments—an idea that is sometimes called distributed intelligence (e.g., Hutchins, 1995; Pea, 1993; Perkins, 1995). People can "distribute" a challenging task— that is, they can pass some of the cognitive burden onto something or someone else—in at least three ways. First, they can use physical objects, especially technology (e.g., tablets, calculators, computers), to handle and manipulate information. In particular, having a smartphone available virtually at any time and in any place affords students the opportunity to access information and various tools. Second, they can represent and think about the situations they encounter by using their culture's various symbolic systems—such as words, charts, and diagrams. Third, they can work with other people to explore ideas and solve problems—as we've often heard, two heads are (usually) better than one. In fact, when students work together on complex, challenging tasks and problems, they teach one another strategies and ways of thinking that can help each of them think even more intelligently on future occasions (Kuhn, 2001b; Palincsar & Herrenkohl, 1999; Slavin, 2011). From a distributed-intelligence perspective, then, intelligence is a highly variable, context-specific ability that increases when appropriate environmental supports are available. It certainly isn't an immutable trait that learners "carry around" with them, nor is it something that can be easily measured and then summarized with one or more test scores. However, psychologists coming from other theoretical perspectives often do try to measure intelligence, as we'll see no

Students with advanced cognitive development

Many students are apt to have advanced abilities, either in specific subject areas or across the curriculum, that warrant attention and encouragement. Some students—those who are gifted—are so far above the norm that special educational services are often appropriate. Figure 5.8 Brad describes life with his two deaf sisters. MyLab Education Self-Check 5. We will encounter gifted students in our classes quite often; as we'll see, there are numerous considerations in adapting instruction to engage and challenge gifted stude

Students with social or behavioral problems

Many students have minor social, emotional, or behavioral difficulties at one time or another, particularly during times of unusual stress or major life changes. Often, these problems are temporary ones that require only a little extra support from caring adults and peers. At other times, problems are more enduring but don't reflect a disability. Perhaps a student's temperament is a poor fit with a teacher's instructional strategies—for instance, an especially fidgety child may perform poorly on lengthy seatwork assignments (Keogh, 2003; Mehan, 1979). In such situations, students' problems may decrease or disappear with a change in instructional practices or classroom management strategies. However, some students show a pattern of engaging in behaviors that consistently interfere with their learning and performance regardless of the teacher and the classroom environment. In this section, we'll look at two groups of students who fit into this category: those with emotional and behavioral disorders and those with autism spectrum disorders.

Adapting Instruction Some students with ADHD take medication that helps them control their symptoms, but medication alone is rarely sufficient to enable classroom success; individually tailored educational interventions are also in order (Purdie, Hattie, & Carroll, 2002). The strategies previously listed for students with learning disabilities can often be helpful for students with ADHD. Researchers and practitioners have offered several additional suggestions:

Modify students' work environments and schedules. Students with ADHD do better in a work environment that features minimal distractions, some degree of structure, and ongoing teacher monitoring. Ideally, students should have most academic subjects and challenging tasks in the morning rather than in the afternoon, as the symptoms of ADHD tend to get progressively worse as the day goes on (Barkley, 2006; N. Gregg, 2009). Explicitly facilitate attention and concentration. Students may benefit from soundproof headphones or "white noise" machines that block out potentially distracting sounds, or, for a low-tech alternative, we might encourage them to move to a new location if their current one presents too many distractions (Buchoff, 1990; N. Gregg, 2009). Also, some computer applications give students practice in focusing and keeping their attention on specific stimuli (e.g., Klingberg, Keonig, & Bilbe, 2002; Rueda, Rothbart, McCandliss, Saccomanno, & Posner, 2005). Even using colored highlighting to point out particularly relevant information in reading materials or math problems may improve performance (Kercood, Zentall, Vinh, & Tom-Wright, 2012). Provide outlets for excess energy. To help students control excess energy, we should intersperse quiet academic work with frequent opportunities for exercise (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005; Pfiffner, Barkley, & DuPaul, 2006). We might also give students a settling-in time after recess or lunch—perhaps reading an excerpt from a highinterest book or article—before asking them to engage in an activity that involves quiet concentration (Pellegrini & Horvat, 1995). Help students organize and use their time effectively. For example, we can show them how to prioritize activities, create to-do lists, and establish a daily routine that they post on their desks. We can break large tasks into smaller ones and set a short time limit for each subtask. And we can provide a folder in which students transport homework assignments to and from school (Buchoff, 1990; N. Gregg, 2009; Pfiffner et al., 2006).

Analytic and holistic thinking

One dimension of cognitive style worthy of our attention, however, is a distinction between analytic and holistic thinking. In analytic thinking, learners tend to break new stimuli and tasks into their component parts and to see these parts somewhat independently of their context. In holistic thinking, learners tend to perceive situations as integrated, indivisible wholes that are closely tied to their context. Researchers have found cultural differences here: People from mainstream Western culture tend to be analytic thinkers, whereas people from East Asian cultures think more holistically (Park & Huang, 2010; Varnum, Grossmann, Kitayama, & Nisbett, 2010). In general, logical and scientific reasoning requires analytic thinking, but holistic thinking can help learners identify associations and relationships among seemingly very different phenomena. For example, holistically minded Chinese scientists identified the underlying cause of the ocean's tides—the moon's gravitational pull on any large body of water—many centuries before more narrowly focused, Earth-centered European scientists did (Nisbett, 2009).

Adapting Instruction Specialists typically give students training in Braille, orientation and mobility, and specially adapted computer technology. But general education teachers play important roles as well, as reflected in the following strategies

Orient students ahead of time to the physical layout of the classroom. Students should have a chance to explore the classroom before other students arrive—ideally, before the first day of class. At that time, we can help students locate important objects (e.g., wastebasket and pencil sharpener) and point out special sounds (e.g., the buzzing of a wall clock) to help students get their bearings (J. W. Wood, 1998). We also need to support students when furniture or objects in the classroom are moved to new locations during the school year. Computer-generated virtual environments that can be created and presented to individuals prior to their immersion in a new environment are now available. The use of such software can improve navigation skills (Connors, Chrastil, Sánchez, & Merabet, 2014). Use visual materials with sharp contrast. Some students with partial sight can use visual materials with clearly distinguishable features, such as enlarged documents on computer screens and the large-print books available at most libraries. Students' eyes may tire quickly, however, so we should limit use of visual materials to short time periods (Heward, 2009; Patton et al., 1996). Depend heavily on other modalities. Print-reading software and portable print-reading devices easily translate most printed text into spoken language. Many novels, textbooks, and published curriculum materials are available in Braille, many other books are available in audio form (e.g., see www.learningally.org), and volunteers can sometimes be enlisted to convert still other written materials into Braille or audio. We can also conduct hands-on activities involving objects that students can feel and manipulate, and we can involve students in projects that involve oral presentations. For example, we might use plastic relief maps that portray mountains, valleys, and coastlines in three dimensions, perhaps embellishing them with pinpricks to indicate country borders and small dabs of nail polish to indicate major cities. Allow extra time for learning and performance. Learning by hearing often takes more time than learning by seeing. When students look at something, they perceive a great deal of information at once and thus learn many commonplace relationships (e.g., between the sight of a cat and the sound it makes). When they must listen to it, however, they receive it sequentially—only one piece at a time—and often without obvious interconnections (Ferrell, 1996; Heward, 2009; M. B. Rowe, 1978). Teach learning strategies to your students. Visually impaired students in particular can benefit from explicit instruction in various strategies (Smith et al., 2016). Whereas other students can acquire some of these strategies through observation, visually impaired students will need extra support in learning many strategies. In addition, some strategies (e.g., highlighting important text while reading) will not be possible for students with severe visual impairments; nevertheless, alternative strategies often are available. Collaborative partnerships with special educators are particularly beneficial in these situation

Theres no suych things as learning styles

Over the past few decades, psychologists and educators have examined a wide variety of cognitive styles, sometimes using the term learning styles. You probably have heard of educators discussing students as perhaps being "visual learners" or "auditory learners." The notion behind learning styles is that if teachers adjust instruction to meet the favored learning styles of individual students, then learning will be enhanced. Thus, if a "visual learner" is provided with extra visual materials when learning about a new topic, that student's learning will be improved. Despite the popularity of this idea among educators, there is virtually no evidence that adapting instruction to students' learning styles has any effect on their actual learning (Curry, 1990; R. E. Mayer & Massa, 2003; Nieto & Bode, 2008; Rogowsky, Calhoun, & Tallal, 2015; Roher & Pashler, 2012; Snider, 1990). Many of the styles that have been identified and assessment instruments that have been developed don't hold up under the scrutiny of researchers (Cassidy, 2004; Krätzig & Arbuthnott, 2006; Messick, 1994b). Learning "styles" are basically just preferences; some students may indicate that they prefer to learn through listening, whereas others may indicate that they prefer to learn visually. Nevertheless, these preferences are just that—preferences. It is not the case that students with one preferred style cannot learn just as well when information is presented in other ways In fact, adapting instruction to students' preferred learning styles, or even telling students that they may have a learning style, may prove to be detrimental to learning. Consider the following example Harper is a sixth grader who does very well in school. On her mid-year report card, Harper's science teacher noted, "Harper does a great job in class; I just wish that she would participate more in our discussions." When Harper's parents asked her why she did not participate more in class, she responded that "the guidance counselor came in and gave us a test on our learning styles; she told me that I'm a visual learner. Since I am a visual learner, I don't really need to talk to learn; I just watch." Why is this situation troubling? First, as we noted before, assessments of learning styles are generally not scientifically verified (and these "styles" are really just preferences). Second, and more disturbing, Harper has interpreted the information about being a visual learner as suggesting that she does not need to learn with other modalities. If Harper is a quiet student, then we might recommend greater verbal interaction so that she can further develop her verbal skills; however, her naïve interpretation of the information about her visual learning style may actually cause her to talk even less

Adapting Instruction With proper support, many students with mild intellectual disabilities can learn basic skills in reading, writing, and math, perhaps even mastering components of a typical fifth- or sixth-grade curriculum (Hallahan et al., 2009; Heward, 2009). Many special programs also are available for students with mild intellectual disabilities, sometimes involving partnerships with local universities (Nephin, 2014). Most of the strategies previously described in this chapter can be useful for these students. Here are several additional strategies to keep in mind

Pace instruction slowly and set short-term goals to ensure success. When working with a student who has an intellectual disability, we should move through new topics and tasks slowly enough—and with enough support and repetition—so that the student can eventually master them. Students with intellectual disabilities typically have a long history of failure at academic tasks. Thus, they need frequent success experiences to learn that, with hard work, they can succeed at many tasks. By setting short-term, easy-to-reach goals, students will be more likely to experience success, and be motivated to continue to engage in similar activities (Feuerstein et al., 2010; Fidler, Hepburn, Mankin, & Rogers, 2005; Heward, 2009; Sands & Wehmeyer, 2005). Provide considerable scaffolding to promote effective cognitive processes and desired behaviors. We can develop simple study guides that tell students exactly what to focus on as they study. We can be explicit in our directions to perform various tasks—for instance, saying "Paul, go to the office, give Mrs. Logan the absentee sheet, and come back here." And we can provide handheld, teacher-programmed prompters—which go by such labels as visual assistant and digital memory aid— to help students remember the things they need to do (Beirne-Smith et al., 2006; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1992; Patton et al., 1996, p. 105; Turnbull et al., 2010). Include vocational and general life skills in the curriculum. For most students with intellectual disabilities, training in life and work skills is an important part of the high school curriculum. Such training is most likely to be effective when it takes place in realistic settings that closely resemble those in which students will find themselves once they leave school (Beirne-Smith et al., 2006; Turnbull et al., 2010). One successful program provides opportunities for adolescents to learn a variety of farming and farm-related skills. Participants are able to learn about planting, harvesting, and even the retail aspects of farming, including opportunities to sell produce at the farm's store (Bacon, 2014). The students report that they enjoy these opportunities, and the acquisition of these skills often leads to future employment.

Physical and health impairments

Physical and health impairments are general physical or medical conditions (usually long term) that interfere with school performance to such a degree that special instruction, curricular materials, equipment, or facilities are necessary. Students in this category may have limited energy and strength, reduced mental alertness, or little muscle control. Examples of conditions that might qualify students for special services are traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, cancer, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Kathryn Kirkpatrick, a social worker who works with children and adolescents who are being treated for cancer, describes what she believes all teachers should know: While teachers are often anxious about meeting the needs of a child who is a cancer survivor, there is such relief at seeing a healthy child back in the classroom that subtle learning difficulties can be overlooked. Cognitive late effects related to treatment for childhood cancer can emerge as long as 3-5 years after treatment has been completed and are dependent on the type of treatment received. Common learning difficulties to emerge are executive function deficits, impulsivity, memory loss, and slowed processing speed. Because these issues can present in ways that look like disorganization, procrastination or work refusal, it is important for teachers to understand the risks for these students and have a low threshold for referral to special education or 504 evaluation. Teachers should have the same high academic expectations for childhood cancer survivors that they have for other students, while also understanding that some of the survivors may need support to produce high quality work.

Adapting Instruction Exceptional talents and achievement levels typically require ongoing environmental nurturance and support, in the forms of both differentiated instruction and access to appropriate resources and practice opportunities. Furthermore, many high-achieving students become bored or frustrated when assignments don't challenge them, and others become so accustomed to the "easy A" that they have trouble coping with the mistakes they're likely to make when they venture into new areas (Dai, 2010; Mendaglio, 2010; Parker, 1997). With such points in mind, we offer the following recommendations

Provide individualized tasks and assignments. Different students are apt to need special services in very different areas—for example, in math, creative writing, or art. Some students who are gifted, especially those with only a limited background in English, may also need training in certain basic skills (C. R. Harris, 1991; Udall, 1989). Form study groups of students with similar interests and abilities. In some cases, a study group might explore a topic in greater depth and with more sophisticated analysis than other students (an enrichment approach); in other instances, a study group might simply move through the standard school curriculum at a more rapid pace (an acceleration approach). Enrichment and acceleration are both beneficial for gifted students, and they are not mutually exclusive—courses can potentially be both accelerated and enriching simultaneously (Rogers, 2002; Subotnik et al., 2011). Students benefit both academically and socially from increased contact with peers who have similar interests and talents (Hattie, 2009; J. A. Kulik & Kulik, 1997; McGinn, Viernstein, & Hogan, 1980). Teach complex cognitive skills within the context of specific subject areas. Programs designed to enhance students' creativity, critical thinking, or other complex skills separately from specific content domains tend to have only limited impact. Teaching complex thinking skills within the context of specific topics—for example, creativity in writing or reasoning and problem-solving skills in science—is more likely to be effective (Dai, 2010; M. C. Linn, Clement, Pulos, & Sullivan, 1989; Moon, Feldhusen, & Dillon, 1994; Stanley, 1980). Provide opportunities for independent study and service learning projects. Independent study and community service projects in areas of interest are often beneficial and motivating for high-ability students, provided that they have the work habits, study strategies, and research skills they need to use their time and resources effectively (Candler-Lotven, Tallent-Runnels, Olivárez, & Hildreth, 1994; Terry, 2008). However, even if students are working on projects of this nature, it is important that gifted students have clear goals and are provided with continuous feedback as they progress toward these goals (Callahan, Moon, Oh, Azano, & Hailey, 2015) Seek outside resources. When students have high abilities in domains outside our own areas of expertise, it's often helpful to identify suitable mentors elsewhere in the school district or in the community at large—perhaps at a local university, government office, private business, or volunteer community group (Ambrose, Allen, & Huntley, 1994; Piirto, 1999; Seeley, 1989) Seek outside resources. When students have high abilities in domains outside our own areas of expertise, it's often helpful to identify suitable mentors elsewhere in the school district or in the community at large—perhaps at a local university, government office, private business, or volunteer community group (Ambrose, Allen, & Huntley, 1994; Piirto, 1999; Seeley, 1989)

Nature and nurture in the development of intelligence

Research tells us that heredity probably plays some role in intelligence. For instance, identical twins tend to have more similar IQ scores than nonidentical (fraternal) twins do, even when the twins are adopted at birth by different parents and grow up in different homes. This is not to say, however, that children inherit a single IQ gene that determines their intellectual ability; rather, they probably inherit a variety of characteristics that affect particular cognitive abilities and talents (O. S. P. Davis, Haworth, & Plomin, 2009; Horn, 2008; Kan, Wicherts, Dolan, & van der Maas, 2013; Kovas & Plomin, 2007; Plomin & Deary, 2015). Environmental factors influence intelligence as well, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. Poor nutrition in the early years of development (including the 9 months before birth) leads to lower IQ scores, as does a mother's excessive use of alcohol during pregnancy (Neisser et al., 1996; Ricciuti, 1993; Sigman & Whaley, 1998; Sneikers et al., 2017). Moving a child from a neglectful, impoverished home environment to a more nurturing, stimulating one (e.g., through adoption) can result in IQ gains of 15 points or more (Beckett et al., 2006; Capron & Duyme, 1989; van IJzendoorn & Juffer, 2005). Effective, too, are long-term intervention programs designed to help children acquire basic cognitive and academic skills (e.g., F. A. Campbell & Burchinal, 2008; Kağitçibaşi, 2007). Some evidence suggests that the acquisition of reading skills during childhood is related to increases in intelligence (Ritchie, Bates, & Plomin, 2015). Even simply going to school has a positive effect on IQ scores (Ceci, 2003; Ramey, 1992), although the effects are strongest for specific aspects of intelligence as opposed to general intelligence ("g"; Ritchie, Bates, & Deary, 2015). Attending an academically rigorous school, in particular, may be related to gains in intelligence, even during adolescence (Becker, Lüdtke, Trautwein, Köller, & Baumert, 2012). Furthermore, worldwide, there has been a slow but steady increase in people's performance on intelligence tests—a trend that is probably due to better nutrition, smaller family sizes, better schooling, increasing cognitive stimulation (through increased access to technology, reading materials, etc.), and other improvements in people's environments (Flynn, 2007; E. Hunt, 2008; Neisser, 1998). The question of how much nature and nurture each play a role in influencing intelligence has been a source of controversy; but in fact, genetic and environmental factors interact in their influences on cognitive development and intelligence in ways that can probably never be disentangled. First, genes require reasonable environmental support to do their work. In an extremely impoverished environment—one with a lack of adequate nutrition and stimulation—heredity may have little to do with children's intellectual growth, but under better circumstances it can have a significant influence (Ceci, 2003; D. C. Rowe, Jacobson, & Van den Oord, 1999; Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, D'Onofrio, & Gottesman, 2003). Second, heredity seems to affect how susceptible or impervious a child is to particular environmental conditions (Rutter, 1997). For instance, some students—such as those with certain inherited disabilities—may need a quiet, well-structured learning environment in which to acquire effective reading comprehension skills, but other students might pick up good reading skills regardless of the quality of their environment. Third, children tend to seek out environmental conditions that match their inherited abilities (O. S. P. Davis et al., 2009; W. Johnson, 2010; Scarr & McCartney, 1983). For example, children who inherit exceptional quantitative reasoning ability may enroll in advanced math courses and in other ways nurture their inherited talent. Children with average quantitative ability are less likely to take on such challenges and thus have fewer opportunities to develop their mathematical skills.

Consiudering diversity when identifying and addressing special needs

Sadly, a disproportionately large number of minority-group students are identified as having disabilities, especially specific cognitive disabilities, general intellectual disabilities, and emotional and behavioral disorders (McLoyd, 1998; National Center for Education Statistics, 2017; VanTassel-Baska, 2008). Figure 5.9 displays the percentages of youth receiving services under IDEA, broken down by race/ethnicity. Many theorists attribute these differing identification rates to environmental conditions that often accompany low socioeconomic status: higher-than-normal exposure to environmental toxins, poor nutrition, inadequate medical care, and limited access to enriching educational resources (e.g., Dyson, 2008; Jacoby & Glauberman, 1995; McLoyd, 1998). In addition, English language learners are identified as having learning disabilities or intellectual disabilities more often than native English speakers—a finding that probably reflects students' difficulty in understanding and responding to items on language-based diagnostic tests (A. L. Sullivan, 2008). The higher-than-average identification rates for minority-group students pose a dilemma for educators. On the one hand, we don't want to assign a label such as intellectual disability or emotional disorder to students whose classroom performance and behavior may be due largely to their challenging living conditions; on the other hand, we don't want to deprive these students of special educational services that might help them learn and achieve more successfully over the long run. In such situations, we must conduct fair and nondiscriminatory evaluations of students' needs, and if students qualify under a special-needs category, we must create IEPs to meet those needs. We should consider these categories of special needs as temporary classifications that may no longer be applicable as students' classroom performance improves. All students,with and without disability classifications, have changing needs that evolve over time, and federal law requires that IEPs be revisited at least once a year. In addition to being overrepresented in programs for students with disabilities, members of some minority groups are underrepresented in programs for gifted students (D. Y. Ford, 2012, 2014; Graham, 2009; VanTassel-Baska, 2008). Furthermore, when students from underrepresented groups are identified for participation in gifted education programs, teachers often need to carefully mentor and monitor students to encourage them to remain in these programs (Moore, Ford, & Milner, 2011). On average, students from cultural and ethnic minority groups are at a disadvantage when traditional tests of ability are used to identify giftedness—in some cases because they have had little experience with the kinds of tasks that appear on those tests (Rogoff, 2003). It's critical, then, that we be on the lookout for other signs of giftedness, including the following • Exceptional talent in a specific area • Ability to learn quickly from experiences • Exceptional communication skills (e.g., articulateness, richness of language) • Originality and resourcefulness in thinking and problem solving • Ability to generalize concepts and ideas to new, seemingly unrelated situations (Dai, 2010; Haywood & Lidz, 2007; Winner, 1996)

Adapting Instruction There is promising research indicating that some specific drug treatments are quite helpful to some children and adolescents with emotional and behavioral disorders (Konopasek & Forness, 2014); however, environmental supports are also important. Effective interventions must be tailored to each student's unique needs, but several strategies can benefit many of these students

Show an interest in students' well-being and personal growth. A good first step in helping students with emotional and behavioral disorders is simply showing that we care about them (Chang & Davis, 2009; Clarke et al., 1995; Heward, 2009). For example, we can greet them warmly when we see them, express concern when they seem upset or overly stressed, and lend a supportive ear when they want to share their opinions or frustrations. Moreover, we can take students' personal interests into account when planning instruction and assignments (as you'll see in Chapter 11, this will enhance intrinsic motivation) Give students a sense that they have some control over their circumstances. Some students, especially those who are frequently defiant, often respond to efforts to control them by behaving even less appropriately. With such students, it's important to avoid power struggles in which only one person wins and the other inevitably loses. Instead, we must create situations in which we ensure that students conform to classroom expectations yet feel that they have some control over what happens to them. For example, we can teach them techniques for observing and monitoring their own actions, with the goal of developing more productive behavior. We can also give them choices, within reasonable limits, about what tasks to accomplish in particular situations (Chang & Davis, 2009; Kern, Dunlap, Childs, & Clark, 1994; Lane, Falk, & Wehby, 2006). Make sure that students are learning basic skills. Students with emotional and behavioral disorders often are inattentive and off-task, and therefore less engaged with their academic work. Thus, these students may not develop some basic skills (e.g., basic reading or mathematical skills) that are necessary for all future learning. It is important to identify these disorders early, and to work collaboratively with special educators to meet these students' social and academic needs (Nelson, Benner, & Bohaty, 2014). Be alert for signs that a student may be contemplating suicide. In the United States, suicide is the second-leading cause of death for adolescents; occasionally even younger students take their own lives (CDC, 2016). Warning signs include the following • Sudden withdrawal from social relationships • Increasing disregard for personal appearance • Dramatic personality change (e.g., sudden elevation in mood) • Preoccupation with death and morbid themes • Overt or veiled threats (e.g., "I won't be around much longer") • Actions that indicate putting one's affairs in order (e.g., giving away prized possessions) (Granello & Granello, 2006; Wiles & Bondi, 200 As teachers, we must take any of these warning signs seriously and seek help immediately from trained professionals, such as school psychologists, school social workers, or counselors. It's also essential, of course, that we help students with emotional and behavioral disorders acquire more appropriate behaviors. We describe strategies for doing so after the discussion of autism spectrum disorders in the next section

Theoretcal perspectives of intelligence

Some psychologists have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability that people have to varying degrees and apply in a wide range of activities. Others have disagreed, citing evidence that people can be more or less intelligent on different kinds of tasks, at different points in development, and in different contexts. The theories of intelligence we examine in this section reflect these diverse perspectives

Students with specific cognitive or academic difficulties

Some students with special educational needs show no outward signs of physical disability yet have cognitive difficulties that interfere with their ability to learn certain kinds of academic material or perform certain kinds of classroom tasks. Such students include those with learning disabilities, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and speech and communication disorders.

Students with pshycial or sensory challenges

Some students with special needs have obvious physical disabilities caused by medically detectable physiological conditions, including physical and health impairments, visual impairments, and hearing loss. A small subset of them have severe and multiple disabilities MyLab Education Video Example 5.5 Like all students, those who are deaf or hard of hearing vary in their strengths and limitations. In the general education classroom, teachers build on student strengths and adapt the environment to minimize limitations. M05_ORMR6478_10_SE_C05.indd 179 05/11/2018 15:36 180 Chapter 5 that require significant adaptations and highly specialized services; such students are typically accompanied by child-specific teacher aides or other specialists when attending general education classrooms.

Speech and communcation disorders

Speech and communication disorders are impairments in spoken language or language comprehension that significantly interfere with academic performance. Examples include persistent articulation problems (e.g., see Figure 5.6), stuttering, abnormal syntactical patterns, and difficulty understanding other people's speech. By the time children reach the first grade, about 5% have noticeable speech disorders (National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2016). Sometimes, but not always, these children have difficulty perceiving and mentally processing particular aspects of spoken language—a subcategory of speech and communication disorders known as specific language impairments. Often—but again, not always—the source of the disorder can be traced to heredity or brain abnormalities (Bishop, 2006; J. L. Locke, 1993; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, & Medicine, 2016; Spinath, Price, Dale, & Plomin, 2004)

Emotional and behavioral disorders

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders are identified as students with special needs—and therefore qualify for special educational services—when their problems have a substantial negative impact on classroom learning. Although these students represent between 3% and 6% of the population of students in the United States, less than 1% receive special education services under this categorization (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], 2017a; Lane, Menzies, Kalberg, & Oakes, 2012). Symptoms of emotional and behavioral disorders typically fall into one of two broad categories. Externalizing behaviors have direct or indirect effects on other people; examples include aggression, defiance, stealing, and general lack of self-control. Internalizing behaviors primarily affect the student with the disorder; examples include severe anxiety or depression, exaggerated mood swings, withdrawal from social interaction, and eating disorders. Students with externalizing behaviors—who are more likely to be boys than girls—are more likely to be referred for evaluation and possible special services. However, students with internalizing behaviors—who are more likely to be girls than boys—can be just as much at risk for school failure (Angold, Worthman, & Costello, 2003; Gay, 2006; Hayward, 2003). These disorders need to be taken seriously because, in addition to school failure, students with externalizing and internalizing behaviors are more at risk for serious mental health issues, including thinking about or attempting suicide (Peter & Roberts, 2010). Some emotional and behavioral disorders result from environmental factors, such as stressful living conditions, child maltreatment, or family alcohol or drug abuse (P. T. Davies & Woitach, 2008; D. Glaser, 2000; Maughan & Cicchetti, 2002). But biological causes (e.g., inherited predispositions, chemical imbalances, brain injuries) may also be involved, either by themselves or through interaction with environmental conditions (Dodge, 2009; Raine, 2008; Yeo, Gangestad, & Thoma, 2007). Some students with a genetic predisposition for an emotional or behavioral disorder exhibit few, if any, signs until adolescence, as the following case illustrates As a ninth grader, Kirk was a well-behaved, likeable student who earned As and Bs and showed particular promise in science and math. But in tenth grade, his grades began to decline, and he increasingly exhibited hostile and defiant behaviors. When Kirk failed three classes during the fall of his twelfth-grade year, the principal convened a meeting with him, his parents, and his faculty advisor to discuss how to help Kirk get back on track. At the meeting, the principal described several occasions when Kirk had acted disoriented, belligerent, and seemingly "high" on drugs. Despite his strong desire to attend college the following year, Kirk sat at the meeting smirking (seemingly gleeful about his predicament) and focusing his attention on sorting pieces of trail mix in a bowl on the conference room table. By the end of the meeting, the principal was so infuriated that she expelled him from school. Over the next few weeks, Kirk's mental condition and behavior continued to deteriorate, to the point that he was soon arrested, placed in a juvenile detention facility, and eventually hospitalized in the state mental institution Kirk was ultimately diagnosed with bipolar disorder, a condition that is usually inherited and is characterized by excessive mood swings and in some cases (like Kirk's) by distorted thought processes. Bipolar disorder often doesn't appear until adolescence, even though its biological underpinnings have been present since birth (Griswold & Pessar, 2000). When students have emotional or behavioral disorders, their inappropriate behaviors interfere not only with academic achievement but also with peer relationships, leading to social as well as academic failure. Some of these students may seek the companionship of the few peers who will accept them—peers who typically behave in similarly inappropriate ways and may introduce one another to drugs, alcohol, or criminal activity (J. Snyder et al., 2008; Webber & Plotts, 2008). Sadly, many youth who have emotional or behavioral disorders do not receive the services and supports that they need. Often, boys with externalizing behaviors receive support, but others sometimes do not receive sufficient services (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2015)

Hearling loss

Students with hearing loss have a malfunction of the ears or associated nerves that interferes with the perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal human speech. Two to three of every 1,000 children born in the United States have detectable hearing loss at birth (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2014). Students who are completely deaf have insufficient sensation to understand any spoken language, even with the help of a hearing aid. Students who are hard of hearing understand some speech but experience exceptional difficulty in doing so

Cognitive styles and dispositions

Students with the same general level of intelligence often approach classroom tasks and think about classroom topics differently. Some of these individual differences reflect cognitive styles, over which students don't necessarily have much conscious control. Others reflect dispositions, which students voluntarily and intentionally bring to bear on their efforts to master subject matter. Don't agonize over the distinction between the two concepts, because their meanings overlap considerably. Both involve not only specific cognitive tendencies but also personality characteristics (Furnham, 2012; Messick, 1994b; Zhang & Sternberg, 2006). Dispositions also have a motivational component—an I-wantto-do-it-this-way quality (Kuhn, 2001a; Perkins & Ritchhart, 2004; Stanovich, 199

visual impairments

Students with visual impairments have malfunctions of their eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses. Some students are totally blind, others see only fuzzy patterns of light and dark, and still others have a restricted visual field (tunnel vision) that allows them to see just a very small area at a time. Visual impairments are caused by congenital abnormalities in or damage to either the eye or the visual pathway to the brain. Vision is essential to the development of many cognitive abilities, including reading from print, understanding spatial relationships, and comprehension of concepts (Smith, Polloway, Doughty, Patton, & Dowdy, 2016). When students have visual impairments, these abilities may be delayed, and that could affect learning in all academic subjects

IQ scores and school achievement

Studies repeatedly show that performance on intelligence tests is correlated with school achievement. On average, children with higher IQ scores earn higher course grades, do better on standardized achievement tests, and complete more years of education (N. Brody, 1997; Duckworth, Quinn, & Tsukayama, 2012; Sattler, 2001). Data suggest that these tests are predictive of success in higher education as well (Kuncel & Hezlett, 2007). It's important to keep three points in mind about this IQ-achievement relationship. First, intelligence doesn't necessarily cause achievement; it is simply correlated with it. Even though students with high IQs typically perform well in school, we cannot conclusively say that their high achievement is actually the result of their intelligence. Intelligence probably does play an important role in school achievement, but so, too, do many other factors—motivation, quality of instruction, family and neighborhood resources, peer-group expectations, and so on. Second, the relationship between IQ scores and achievement is an imperfect one. For a variety of reasons, some students with high IQ scores don't perform well in the classroom, and others achieve at higher levels than we would predict from their IQ scores alone. For example, recent research suggests that the relation between intelligence and achievement is affected by sleep— when students do not get enough sleep on any given night, intelligence and achievement aren't as closely correlated as they might otherwise be (Erath, Tu, Buckhalt, & El-Sheikh, 2015). Third and most important, we must remember that an IQ score simply reflects a child's performance on a particular test at a particular time—it's not a permanent characteristic etched in stone—and that some change is to be expected over time.

Autism spectrum disorder

The central, defining features of autism spectrum disorders are marked impairments in social cognition (e.g., perspective taking, interpreting other people's body language), social skills, language usage, and social interaction. Many students with these disorders prefer to be alone and form weak, if any, emotional attachments to other people. Some students develop limited abilities to use language, whereas others' language usage is more fully developed. Common, too, are repetitive behaviors (often very odd ones rarely seen in age-mates) and inflexible adherence to certain routines or rituals (APA, 2000; Lord, 2010; Pelphrey & Carter, 2007; Tager-Flusberg, 2007). Autism spectrum disorders are prevalent; in the United States, an estimated 1 out of every 68 children has been identified as having autism spectrum disorder, with five times as many diagnoses in boys as in girls (CDC, 2014). Figure 5.7 represents a student with autism spectrum disorder's description of what it means to be "uncool." Notice that he focuses on social skills. Aside from similarities in social impairments and repetitive behaviors, individuals with autism spectrum disorders differ considerably in the severity of their condition—hence the term spectrum. In high functioning autism, a fairly mild form, students usually have normal language skills and average or above-average intelligence. In severe cases, which are often referred to simply as autism, children have major delays in cognitive development and language and may exhibit certain bizarre behaviors—perhaps constantly rocking or waving fingers, continually repeating what someone else has said, or showing unusual fascination with a very narrow category of objects (APA, 2000; Carpenter, Soorya, & Halpern, 2009; Lord, 2010). Students with autism spectrum disorders may be either undersensitive or oversensitive to environmental stimulation (Ratey, 2001; R. C. Sullivan, 1994; D. Williams, 1996). Temple Grandin, a woman who has gained international prominence as a designer of livestock facilities, recalls what it was like to be a child with autism: From as far back as I can remember, I always hated to be hugged. I wanted to experience the good feeling of being hugged, but it was just too overwhelming. It was like a great, all-engulfing tidal wave of stimulation, and I reacted like a wild animal. . . . When I was little, loud noises were also a problem, often feeling like a dentist's drill hitting a nerve. They actually caused pain. I was scared to death of balloons popping, because the sound was like an explosion in my ear. (Grandin, 1995, pp. 63, 67) The vast majority of autism spectrum disorders are probably caused by abnormalities in the brain. Some researchers have observed abnormalities in mirror neurons—neurons that probably underlie people's perspective-taking abilities (Gallese, Gernsbacher, Heyes, Hickok, & Iacoboni, 2011). Other researchers have discovered abnormalities in interconnections among various parts of the brain—for example, in connections between parts that enable logical reasoning or inhibition of impulses, on the one hand, and parts that underlie emotions and emotional processing, on the other (Cherkassky, Kana, Keller, & Just, 2006; I. L. Cohen, 2007; Kana, Keller, Minshew, & Just, 2007). Recent studies suggest that multiple regions of the brain are involved in autism spectrum disorders (Byrnes, 2012). Although it is not yet widely understood, there is evidence that autism sometimes runs in families and can have genetic origins (DiGuiseppi et al., 2010; Talkowski Minikel & Gusella, 2014). Although some have suggested that autism may be caused by childhood vaccines, there is no evidence that there is any association of vaccines with autism (Institute of Medicine, 2011; Jain et al., 2015; Maglione et al., 2014).

Developmental Views of Intelligence

Theories of cognitive development portray children as becoming increasingly intelligent over time; for example, with age and experience children gain greater proficiency in abstract thinking (Jean Piaget's theory) and effective use of complex cultural tools (Lev Vygotsky's theory). Yet with the possible exception of Sternberg's triarchic theory—which points out the importance of prior experiences—the perspectives of intelligence described so far don't really consider how intelligence might take different forms at different points in development (Dai, 2010). Some researchers working in the area of giftedness suggest that, not only is intelligence somewhat specific to particular domains, but also its basic nature changes with age and experience. From this perspective, the developmental course of exceptional abilities and talents is as follows: 1. Initially (typically in childhood), people show exceptional potential in a certain domain, perhaps in reading, math, or music. 2. With appropriate instruction, guidance, and practice opportunities, people show exceptional achievement in the domain. 3. If people continue to pursue the domain and practice domain-specific tasks over a lengthy time period (typically into adulthood), they may eventually gain considerable expertise and eminence, to the point that their accomplishments are widely recognized (Dai, 2010; Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011). In addition, increases in more general cognitive abilities are related to experiences such as school attendance, work experiences, and other life events (Kyllonen, 2015). Here, then, we see a very dynamic view of intelligence: Although its roots may be in certain natural endowments, over the long run intelligence requires both environmental nurturance and personal perseverance (Dai, 2010; Subotnik et al., 2011)

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Virtually all students are apt to be inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive at one time or another. But those with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) typically have significant and chronic deficits in these areas, as reflected in the following identification criteria: • Inattention. Students may have considerable difficulty focusing and maintaining attention on assigned tasks, especially when appealing alternatives are available. They may have trouble listening to and following directions, and they may make careless mistakes. • Hyperactivity. Students may seem to have an excess amount of energy. They're apt to be fidgety and may move around the classroom at inappropriate times. • Impulsivity. Students almost invariably have trouble inhibiting inappropriate behaviors. They may blurt out answers, begin assignments prematurely, or engage in risky or destructive behaviors without thinking about potential consequences. (APA, 2000; Barkley, 2006; Gatzke-Kopp & Beauchaine, 2007; N. Gregg, 2009) Students with ADHD don't necessarily show all three of these characteristics. For instance, some are inattentive without also being hyperactive, as is true for Tim in the opening case study. But all students with ADHD appear to have one characteristic in common: an inability to inhibit inappropriate thoughts, inappropriate actions, or both (Barkley, 2006, 2010; B. J. Casey, 2001; Nigg, 2010). Tim, for example, is easily distracted by his thoughts and daydreams when he should be focusing on a lesson. The prevalence of ADHD in the United States may surprise you. First, boys are about twice as likely as are girls to be diagnosed with ADHD. In the United States, approximately 6.4 million students are diagnosed with ADHD at some point in time. In addition, these diagnoses have increased by 53% since the early 2000s (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2014). The increase in diagnoses is due to a number of factors, including greater awareness of ADHD and thus more frequent diagnoses. In many instances, ADHD appears to be the result of brain abnormalities that limit students' ability to focus their attention and control their behaviors (e.g., Kadziela-Olech, Cichocki, Chwiesko, Konstantynowicz, & Braszko, 2015). Sometimes these abnormalities are inherited, but sometimes, instead, they're the result of toxic substances in children's early environments—perhaps high lead content in the paint dust of old buildings (Accardo, 2008; Barkley, 2010; Faranoe et al., 2005; Gatzke-Kopp & Beauchaine, 2007; Nigg, 2010)

Being smart about intelligence and iq scores

Whatever its nature and origins may be, intelligence appears to be an important factor in students' ability to learn and achieve in the classroom. Accordingly, we must have a good grasp of how we can best nurture students' intellectual growth and how we can reasonably interpret their performance on intelligence tests and use that information wisely. Following are several recommendations Place higher priority on developing—rather than on determining—intelligence. As we've seen, intelligence is hardly a fixed, unchangeable characteristic: Environmental factors, including schooling, can lead to increases in children's measured intelligence. The notion of distributed intelligence suggests that virtually all students can act more intelligently when they have tools, symbolic systems, and social groups to assist them. As teachers, we should think more about enhancing and supporting students' intelligence than about measuring it (Dai, 2010; P. D. Nichols & Mittelholtz, 1997; Posner & Rothbart, 2007; B. Rhodes, 2008). Think of intelligence tests as useful but imperfect measures. Intelligence tests aren't magical instruments that mysteriously determine a learner's true intelligence—if, in fact, such a thing as "true" intelligence exists. Instead, these tests are simply collections of questions and tasks that psychologists have developed in order to get a handle on how well students can think, reason, and learn at a particular point in time. Used in conjunction with other information, they can often give us a general idea of a student's current cognitive functioning. To interpret IQ scores appropriately, however, we must be aware of their limitations • Different kinds of tests can yield somewhat different scores. • A student's performance on any test will inevitably be affected by many temporary factors, including general health, time of day, and distracting circumstances. Such factors are especially influential for young children, who are apt to have high energy levels, short attention spans, and little interest in sitting still for more than a few minutes. • Test items typically focus on certain skills that are important in mainstream Western culture—especially in school settings—and on tasks that can be accomplished within a single, short testing session. They don't necessarily tap into skills that are more highly valued and nurtured in other cultures, nor do they tap into skills that involve lengthy time periods (e.g., planning ahead, making wise decisions) or highly specific areas. • Some students may be unfamiliar with the content or types of tasks involved in particular test items and may perform poorly on those items as a result. • English language learners—students who have only limited proficiency in English as a result of growing up in a non-English-speaking environment—are at an obvious disadvantage when an intelligence test is administered in English. Thus, their IQ scores will typically be poor indicators of what they will be able to do once their English improves (Dirks, 1982; Heath, 1989; Olvera & Gómez-Cerrillo, 2014; Perkins, 1995; Stanovich, 2009; Sternberg, 2007; Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005) Obviously, then, we must be skeptical of IQ scores obtained for students who come from diverse cultural backgrounds, know little English, or were fairly young at the time of assessment Use the results of more focused measures when you want to assess specific abilities. Whenever we obtain and use IQ scores, we're buying into the idea that a general factor, or g, underlies academic performance. But given the multifaceted nature of intelligence, no single test can possibly give us a complete picture of a student's abilities. If we want to estimate a student's potential for success in a particular domain—say, in mathematics—we're probably better off using measures of more specific abilities (Ackerman & Lohman, 2006; Horn, 2008; McGrew et al., 1997). However, we urge you to rely only on instruments available from well-respected test publishers. Tests you might find on the Internet—for instance, tests that claim to measure Gardner's multiple intelligences—have typically undergone little or no research scrutiny, making their results questionable at best. Keep in mind, too, that intelligence tests should be administered only by school psychologists and other professionals who have been specifically trained in their use. Look for behaviors that reveal exceptional talents within the context of a student's culture. For example, among students who have grown up in predominantly African American communities, intelligence might be reflected in oral language, such as colorful speech, creative storytelling, or humor. For students from Native American cultures, intelligence might be reflected in interpersonal skills, highly skilled craftsmanship, or an exceptional ability to notice and remember subtle landmarks in one's physical environment (Dai, 2010; Sternberg, 2005; Torrance, 1989). As teachers we must be careful not to limit our conception of intelligence only to students' ability to succeed at traditional academic tasks and to perform well on traditional intelligence tests. One alternative is dynamic assessment: Rather than assess what students already know and can do, we might teach them something new and see how quickly and easily they master it (Feuerstein, Feuerstein, & Falik, 2010; Haywood & Lidz, 2007; Sternberg, 2007) Remember that many other factors also affect students' classroom achievement. Most measures of intelligence focus on specific things that a student can do, with little consideration of what a student is likely to do. For instance, intelligence tests don't evaluate the extent to which students are willing to view a situation from multiple perspectives, examine data with a critical eye, try hard even when faced with a difficult question, or actively take charge of their own learning. Yet such traits are often just as important as intellectual ability in determining success on academic and realworld tasks (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Kuhn, 2001a; Perkins, Tishman, Ritchhart, Donis, & Andrade, 2000). Even teachers' expectations for students can have small effects on students' intelligence test scores (Raudenbush, 1984). In the next section, we'll examine forms that these cognitive styles and dispositions might take.

Measuring intelligence

When a student consistently struggles with certain aspects of the curriculum, as Tim does in the opening case study, psychologists sometimes find it helpful to get a measure of the student's general level of cognitive functioning. Such measures are commonly known as intelligence tests. To get a sense of what intelligence tests are like, try the following exercise These test items are modeled after items on many contemporary intelligence tests. Often the tests include a mixture of verbal tasks (such as items 1 through 4) and less verbal, more visual tasks (such as item 5). Scores on intelligence tests were originally calculated using a formula that involves division. Hence, they were called intelligence quotient scores, or IQ scores. Although we still use the term IQ, intelligence test scores are no longer based on the old formula. Instead, they're determined by comparing a student's performance on a given test with the performance of others in the same age-group. This is a very important point—an IQ score is reflective of a student's cognitive abilities at a particular age, compared to students of the same age. A score of 100 indicates average performance on the test: Students with this score have performed better than half of their age-mates but not as well as the other half. Scores well below 100 indicate below-average performance on the test; scores well above 100 indicate above-average performance. Figure 5.1 shows the percentages of students getting scores at different points along the scale (e.g., 12.9% get scores between 100 and 105). Notice that the curve is high in the middle and low at both ends, indicating that scores close to 100 are far more common than scores considerably higher or lower than 100. For example, if we add up the percentages in different parts of Figure 5.1, we find that approximately two-thirds (68%) of students score within 15 points of 100 (i.e., between 85 and 115). In contrast, only 2% of students score as low as 70, and only 2% score as high as 130. Such a manyin-the-middle-and-few-at-the-extremes distribution of scores seems to characterize a wide variety of human characteristics. Hence, psychologists have created a method of scoring intelligence test performance that intentionally yields this same distribution In the opening case study, Tim's performance on an intelligence test yields an IQ score of 96, which we can now make some sense of. As you can see in Figure 5.1, a score of 96 is so close to 100 that we should consider it to be well within the average range. Researchers are still studying intelligence and designing new assessments of intelligence; for example, some researchers are now developing neuropsychological assessments (e.g., Gansler, Varvaris, & Schretlen, 2017). It has become particularly apparent in recent years that other noncognitive variables (e.g., motivation and persistence) are related to intelligence. In addition, new techniques are being developed to account for the fact that some individuals work quickly through assessments (and thus may complete more of the assessment, but may commit more errors because of going quickly), whereas other test takers are more slow and deliberate, and may achieve greater levels of accuracy, but not complete as many items (van der Linden, 2007).

Students with general delays in cog and social functioning

When we use the term student with general delays in cognitive and social functioning, we're talking about any student who shows a consistent pattern of developmental delays, regardless of whether the student has been identified as having a disability. Educators sometimes use the term slow learner to describe a student who obtains intelligence test scores in the 70s and has noticeable difficulties in most or all parts of the curriculum. A student with especially pronounced difficulties may be identified as having an intellectual disability.

Intellectual disabilities

You're undoubtedly familiar with the term mental retardation; in recent years, however, most special educators have instead advocated for the term intellectual disability in reference to students who show pronounced delays in most aspects of cognitive and social development. More specifically, students with intellectual disabilities exhibit both of the following characteristics (Luckasson et al., 2002) • Significantly below-average general intelligence. These students have intelligence test scores that are quite low—usually no higher than 70, reflecting performance in the bottom 2% of their age-group. In addition, these students learn slowly and show consistently poor achievement in virtually all academic subject areas Deficits in adaptive behavior. These students behave in ways that we would expect of much younger children. Their deficits in adaptive behavior include limitations in practical intelligence—that is, managing the ordinary activities of daily living—and social intelligence—that is, conducting themselves appropriately in social situations The preceding characteristics must be evident in childhood. Thus, a person who shows them beginning at age 18, perhaps as the result of a serious head injury, would not be classified as having an intellectual disability. There are three levels of intellectual disabilities. Students who have a mild to moderate intellectual disability generally are able to learn how to take care of themselves; they usually can travel and often can be employed. Children or adolescents with a severe intellectual disability experience major delays in development and require a great deal of support; they often can understand speech, but may have difficulty producing speech. Individuals with a profound intellectual disability experience severe cognitive impairment; they often also have severe physical limitations and require extensive care (National Academy of Sciences, 2015). Intellectual disabilities are often caused by genetic conditions. For example, most children with Down syndrome have delayed cognitive and social development. Other cases are due to biological but noninherited causes, such as severe malnutrition or excessive alcohol consumption during the mother's pregnancy or oxygen deprivation during birth. In other situations, environmental factors, such as parental neglect or an extremely impoverished and unstimulating home environment may be the cause (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Kim, 2006)

Common Characteristics Students who are gifted vary considerably in their unique strengths and talents, and those who show exceptional talent in one area may have only average ability in another (Winner, 2000b). Nevertheless, many students who are gifted have characteristics such as these

• Advanced vocabulary, language, and reading skills • Extensive general knowledge about the world • Ability to learn more quickly, easily, and independently than peers • Advanced and efficient cognitive processes and learning strategies • Considerable flexibility in ideas and approaches to tasks • High standards for performance (sometimes to the point of unhealthy perfectionism) • High motivation to accomplish challenging tasks; boredom during easy tasks • Strong interest in the area in which strengths have been identified • Positive self-concept, especially with regard to academic endeavors (although they also often have lower self-perceptions regarding their appearance and athletic abilities) • Average or above-average social development and emotional adjustment (although a few extremely gifted students may have difficulties because they are so very different from their peers) (Dai, 2010; Litster & Roberts, 2011; Mendaglio, 2010; Parker, 1997; Shavinina & Ferrari, 2004; Steiner & Carr, 2003; Subotnik et al., 2011; Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2012; Winner, 2000a, 2000b

Common Characteristics In addition to inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, students identified as having ADHD may have characteristics such as these

• Exceptional imagination and creativity; exceptionally detailed memories • Certain specific cognitive processing difficulties and low school achievement • Problems with planning and time management • Classroom behavior problems (e.g., disruptiveness, noncompliance) • Greater use of media (e.g., watching TV or using a computer) • Poor social skills and interpersonal difficulties • Increased probability of substance abuse in adolescence (Barkley, 2006; GatzkeKopp & Beauchaine, 2007; S. Goldstein & Rider, 2006; N. Gregg, 2009; Hallowell, 1996; Nikkelen, Valkenburg, Huizinga, & Bushman, 2014; Skowronek, Leichtman, & Pillemer, 2008; Tarver, Daley, & Sayal, 2014) Students' attention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness problems may diminish somewhat in adolescence, but they don't entirely disappear, making it difficult for students to handle the increasing demands that come in high school; for many, ADHD continues into and sometimes throughout adulthood (Tarver, Daley, & Sayal, 2014). Accordingly, students with ADHD are at greater-than-average risk for dropping out of school (Barkley, 2006; S. Goldstein & Rider, 2006; N. Gregg, 2009; E. L. Hart, Lahey, Loeber, Applegate, & Frick, 1995). ADHD continues to be a lifelong issue for some individuals (Tarver et al., 2014). Figure 5.5 displays a note written by a high school student who was recently identified as having ADHD. Note that this student experiences difficulties in coming to terms with this diagnosis, but also appreciates that fact that teachers are now able to provide better support.

Common Characteristics Students with emotional and behavioral disorders differ considerably in their abilities and personalities. However, in addition to the difficulty in maintaining healthy peer relationships just mentioned, you may observe one or more of the following characteristics

• Frequent absences from school • Deteriorating academic performance with increasing age • Often, but not always, below-average intelligence • Low self-esteem • Aggressive or withdrawn behaviors • Angry or argumentative • Rule-breaking • Little or no empathy for others' distress • Significant substance abuse (CDC, 2017a; Grinberg & McLean-Heywood, 1999; Harter, 1999; Kauffman & Landrum, 2013; Leiter & Johnsen, 1997; McGlynn, 1998; Richards, Symons, Greene, & Szuszkiewicz, 1995; Turnbull, Turnbull, & Wehmeyer, 2010; Webber & Plotts, 2008) Some students with emotional and behavioral disorders have other special needs as well, including learning disabilities, ADHD, or giftedness (Fessler, Rosenberg, & Rosenberg, 1991; Gatzke-Kopp & Beauchaine, 2007; Webber & Plotts, 2008

Common Characteristics It's hard to generalize about students with physical and health impairments because their conditions are so very different from one another. Nevertheless, several common characteristics are noteworthy:

• Low stamina and a tendency to tire easily • Varying degrees of intellectual functioning (many of these students have learning ability similar to that of nondisabled peers); occasionally students' intellectual functioning may be temporarily impaired, particularly if the child underwent chemotherapy. • Lower levels of academic achievement as a result of frequent school absences • Fewer opportunities to experience and interact with the outside world in educationally important ways (e.g., less use of public transportation; fewer visits to concerts, museums and zoos) • Possible low self-esteem, insecurity, social isolation from peers, or heavy dependence on adults, depending partly on how parents and others have responded to their impairments (American Cancer Society, 2017; Heward, 2009; Patton et al., 1996; J. W. Wood, 1998; Yeo & Sawyer, 2005

Common Characteristics Like students in any category of special needs, students with intellectual disabilities have differing personalities, strengths, and needs. Nevertheless, many of them are apt to exhibit characteristics such as the following:

• Sociability and a genuine desire to belong and fit in at school • Less general knowledge about the world • Poor reading and language skills • Short attention span • Poor memory; few or no effective learning and memory strategies • Difficulty drawing inferences and understanding abstract ideas • Difficulty generalizing something learned in one situation to a new situation • Immature play behaviors and interpersonal skills • Delayed motor skills; conditions that adversely affect performance in physical activities (e.g., heart defects, poor muscle tone; Beirne-Smith et al., 2006; Bergeron & Floyd, 2006; Carlin et al., 2003; Heward, 2009; F. P. Hughes, 1998; Tager-Flusberg & Skwerer, 2007)

Common Characteristics In addition to the traits already described, students with autism spectrum disorders may have characteristics such as these

• Strong visual-spatial thinking skills and exceptional awareness of visual details • Unusual ability to maintain attention and focus during distractions • Difficulty understanding how other people feel • Good memory for a set of unrelated facts • May avoid physical contact with others • Difficulty planning and organizing a future course of action • Strong need for a consistent, predictable environment (CDC, 2017b; I. L. Cohen, 2007; M. Dawson, Soulières, Gernsbacher, & Mottron, 2007; Gernsbacher, Stevenson, Khandakar, & Goldsmith, 2008; Grandin & Johnson, 2005; Lord, 2010; Meltzer, 2007; Pelphrey & Carter, 2007; Tager-Flusberg, 2007)