ELANG 322 Exam II

Subject/Verb Agreement

1. A prepositional phrases or other words between the subject and verb do not affect subject-verb agreement. No: A list of honors students were posted in the hall. Yes: A list of honors students was posted in the hall. 2. Indefinite pronouns are (mostly) singular Examples of singular: any, each, some Always plural: both, many, few, several No: Neither books are worth reading Yes: Neither of the books is worth reading. No: None of this work has been accomplished yet Yes: None are so blind as fanatics. 3. In correlative constructions (either...or, neither...nor, not...but) the verb agrees with the part of the subject closest to the verb. Yes: Not only the deans but the president was present. 4. In there is, there are sentences, and in inverted sentence, find the subject. Yes: On the wall were several posters. 5. The verb agrees with the subject, not the predicate noun (subjective complement) in sentences with linking verbs. Yes: His main source of pleasure is radio and television Consensus: Follow these rules in all writing. There is more leeway in speech, but one should always be careful to follow the rules.

Kind of, Sort of; Kind of a, Sort of a

1. Can the phrases kind of or sort of be used as an adverb in place of somewhat or rather? 2. Is it appropriate to use kind of a or sort of a? 3. When is it appropriate to use this kind vs. those kinds? Debate 1: Is it acceptable to replace adverbs such as rather or somewhat with the phrases kind of and sort of? TR1: In formal situations kind of and sort of should never replace the adverbs rather or somewhat Con1: In speech it is acceptable. In writing it is unacceptable, especially in formal situations. Ex: It was kind of/sort of cold outside. (acceptable in speech) It was rather cold outside. (correct, esp. in formal)

Divided usage items

2 or more forms that work/are reputable in standard English dialect. Bad, Badly Collective Nouns Different from, than Fewer, Less It's I, me One One of those who is, are Reason is because

Can/May Debate 2

2. Can you use both can and may to ask permission? TR: May is used for formal situations, can for informal. Both can Example: Informal: Can I use the bathroom? In informal situations, this is acceptable, although it does slightly suggest that one is asking about capability. Formal example: May I use the bathroom? Consensus: May expresses permission or authorization. Can expresses permission informal requests also be used to ask permission but is used informally. In formal scenarios it is polite to use may. *As a general rule, Can applies to what is possible and may applies to what is permissible Ex: Formal: May I say something? Informal: Can I go to the bathroom?

restrictive modifiers (clauses).

A restrictive modifier is a word, phrase, or dependent clause which modifies another element in a way which is essential to the meaning of the sentence. The girl who stole the bread is back. The ornament that the dog chewed was worth more than my car.

Transitive verb

A transitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like kick, want, paint, write, eat, clean, etc. Second, it must have a direct object, something or someone who receives the action of the verb. verb + DO Example: Daddy planted the orchid.

Intransitive verb

An intransitive verb is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like arrive, go, lie, run, sit, die, etc. Unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving the action. Verb w/o DO Example: Example: Joe never eats before leaving for school. -.- It would be transitive if it said "Joe never eats cereal before leaving for school.

Mood

Attitude of speaker towards action or state expressed in the verb.

Need history

Can, May Double Negative Ain't Sexist Language Split Infinitive

Can, May Debate 1

Can, may (could, might) *Divided Usage Debate: 1. Can you use both can and may to connote possibility? TR: You can only use may. Can refers to measuring ability and is less formal. May refers to the prospect of something. Examples: Can: I can go to the party. - This is definitive, I will/am able to go. May: I may go to the party. It emphasizes the possibility of going without committing to going or not. Consensus: Only may connotes possibility, not cam.

Subjunctive

Communicates a requirement, suggestion or desire. Hypothetical statements

Sexist Language Consensus:

Con: Use inclusive language in all writing and all speech. You can fix non-inclusive language by applying the following rules: 1. Make it plural Wrong: A writer must use his imagination Correct: All writers must use their imagination. 2. Using he or she Ex. A writer must use his or her imagination. 3. Eliminating pronouns A writer must use imagination. 4. Recast the sentence When writing, you must use imagination. 5. Additionally, another form of inclusive language is changing occupation names to exclude any reference to gender. Ex: fireman vs. firefighter And to delete the use if "ess" Ex: poetess, waitress, etc. Also, we should us parallel structure: No: I now pronounce you man and wife. Yes: I now pronounce you husband and wife

That vs. Which

D1: Can that and which be used interchangeably? TR1: That introduces all restrictive modifiers (clauses). Which introduces non-restrictive modifiers (clauses). Con1: Today, the use of both that and which to introduce a restrictive clause is perfectly acceptable. Ex: The book that is on the table is a great read. The book which is on the table is a great read. (acceptable) The book, which is on the table, is a great read. (non-r) D2: Can which be used to refer to the whole idea of a preceding clause? TR2: No, it is unclear. Con2: It is acceptable to use which to refer to the whole idea of a preceding clause, but be careful when the reference is so loose that, at first reading, the which seems to refer only to the preceding word. Ex: She liked the book, which was puzzling. (unclear) She liked eating spiders, which was odd. (clear) D3: Can that refer to people? TR3: Purists don't like to use that to refer to people. Although, there is no strict rule. Con3: It is fine to use that to refer to people. Ex3: The girl that walked by. The girl who walked by. 

Good/Well

D1: Can well be used as an adjective when used with the verb feel? TR1: Well is usually an adverb in standard English. Con1: When referring to the state of not being ill, well can be used as an adverb with the verb feel. Good can be used to convey feeling happy or pleasant Ex1: Yesterday I was feeling sick, but today I feel well. I just went for a run and I feel good! D2: Can good be used as an adverb in place of well? TR2: Good is usually an adjective in standard English. Con: Good as an adverb is acceptable in informal speech, but should be avoided in writing unless used in dialogue. Ex: Informal speech—He plays good. Writing—He plays well.

One (as an indefinite pronoun) Debate 1

D1: Should one be used as an indefinite pronoun instead of you, we, they, he, etc.? TR1: One should only be used in very formal writing. Con1: The use of one as an indefinite pronoun can be seen as overly formal. It is typically used in writing where you seems too informal. Ex: Formal—One should always follow one's heart. Informal—You should always follow your heart.

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs Debate 1 &2

D1: What is the proper way to make comparisons (to form comparative or superlatives)? TR1: 1 syllable words = -er for comparative taller (2) -est for superlative tallest (3) 2 syllable words = some take -er -est some take more or most (no double comparatives "most unkindest" 3 syllable = use more for comparative Ex: more energetic use most for superlative Ex: most energetic Con1: Follow the traditional rule. D2: Incomplete Comparison TR2: The thing compared should be comparable. Ex: His salary was lower than a shoe clerk. (X) His salary was lower that a show clerks. Con2: These are usually understood, but should be avoided.

Bad, Badly

D1: Which is more acceptable: using bad or badly after the verb feel? TR1: Linking verbs such as feels, seems, and tastes require the subject complement bad. Con1: Usage is divided. Both are acceptable. Ex1: I felt bad. I felt badly. D2: Can bad be used as an adverb? TR2: Bad = adjective badly = adverb Con2: In formal speech and writing, stick to the traditional rule. In informal speech and writing, using bad as an adverb is more acceptable. Ex2: Formal: She played badly. Informal: She played bad.

One (as an indefinite pronoun) Debate 2

D2: What pronoun should follow the subject one? TR2: One...one. The pronouns should remain consistent. Con2: If you start with one, follow with one. If you start with you, follow with you. Ex: Formal—One should always follow one's heart. Informal—You should always follow your heart.

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs Debate 3 &4

D3: Is it okay to use the superlative when comparing two? TR3: In comparing two things, use the comparative (more) Ex: John is taller than Tom, In comparing three or more things, use the superlative (most). Ex: John is the tallest of the boys. Con3: The superlative of two is alive and well in current English. It is common and acceptable in speech and general writing if it is clear. The traditional rule was never reflected in actual usage. Ex: John is the tallest of the two. D4: Is it okay to use the comparative when naming a quality that does not exist in degrees? (unique, perfect, black, dead, fatal, final) TR4: No. Con4: Fine to use but be careful in formal writing. In speech, follow instincts. It's a shibboleth that divides purists from others. Ex: The accident I saw was the most fatal I had ever seen. In order to form a more perfect union

Fewer/Less

D: Are fewer and less interchangeable? TR: Fewer = number among things that are counted Ex: fewer particles Less = amount or quantity among things that are measured Ex: less energy Con: Formal usage obeys the TR except with units of time, distance, money, or other items are being discussed. Ex: They won by less than one hundred votes. In general writing, less is applied to countable fairly often. Ex: I suggest they sell two less tickets to the public. Usage is divided.

Farther/Further

D: Are further and farther interchangeable? TR: farther = refers to physical distance further = refers to abstract relations of degree or extent Con: Farther should only be used to refer to physical distance. Further can now be used for the abstract and for physical distance. Further may be used for farther, but farther may not be used for further. Ex: He walked a little farther/further. With no further thought, he went to work.

If, Whether

D: Are if and whether interchangeable? TR: If=used for conditions Whether=used for alternatives or possibilities Con: Formally, one should follow this rule. Although, whether is considered more formal and if is more common informally. If is used as whether in informal situations. Ex: Implying an alternative or other possibility Let her know whether she is involved or not. Conditional—If she is invited, let her know. Informal—James didn't know if/whether Lily would arrive on Friday.

Between/Among

D: Can between and among be used interchangeably? TR: Between should be used with two objects. Among should be used with 3+ objects. Con: Among and between cannot be used interchangeably. Between shows one-to-one, concrete relationships. Ex: The debate between Harry, Ron, and Hermione a bout Krum became heated. Among expresses collective and general relations. Ex: The scene where Harry fought the dragon was popular among the crowd.

Disinterested/Uninterested

D: Can disinterested and uninterested be used interchangeably? TR: Disinterested = impartial, feeling no personal interest Ex: A judge must remain disinterested in the courtroom. Uninterested = having no interest, unconcerned Ex: Even though I invite Brad to do things with me, he seems uninterested in our friendship. Con: Most dictionaries list uninterested as a minor meaning of disinterested and its use is very common. If you want to use disinterested in it "impartial" meaning, just be sure your audience would understand your intent.

Imply, Infer

D: Can imply and infer be used interchangeably? TR: Imply = to indicate or suggest something without stating it expressly. To say something indirectly, or hint at something. Infer = to deduce or conclude from facts or indicators; to surmise or guess. Con: In careful speech and writing the distinction is and should be made. Ex: He implied that I ate the last gumdrop. (he suggested) He inferred that I ate the last gumdrop. (he guessed) 

Myself

D: Can myself be used in place of I or me? TR: Myself should never be used in place of I or me. The -self pronouns (himself, themselves, myself, etc.) are usually used as either reflexive or intensive pronouns. Reflexive pronoun: refers back to the subject Ex: She saw herself in the mirror. Intensive pronoun: used for emphasis Ex: They did it themselves. Con: Informally, and even formally, the -self pronouns are becoming widely accepted as substitutions for I after comparisons with than or as, and for me as the second pronoun of a compound object. Ex: Jane, as well as myself, worked on the project. Nobody knows that better than myself. He wished my brother and myself the best.

Who/Whom

D: Can who/whom be used interchangeably? TR: No, because who is a subject pronoun while whom is an object pronoun. Con: Who is widely accepted and used for both in speech, whom however, is not. The distinction should always be made in formal writing. Ex: Subject pronoun—She asked who was going to be the pianist. Object pronoun—You gave whom the book? Object of a preposition—The man to whom I gave the book.

Subjunctive mood

D: Do we need to use the subjunctive? remember the chart even though its literally impossible TR: Use it to express: 1. Requirement I insist that he go now. 2. Suggestion I suggest that he go now. 3. Desire I wish that he go now. 4. Hypothetical statements If he were to go now... 5. Statements contrary to fact He wishes he were asked to go. 6. To retain intended meaning I agree that he go now vs. I agree that he goes now. Con: Today, modal auxiliaries often take the place of the subjunctive tense. Today, the subjunctive is mainly a question of taste more that correctness.

One of those who is, are

D: In a sentence, does a pronoun need to agree with the closest noun? TR: Yes. A pronoun refers to its nearest noun. Ex: I am one of those types who are clumsy. Who is the subject of the verb fell, so the pronoun antecedent types is the closest noun. If you reword it, it also works: Ex: Of those types who are clumsy, I am one. Con: DIVIDED USAGE. The more common, liberal view is that a pronoun refers to its logical antecedent, in this case "one" Ex: I am one of those types who is clumsy. Either format is equally appropriate EXCEPT: when there is a qualifying word like only in which case the pronoun is singular. Ex: Carlos is the only one of those students who is tall.

Ain't

D: Is ain't an acceptable contraction for am not? TR: Ain't is non-standard English. It should not be used in conversational writing or speech. Okay to use: as a colloquialism in very informal speech. Con: It is a still a shibboleth. Avoid using it in speech or writing (formal and informal). When it's okay: for humor or tongue-in-cheek by the educated, only when everyone know the speaker knows the rule and is using it on purpose. Ex: humor--Ain't nobody got time for that!

Alright

D: Is alright an acceptable alternative for all right? TR: Always use all right. Con: Alright is acceptable in informal writing, but all right is considered the standard for formal writing. In speech, no distinction is made. Some usage experts claim that alright has developed a different meaning than all right. Ex: Formal and correct—I hope your family is all right. Informal and correct—He was grumpy alright. 

And/Or

D: Is and/or okay to use? TR: Avoid it because it is ambiguous. Con: Okay to use—in informal English with 3 choices (avoid when possible) and in legal documents (to create loopholes). Not okay—In formal language (speech and writing) and when there are more than 3 choices (too ambiguous). Ex: Formal—You can eat apples or oranges or both. (good) Too ambiguous—You can bring your mom, dad, grandparent, and/or guardian. (bad) Informal Speech: You can eat apple and/or oranges. (OK)

Different from/Different Than

D: Is it acceptable to use different from in place of different than? TR: Both are acceptable. Con: Different from is preferred in formal usage. Different than is standard in American and British usage, especially when a clause follows than. It is divided usage. Ex: The rich are different from you and me. Bob had a different approach than what we expected.

Reason is because

D: Is it acceptable to use reason is because? TR: Because means for the reason that; therefore, it is considered redundant to use both in a sentence. Con: Reason is because is redundant. However, it is acceptable in general usage, written or spoken. Still, it is less common in formal writing. Ex: Formal—The reason he failed is that he didn't study. Informal—The reason he failed is because he didn't study. 

Like, As

D: Is the distinction between like and as necessary when making comparisons? TR: Very formally, always use as to introduce a clause of comparison and like as a preposition. As + Noun + Verb Habit grips me as an octopus does. Like + Noun Habit grips me like an octopus. Con: In formal settings, stick with the traditional rule. In informal settings, it is becoming more acceptable to use like to introduce clauses of comparison. Ex: Apples taste good, like any apple should.

Than

D: What pronoun case should follow than? TR: Than is a conjunction, so the subject case should follow. Con: In formal writing the subject case should follow, unless it is being used compared with an object in the sentence, then use objective case. Informally than can be used as a preposition, with either case depending on verb. Ex: He was given a lighter sentence than I. (subject) The judge gave him a lighter sentence than me. (objective)

A, An

D: When should we use a or an? What do we use with multi-syllable words beginning with the h unstressed (historical, Hispanic)? TR: a + consonant sound (a dog, a horse) An + vowel sound (an elephant, an honor) Con: Conservative writing: assume the h is pronounced (use a) Speech: either is acceptable, but depends on the pronunciation *Fun fact time: British say "an historical" Ex: That's a hysterical story! What an honor.

Only (placement as adverb)

D: Where should only be placed in a sentence if it is an adverb? TR: Only should be placed directly before the word or phrase it modifies. Con: While we need to be careful to follow the traditional rule in writing, in speech only can be placed before the verb as well. In some cases, the placement of only can change the meaning of the sentence. Ex: Writing—In this bicentennial year, let us praise only famous men. Speech—Let us only praise famous men.

It's I, me

D: Which is correct, it's I or it's me? TR: It's I is correct. Con: Most authorities say to follow the strict rule in formal writing. Whereas, it's me is the correct informal usage. It's me is the preferred choice in speech and informal writing. It is divided usage. Ex: Formal—It's I who took the initiative. (correct) Speech—"It's me! Let's get this party started!" On phone - "Hi, it's me! How are you?"

Kind of a, sort of a Debate 2:

Debate 2: Is it acceptable to use kind of a and sort of a ? TR2: Using a and an after kind of and sort of is unnecessary and incorrect. Con2: Again, in speech it is acceptable to insert a and an after kind of and sort of, but in formal writing it should be avoided. Ex: FormaL: That kind of book Informal: That kind of a book. ? Ex: Incorrect: We only have one kind of a dessert. A already implies singularity. Correct: We only have one kind of dessert.

Kind of sort of Debate 3

Debate 3. : When is it appropriate to use this kind vs. those kinds? TR3: When using this kind or those kinds, the respective noun tenses must agree. Ex: These kind of men have their uses. (okay in speech) These kinds of men have their uses. (correct, esp. in formal) Consensus 3: When kind is singular, the following nouns must also be singular. When kind is plural, the following nouns must also be plural. In addition, this and that must be paired with the singular form, while these and those must be paired with the plural form. Informally, "These kind of" and "those kind of" are acceptable in speech and forms of creative writing. They should be avoided in formal speech and writing.

Lay, Lie

Debate: Can lay and lie be used interchangeably? TR: No. Lay=to place and is a transitive verb (w/DO) Lie=to rest and is an intransitive verb (no DO) Con: When it's not okay: formal writing When it's okay: speech and informal writing Ex: Formal present—Lay the book on the table. Formal present—Lie down. Formal past—He lay on the couch.

Collective Nouns

Def: A collective noun is the name of a group, singular in form, but plural in implication. Ex: family, crew, clan, class D: Is it necessary to follow the rule regarding collective nouns? TR: Use a singular verb and a singular pronoun with a collective noun when the group is thought of as a single unit, and a plural verb and pronoun when the group is thought of as a number of individuals. Con: Divided usage between the British and Americans. Americans should follow the traditional rule. Ex: The team took its place on the field. (team seen as unit) The team took their places on the field. (team seen as individuals) 

Split Infinitive

Def: An infinitive is said to be split when an adverb or adverbial element splits the to from its following verb. D: Are split infinitives acceptable? TR: Infinitives should not be split. Con: Okay to separate using a single adverb, but should not be separated by a lengthy interruption. Ex: To boldly go where none have gone before. They were eager to freely, without restriction of any kind, take on the privileges and responsibilities of adulthood. (X)

Sexist Language Debate and History

Def: Inclusive language is language that includes everyone and excludes no one. D: Is it really important to use inclusive language? TR: Use the generic he for 3rd person singular pronouns. Generic he: Each student should bring his book to the test. H: Before 1960s—Generic he referred to general society 1960s and 70s: The 2nd Feminist Movement demanded inclusive language. 1980s: People realized the generic he was sexist. Inclusive language became the accepted usage.

Double Negative

Def: When two negatives are used to form a single negative thought. D: Can we use a double negative in English? TR: No. Two negatives make a positive. H: O.E.—2 negatives = more negative This was acceptable (Chaucer, Shakespeare) Late 1700s: Lowth decided to follow the Latin rule (2 negatives=positive) The educated stopped using them, while the uneducated continued their use. Now, it's a shibboleth. DANGGGGG Con: Two types of double negatives: Emphatic double negative Not okay in formal or informal speech Not appropriate: If you don't get no cake, you're not welcome here. Veiled positive Accetable in standard speech Appropriate: I can't not try that delicious cake.

Ain't History

H: Ain't comes from the contraction amn't (am not). It appeared in the 1700s. The masses began using it form other contractions: are not, is not, have not Linguistics did not like it being used so loosely, so they banned its use. The educated stopped using it, but the uneducated continued its use. It's a shibboleth.

Agreement

In most cases, a pronoun refers back to a noun that appeared previously in the text or conversation. That noun is called the antecedent of the pronoun and the noun and pronoun must agree as to whether they are singular or plural. Let us look at some of the problem areas of pronouns and their usage, including indefinite pronouns, gender issues, subject pronouns, and object pronouns.

Intensive Pronoun

Intensive pronouns are used to add emphasis to the subject or antecedent of the sentence. You'll usually find the intensive pronoun right after the noun or pronoun it's modifying, but not necessarily. The intensive/reflexive pronouns include myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural. Ex. The dog chases the cat. - Dog and chases are both singular. The dogs chase the cat. - Dog and chase are both plural. Ex. The statistics show... versus that statistic shows

Pronoun Reference Agreement (there are 5 things)

TR1: It must be crystal clear which noun (antecedent) is being replaced by the pronoun. Ex: Matt told George that he didn't know anything. (X) Matt told George that George didn't know anything. (Correct) TR2: Pronouns must agree with their antecedent in number and gender. Ex: Each student should pit their name on the exam. (X) Each student should put his or her name on the exam. (correct) TR3: Ambiguous references occur when the pronoun could refer to two possible antecedents. Ex: When Gloria set the case on the glass table, it broke. (X) When Gloria set the vase on the glass table, the vase broke. (Correct) TR4: Two types of Implied reference— A pronoun must refer to a specific antecedent, to a word that is implied but not present in the sentence. After braiding Ann's hair, Sue decorated them with ribbons. (X) After braiding Ann's hair, Sue decorated the braids with ribbons. (correct) Modifiers, such as possessive adjectives, cannot serve as antecedents. In Euripides' Medea, he describes the plight of a woman rejected by her husband. (X) In Medea, Euripides describes the plight of a woman rejected by her husband. (correct) TR5: The pronouns this, that, which, and it should ordinarily refer to specific antecedents rather than to whole ideas or sentences. Ex: Jan was jealous of Sally's money and had taken this way of showing it. (X) Jane was jealous of Sally's money and Jan chose a mean way to show her feelings. (correct)

Subject case

The subjective case is the case used for a noun or pronoun which is the subject of a verb. For example (subjective case shaded): For example, Danny, he they

Reference

What is the pronoun referring to?

Indefinite Pronouns

Words such as each, everyone, either, neither, anybody, somebody, everybody and no one. They appear to be singular and so they require singular pronouns. Ex: Each participant thought they were treated fairly. When teachers can't be in class, they find substitutes. Everyone should mind his own business.

Collective Noun:

a noun that denotes a group of individuals

Modal auxiliaries

a verb that is used with another verb to express a mood or tense. Ex. Can could shall should will would may might must

Reflexive pronoun

reflexive pronoun is normally used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject. Each personal pronoun (such as I, you,he and she) has its own reflexive form: I — myself.