Emotion Final Exam

reappraisal

emotional _____ as compared to expressive suppression, is a powerful regulation strategy that influences and changes how we interact with others.

mimicry

emotional __________ is a central ingredient of friendship. feelings of similarity are a basic driving force of the formation of friendship. we feel close to others who share our attitudes, beliefs, preferences. This term is the basic way in which friends build common ground and become closer. For instance, laughs of friends but not strangers mimic each other

tribalism

fear of threat may be the basis for?

marry, 50

80-90% of individuals in countries such as the U.S. and Canada ________, and yet more enter long-term romantic partnerships. The emotional lives of intimate partners will, however, change- not always for the better. divorce rates in many industrialized nations hovers around _____% , and with levels of marital dissatisfaction also being high

adaptations to negative environments

A final view about emotion based disorders in children is that the psychological patterns that are viewed as disordered by society actually reflect strategic _______________ that children have experienced. Propose that children reared in risky env. develop insecure attachments, opportunisitc ways of interacting, and rapid sexual development as ways of succeeding in the risky contexts that they will likely encounter. when not confronted with this degree of competition or adversity, their survival orientation is viewed as maladaptive.

genetic, gene environment correlation

According to one study, several aspects of parenting has _____ influence- but a mechanism for which intergnerational transmission of parenting is likely caused by _____________, parenting is , in part, elicited by genetically-based characteristics of children

interaction effect

Although genetic factors clearly influence emotional experience, they operate in conjunction with environmental effects. For example, children who were carriers of the short 5-HTT had more depressive symptoms but only after experiencing maltreatment. This is an example of an?

continuities occur

Are children who are angry and easily frustrated in childhood more likely to become hostile adults? are inhibited, fearful children likely to develop into restrained, timid, adults?

executive functions

As children mature and experience different opportunities to learn to regulate their emotions, their abilities of ___________ improve. This refers to a set of processes involved in being able to plan in relation to long-term goals and other people, to negotiate the unexpected, and to deal with dangers and with immediate emotions. For example, being able to disengage from an emotionally upsetting event by shifting attention elsewhere is an effective way for infants to regulate their social and emotional experience. the parasympathetic nervous system is important for change in attention

negative, scaffolding

By discussing children's emotions, parents directly coach children on ways to cope with emotions and help clarify emotion causes. discussion about _______ events appears to be of particular importance. given that children struggle with making sense of negative emotions, it is possible that mothers' elaboration concerning their children's past negative emotional experiences may help them construct rich memories of these experiences, _________ emotional understanding of an event

negative

By the time children reach age 2, parents are decreasing their response to ______ emotions and hence inducting their children into a culture in which it is less acceptable to cry to achieve goals. As infants become toddlers, parents make complex evaluations about how distressed their child is, what the context is,how important the situation is in teaching a lesson, and so forth. being negatively reactive to children's anger and sadness is the response most strongly associated with poor outcomes in children. when mothers respond to children's negative emotions in a problem-focused way, wherin the child is encouraged to, or to help and deal with the source of the problem, they foster children's constructive coping. minimization of children's emotions, or negative and dismissing responses, have been linked to avoidant emotion regulation and enhanced displays of anger in parent-child interactions

7

Fear most likely emerges at ____ months with the ability to crawl. think visual cliff. Children begin to exhibit fearful responses to strangers at 4 months, and this increases until about 12 or 16 months. Fear response is associated with children's temperament and mother's sensitivity. from section

pessimism, optimism

Different emotions are associated with more specific strains of ________ or _________. for example, Keltner et al asked whether people feeling angry or sad would judge different events to be more likely in their future. they reasoned that angry people, attuned to the blameworthy actions of others, would judge unfair acts caused by others to be frequent in the future. in contrast, sad people, attuned to situational causes of negative outcomes, should judge negative life events caused by situational factors as more likely. this is in line with theory of affect as information.

vagal tone

During an emotionally arousing event good _______ implies successful regulation and is linked to attentional control and emotion regulation in infancy

8, memory capacity, visual discrimination

Fear occurs in children at _____ months. fearfullness requires the ability to compare a potentially threatening encounter with similar events in memory. Therefore, fear reflects, among other things, an increase in ___________ and __________

non-kin

From an evolutionary standpoint, friendship presents something of a conundrum: they require cooperation with _________. Trivers proposes that cooperative alliances like friendship have merged in human evolution, and are successful in our more immediate lives, to the extent that there is reciprocal giving and affection. Emotions such as love and gratitude promote cooperative, affectionate alliances between friends.

2-3 months, 2, 3

From section at _______ months, comes the emergence of joy/happiness (smiling) in response to: stroking (___ months), interactions with caregivers, attention from others, invitation to play, mastery of goals (___ months) function of these emotions may be to engage caregivers

two months, newborns

From section before ___________, babies show undifferentiated distress/irritability (crying), general pleasure (satiation, attention, interest in environment), disgust seen in ________ in response to sour taste.

toxic emotional behaviors, criticism, defensiveness, stonewalling, contempt

Gottman and Levenson followed the marriages of 79 couples. They identified what they called "the four horsemen of the Apocalypse" or _________ that are most damaging and most likely predict divorce. These four are? some 93% of couples who showed evidence of toxic behaviors were divorced 14 years later.

secure, avoidant, anxious

I find it easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about someone getting to close is ________ attachment style. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close. I find it difficult to trust completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on anyone. I am nervous when anyone gets close, and often, romantic partners want me to be more intimate than I am comfortable being. this is ________ attachment style I find that others are reluctant to get close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't stay with me. I want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away. this is _______ attachment style

Big Five model of personality, Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness

In adulthood, the _______________ have become very influential. Its five traits are: ___________, which involves the emotions of anxiety, hostility, and depression; _________, which includes warmth, gregariousness, and tendencies to positive emotions; _________, which includes trust, straighforwardness, and compliance; _____________, which includes achievement striving, self-discipline, and dutifulness; and ________________ to fantasy, esthetics, feelings, ideas.

meditation

In the East, the question of how to live without being affected by emotions of suffering was the problem that practices of _______ were developed to solve

temperament

In the tripartite model of problematic __________ consisting of: (1)impulsivity-unmanageability (2) irritability-difficultness, (3) behavioral inhibition - fearfulness --> can manifest in psychopathology effects on parenting ei coercive parenting

Neuroticism, Extraversion

Individuals who score higher in __________ react more strongly to negative events, where those that score high on _______________ react more strongly to positive events. _________ is a bias towards making negative appraisals, especially those that promote fear, anxiety, anger, sadness, and guilt. _________ is a bias towards making positive appraisals.

strange situation, attachment styles, securely attached, insecurely attached, disorganized

Mary Aimsworth developed a test of infants' responses to a situation that was strange to them called the ____________. it is based on observations of infants' emotional reactions to the fear-inducing circumstance of being separated from the mother, and then the experience of being reunited with her. From this test Aimsworth identified three different ________ which include _____, _______, and _______. Attachment security is associated with many different aspects of socioemotional functioning later in childhood. For example, it has been associated with stronger peer relationships, enhanced emotion understanding and social problem-solving.

organizational, informational

Oatley and Johnson-Laird proposed that emotions involve two different kinds of signaling in the nervous system. one kind occurs automatically and derives from primary appraisal. in evolutionary terms it is old, simple, and carries no specific information about objects in the env. it is ___________. it sets the brain into a particular mode of organization, or readiness, along with an urge to act in line with this readiness, specific to the particular basic emotion. it is a quick prompt toward the kind of thing to do next. The second kind of signal derives from secondary appraisal. it is ___________. it allows us to make mental models of the events and their possible causes and implications. on the basis of these two kinds of signal we act in accordance both with how we feel and with what we know. normally these signals occur together to produce an emotional feeling with a consciously known cause and object. These signals can be dissociated as in split brain patients or when taking drugs which induce emotional states without changing events.

emotion regulation

People high in Neuroticism show less __________ (related to lower use of strategies to repair negative emotions) while people high in Extraversion show more adaptive (same term)_______ (related to the perceived ability to maintain or savor positive emotions)

affective forecasting, inaccurate , overestimate

People's predictions about their future emotional states - and they are notoriously ________ People generally know what type of emotion they'll feel in response to a given event (e.g., winning the lottery, losing a limb), but they generally __________ the intensity and duration of both positive and negative emotions.

broaden and build

Positive moods can prompt us to think more flexibly and some have argued that the function of positive emotions is to _______ our resources. positive emotions enable more creative thought and aid formation of important bonds. the creativity associated with positive emotion that Isen found builds schemas and intellectual resources by enhancing our perspective taking, our novel ideas, and our learning. helps us build interpersonal resources by motivating us to approach others, to cooperate, and to express affection.

modeling, social referencing, and emotion contagion

What three processes are involved in observational learning of emotionality? parents teach children about what emotions are acceptable and how to express and regulate them

18

Self conscious emotions begin around ______ months. They include empathy, concern-related altruism, embarrassment and empathy. For instance, a child may respond empathicaly to another's distress, they may show sad facial expressions, approach/comforting behaviors, and verbal concern, for instance, "you okay, mommy?"

self-conscious evaluative emotions

Sometime between the second and third year of life a more complex set of emotions is expressed, including pride, shame, guilt, and regret. these have been referred to as the _____________. The capacity for such appraisals (the ability to compare one's behavior to some social standard) is not present before the third year of life. Thus, by the time children are 3 they possess an extensive emotional repertoire

serotonin transporter (5-HTT)

The gene that has been most extensively studied in relation to emotional development is the ___________ gene. An region of the gene was short in length was associated with reduced transcription, which in turn altered the level of serotonin uptake into lymphoblasts. This short allele explained almost 10% of the variability in neurotic behavior. individuals with either the s/s or the s/l version of the gene tended to show more amygdala activity in response to fearful or threatening stimuli. Thus variation in the 5-HTT gene seems to be particularly important for processing emotional information. This focus on negative information may put individuals at risk for developing certain disorders. carriers of short allele also have more difficulty disengaging from positive and negative stimuli compared to carriers of the long allele, thus pointing to possible difficulties in emotion regulation. variation in this gene seems to alter suceptibility to stress

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), emotions, ACEs

The more adverse childhood experiences, the more likely the individual is to suffer from ischemic heart disease as an adult. This data was derived from the study of _________, which has been linked in a rapidly growing body of literature to a wide range of adolescent and adult mental and physical health problems. In one study, links between the number of types of adverse early experiences (maltreatment, witnessing violence, poverty, parental separation) and a range of problematic health conditions have been noted, including substance abuse, smoking ,poor mental health, and heart disease. This relationship is partly explained by _______. Feelings of anger adn depression increase with number of _______ experienced. After accounting for these emotions, the relationship between ACEs and heart disease is much reduced.

parents' interpretations

The way that parents interpret and respond to children's expression of emotion is central to the emotional patterns that children develop. research has found that ____________ of their children's emotions was associated with the parent's attachment styles

genes, shared environment, non-shared environment

There is little influence of _______ upon attachment style, instead it is thought to be ________ and ______ factors.

others

Thinking kindly towards ______ increases positive emotions over time

cumulative risk

When one env. risk is present, other risks are likely present. when adversities in childhood were summed, the resulting distribution was sig. different from the distribution that would have occurred if adversities had been independent of one another. a count of the number of adversities faced by children is called _________. as the number of risks in the env. increases, so do the physiological indicators of stress and the likelihood of showing emotion-based disorders.

lower, upper, lower

_____ class tend to be better judges than _____ class people of their own friends' negative emotions. ________ class also respond with greater compassion in terms of self report and autonomic physiology to the suffering of others,

securely

______ attached children cope better with stress than children in the other categories. these children do not show elevations in cortisol during distressing situations, whereas insecure toddlers do.

power, high power, low power

______ influences how individuals respond to the emotions of others. because high power people are less dependent on others, and low powered people tend to be careful in monitoring others emotions, differences in accuracy emerge. ___________ were less responsive to others' emotions and ___________ were more likely to mimic their friends' emotions than vice-versa. As well compassion is decreased when partner disclosed more distressing individuals for high power people. may be due to lack of attention directed at others' emotions.

universal

______ interventions tend to be preemptive strategies that entire populations or communities use with the aim of preventing adverse child outcomes. often address social roots and potentially benefit a lot of people- but hard to judge potential impact, expensive, not taylored to individual needs etc

power, class, status

______ refers to capacity to influence. ________ refers to education, money, and prestige. ______ refers to respect you enjoy in peer's eyes. These are universal to all groups, emerges early at age 2. these shift from one context to the next

externalizing, internalizing

_______ behavior is characterized by disruptive behavior and _____ is characterized primarily by anxiety and depressed mood (acting in). Children who show high levels of both are particularly impaired, and these patterns are identifiable as early as age 6.

social support

_______ can serve as a protective factor for depression when one suffers an adverse life event

power

_______ is a motive we call assertion, the desire to gain influence. its part of every relationship, and perhaps part of most social interactions

income inequality

_______ is strongly associated with a wide array of psychological, social, and health indicators.

anger

_______ occurs after happiness at 4 to 6 months. It is usually in response to the blockage of one's goals- an emotion reaction to obstacles

threat-related, hostile attribution bias

________ bias involved individuals high in anxiety who are more sensitive to threat-related stimuli than they are the neutral stimuli, and they allocate more attention to such stimuli than do non-anxious individuals. Biases in the way in which anxious individuals perceive their environments significantly affect day-to-day living angry individuals are more likely to blame the antagnoist and identify another person as an antagonist than less angry individuals. This has been called the __________, a bias that has been demonstrated to contribute to aggressive behavior and problematic interactions.

gratitude

________ is a sentiment that holds people together, in the spirit of a common cause. It is the glue of cooperative social living in non-kin; it is a moral emotion because it serves as a barometer; it helps us keep track of which friends are generous and which are not. It also motivates altruistic and affectionate behavior, produces generosity, the favors, and the expressions of appreciation that are critical to long-term commitments among friends. This emotion is a powerful determinant of prosocial behavior (study in which confederate fixed a computer problem). Expression of this emotion acts a a reward and reinforces affectionate, cooperative behavior.

gratitude

________ is the positive emotion one feels when another person has intentionally given, or attempted to give, one something of value. function is to nurture social relationships by encouraging reciprocal, prosocial behavior between benefactor and recipient. even when its costly short term and not just for social norms

molecular genetics, serotonin transporter (5-HTT)

________ link specific genes to certain kinds of behavior. The gene that has been most extensively studied in relation to emotional development is the ____________ gene.

women

________ tend to report more intense, longer lasting emotions, more complex emotion vocabularies, better able to judge emotions in others, express emotions more clearly, smile, gesture, laugh, make eye contact more but no difference in physiology - but cry 6X more.

self-conscious emotions

_________ begin around 18 months. They include empathy, concern-related altruism, embarrassment, and envy.

cognitive behavior therapy

_________ is a treatment which focuses on children's cognitive distortions, emotion regulation, and social problem solving (hostile attribution bias, changing negative appraisal biases in depression. This treatment is child and parent focused.

synchrony, moment-by-moment

_________ is about timing one's own behavior in relation to a baby's. it refers to _______________ interactions. example is when babies want to gaze at mother, the mother gazes back. non-synchronized would be a mother vocolizes while babies were asleep and unresponsive when babies are vocalized etc

capitalizing on the good

_________ refers to noting what is good in a relationship, and in daily life. responding to others' positive experiences in engaged ways rather than silence, disengagement.

socioeconomic conditions, resources, stress reactions, health behaviors

_________, including poverty, are among the best established predictors of mental and physical health in children and adults. researchers have argued that socioeconomic status influences development through three pathways: (a) inequitable allocation of _______ like nutrition, healthcare, housing, and education; (b) ________ (may be the most important link between emotion-based disorders and SES conditions) caused by parenting, environmental hazard, adverse life events, violence, and neighborhood problems, and (c) _______ like tobacco, alcohol, drug use and exercise. It is not just about income, but also about social inequality. poor socioeconomic conditions increase parenting problems

friendships

__________ across group boundaries have been found to reduce the negative emotions that escalate tensions between people from different groups

elevated power, reduced power

__________ produces goal directed, approach orientation to the world and greater positive emotions of all kinds. and emotion based misperception. ________ produces vigilant attentiveness to threats and others to navigate social environment, inhibit behavior, predicts increased fear, anxiety, self conscious emotions such as shame, embarrassment.

reactive processes, evocative processes, selective processes

__________ refer to our emotional reactions to stimuli, _______ refers to how others perceive us, and ________ refers how we construe and enter into life's situations.

behavior genetic studies

____________ of twins tell us of combinations of genes that all contribute to specific behaviors. these studies are useful because they give an overall picture of the heritability of certain traits. studies suggest that there are moderate to strong genetic contributions to emotionality over eraly and middle childhood, and these effects extend into adulthood

healthy relationships

_____________ are one of the strongest determinants of happiness.

happy

_________workers more productive, better job performance, leads to boost in creative thought, problem solving, makes for more integrative negotiators Emotionally intelligent managers have more satisfied teams

multilevel persepctive, distal, proximal

a __________ is important for understanding the development of emotion-based disorders in children. children are influenced by multiple levels of their environments, including macro-influences such as cultures, neighborhoods, and schools (called ______ factors), and those that are closer and more immediate to the child, such as their relationships with family and friends (called _____Factors).

violently, anger , disgust

a capacity to act ______ against members of out-groups is embedded deep in our nature and is part of our primate heritage. The lessons of genocide challenge us to think about how emotions of anger and rage, which are potent in producing violent behavior, derive from antisocial motivations Berkowitz concluded that _____ sparks violence. _______ is another toxic emotions between groups, and can fuel violence. groups in conflict will dehumanize one another with references to each other as vermin- guides irrational beliefs that contact with out-group contaminates. disgust can amplify prejudicial feelings.

anger, sympathy, embarrassment, shame, contempt , group pride and rage, awe, disgust

a core emotion associated with fairness is ______ while a core emotion associated with harm is _______. core emotions associated with hierarchy and authority is _________. core emotion associated with loyalty is _______. ________ promotes humility, small self, triggered by reminders of collective (cathedrals, marches, political rallies). a prime emotion associated with purity is ______.

internal working model, bias

a core idea of Bowlby's theorizing was that children's emotional interactions with caregivers lead them to build an ___________ of relationships. it is a mental model, or set of beliefs, of what to expect in an intimate relationship. Can the other person be trusted? can on expect comfort and love from others. evident before language, but if insecure attached child could speak, she would say "when i am in danger, i must be wary and rely on myself" These internal models form the basis of persisting emotional _______, which is at the heart of individual differences in emotion. They start in relationships with caregivers, they are somewhat resistant to change, and they affect all later relationships. each intimate relationship leaves an imprint- a template of how to understand intimate relationships and how to act in them subsequently.

continuity

a critical test of the idea that attachment forms a template for subsequent intimate relationships would be to measure attachment styles of children at age 1, and then use the Adult Attachment Interview to measure the ________ of styles of relating into adulthood. one study found that 64% of them maintained the corresponding style of attachment. Although, this finding has not been found in all studies. - lack of continuity could be explained by life events

intense

a firm conclusion from research is that we are better able to recall events that were emotionally _______ for us

different

a mood acquired in one situation can affect a judgment made about something entirely _________.

rumination

a pattern typical of depression, is the dwelling on symptoms of distress in a passive and repetitive manner rather than problem solving

affective forecasting

a shocking gap has been found between what we consciously think about ourselves and our less conscious , automatic emotional processes.

congruent

according to Bower's account, we should be better able to learn material that is _______ with our current emotion, because it is integrated into active memory structures and more easily retrieved. for example, when happy, remembering more facts relevant to a fictional character's happiness in a story.

moral judgements, heuristic, deliberative, sharing with others

after an initial intuitive emotion, Haidt proposes that slow, effortful, and deliberative reasoning processes, followed by discussion, become influences on our ___________. Recall the argument for a primary, __________, appraisal process (System 1), a slower, __________, secondary appraisal (System 2), and a third stage of __________. when we encounter morally relevant events, we contemplate the evidence, we consider logical and ethical principles, and we debate the consequences of different actions. Emotional intuitions feed into these deliberative and discursive processes.

forgive

alongside compassionate love, it is important in relationships to ________. This involves a shift in feeling toward someone who has done you harm, away from the ideas about revenge and avoidance toward a more positive understanding of the humanity of the person. it is not a mindless glossing over, but instead to recognize the other is human. it has shown to reduce blood pressure and anger.

relationships

although research shows us the endogenous strengths of children such as good temperament and stable vagal tone protect children, its the quality of ________ in childhood and adulthood that is probably the most sig. factor in helping people cope with adversity

distraction

among emotion regulatory practices at the attentional stage is _________, such as looking away during a scary scene in a movie.

emotional Stroop test

among several ways of exploring how an anxious-making threat can capture attention is the __________. words are shown that are neutral or that have emotional significance, to see if people are slowed down in naming the colors of words with emotional significance.

anxiety

among the most studied effects of emotion on attention are those that concern ________ because it narrows attention. it can even come to monopolize processing capacities and even whole lives

psychopathy, attentional, emotional

an emotional disorder with strong links to aggression. It has two core components (1) callousness together with lack of emotional connection to others- unable to form emotional commitments with others and displays a lack of empathy (2) antisocial behavior associated with thrill seeking, fearlessness, impulsivity, lack of anger control, antisocial lifestyle, and lack of guilt or remorse. two theories (1) an __________ bias- focuses only on what he or she is doing and is less affected by new information. impulsivity and poor avoidance due to this deficit. (2) deficit of __________ processing- involves dysfunctioning of amygdala and PFC and potential punishment is effected.

styles of processing, system 1, system 2, positive, anxious

another perspective is that different emotions and moods promote different ____________. when you feel guilty or angry, grateful or enthusiastic, you engage in different forms of reasoning , of weighing evidence, and of drawing conclusions. thought that two types of system are at work, system 1 and system 2. ____________ is fast, involuntary, and based on heuristics. _________ is more slow and deliberate. the heuristic response often gets in first. or preference is for the first system to make decisions. ________ moods tend to facilitate use of heuristic rather than deliberative thinking. _____ moods facilitate deliberative thought and careful attention to details.

forgiveness

another solution to conflict between groups is one that we have seen is powerful in intimate relations and families: ______ , which has its roots in reconciliation processes nonhuman primates routinely engage in to maintain peaceful communities.

atypical emotional response

another view is that children with a disorder react to events with _________: crying when nothing has happened, or being angry or contemptuous when someone makes a friendly gesture. Their emotional responses are unsettling and other people have difficulty understanding them. not using some emotions more than others, but that certain emotions seem unusual. ex. being as shy as a 2 year old at age 11

dimension

another way of conceptualizing emotion-based disorders, often preferred by psychologists, is to view symptoms as varying on a _______, such as the tendency to express anger, where there is a quantitative rather than qualitative distinction between psychopathology and nomral functioning.

events, cognitive, preferential, bias

are emotions rational? a first meaning has to do with whether the emotions are based on substantive beliefs?: do beliefs and appraisals that support our emotions correspond to actual ________ in the world? Two, do emotions help individuals function in the world. most occurrences of emotions help people act adaptively. Do emotions guide perceptions, attention, memory, and judgement (_____________ processes) in principled, organized, and constructive ways? emotions structure perception, direct attention, give __________ access to certain memories, and ______ judgments in ways that generally help people in ways that we recognize as valuable to our humanity

4-6

at ____ months, anger emerges esp. in response to arm restraint. but more children expressed surprise than anger. most babies show anger by 12 months.

4, cortisol

at _____ months, infants make sad expressions. sad facial expression are associated with increased ________ levels.

3 years

at ________ years • Pride, shame, guilt, regret • Involve beliefs about the situation that elicits the emotion. • Pride requires belief that goal has been reached • Shame involves holding belief that one has disappointed others • Counterfactual thinking (e.g., regret) • Theory of mind

humanity

awe primes ?

positive, negative

because power is associated with increased rewards and freedom, those who enjoy positions of elevated power tend to experience greater ______ emotion in different situations than do low- power people. People in positions of low power, by contrast, attuned to potential threats in the social environment, are more likely to experience _______ emotions like sadness, shame, guilt, and anxiety.

social referencing, visual cliff

by the end of the first year of life children start to move about independently. This is accompanied by ________, which is the ability to use emotional displays of others to guide one's own behavior. the _________ provides an example. IN this experiment, 12 month olds were more likely to cross the visual cliff -- a fear provoking situation-- when their mother looked happy, but were unlikely to cross when their mother looked fearful.

Differential susceptibility

certain people are genetically sensitive to their environments, for better or worse. this view is more research supported

Diathesis-Stress

certain people are genetically vulnerable but this will only affect the individual if they experiences stress. For example, individuals who are genetically vulnerable for depression aren't at increased risk for depression unless paired with life- stressors (e.g., abuse)

conflict

children exposed to serious and prolonged _____ between parents are at increased risk of developing externalizing and internalizing disorders. externalizing problems in children occur before parents separate are are related to conflict before divorse. as well continuing problems after divorce are more associated with negative outcomes

social skills, theory of mind development

children in multiple child families demonstrate better __________ and better _______. siblings play a protective role for children acing early risk. presence of older siblings has been associated with relatively good mental health.

mixed emotions

children who had higher levels of play complexity at age 6 were more adept at understanding ____________ 7 months later

not

class-related differences give rise to the tendency for lower-class, as compared with upper-class, people to respond to others' emotions empathically, in a study of friendship, Kraus found that over the course of several interactions, the emotions of the lower-class friend came to resemble those of the upper-class friend, but this pattern of empathic response was______ observed in how the upper-class friend responded to the emotions of the lower-class friend.

ambivalent (anxious) attachment

clingy unable to cope with the caregiver's absence seeks constant reassurance Results from excessively protective parenting

response inhibition

cortical control over arousal develops across childhood, beginning with the growth of rudimentary forebrain inhibitory centers. __________ affords children the ability to regulate overt expressions of emotions and tolerate arousing situations.

young infants, disgust, 2

crying occurs in very ___________ to indicate general distress/irritability. The earliest discrete emotion is ___________, which can be seen in newborns in response to sour tastes. at ______ months, expressions of joy/happiness occur.

temperament

defined as an inborn aspect of personality. is presumed to have a neurobiological basis and is evident early in development. This is important for the study of emotion regulation for two reasons: (a) it is seen early in development, and (b) it is relatively stable and predictive of later outcomes

social support

defined by strong feelings of being surrounded by good friends during times of need. It buffers people from emotional break downs, and is beneficial to health. reduces feelings of stress, anxiety, and uncertainty during difficult and challenging times. lowers baseline cortisol. having friends present in stressful contexts reduces stress-related physiology

person-centered therapy

developed by Carl Rogers, aim was for the client to experience a relationship with the therapist that is genuine and non-judgmental. The aim for the therapist is to enter in to the relationship, be emotionally warm, and listen to the client with empathy. in the absence of threat, and tin the presence of this kind of therapist, a client can experience incongruencies in the self and start to change. Rogers believed that only the person could initiate change in response to experienced incongruencies. It wasnt a matter of a therapist offering interpretations (psychoanalysis) or teaching or coaching (behavior)

scaffolding

developmental psychologists talk about _________, a process in which parents and teachers can help children take the next steps in their development. parents can help children understanding of the mind and emotions by talking about the mind at a more advanced level than the child's independent ability. in this way, parents deepen their children's emotional understanding

gratitude, mimicry, antiphonal laughter

emotion processes that create similarity and helps friendship bonds include ________, _________, and _________.

behavioral and physiological change

emotions can be regulated by _________ which involves changing emotions once they are underway. Attempts to mask emotions are common- this may increase sympathetic nervous system activation. As a result, an incongruity between behavioral and physiological responses may occur.

priorities, action

emotions set _________ among the very many different goals that impinge upon individuals at any moment. emotions can signal conflict and redirect __________. They can guide action in a world that is always imperfectly known and that can never be fully controlled. it is not so much that emotions are irrational, but rather that in a complex world we often have no fully rational solution because we do not know enough.

moral judgement, fast, automatic

emotions, when they are properly functioning, act as guides to ______, that is, to judgements about right and wrong and about character and virtue. theme that emotions are basis for social life. emotions act as social moral intuitions. according to this perspective, _________ experiences of specific emotions provide intuitions of right and wrong, virtue, and punishment without elaborate calculation at the conscious level. emotions that relate to harm, fairness, reciprocity, justice, and condemnation are emotions with moral tinges.

parental socialization

examples of ____________ on emotions stereotpical gender emotional profiles such as more anger in boys and more fear in girls, more emotion talk with girls, more focus on internal states in girls, responses for boys

contigent, co-construction of parent-child relationships, disorganized.

exploring ____________ responding, the moment-to- moment responses of a parent to a child and vice-versa, allows us to look at the ______________ and the role of individuals in the relationships. studies see if mothers behavior predicts childrens behavior and vice versa. find that behaviors are less predictable for babies who were later classified as __________.

externalizing

exposure to positive emotions in families has been found to be assoicated with children being more empathic and affectionate, showing better affect regulation and more affection in sibling relationships. Exposure to negative emotions in the family is linked to children showing more negative emotions in other settings. For instance, when children see angry conflicts between their parents, they are more likely themselves to show anger with peers and and has been correlated to _________ behaviors. This can occur through modeling and even emotion contagion.

candidate gene studies

following the establishment of the human genome project, ________ have begun and have allowed us to see how variations in individual genes are related to a particular emotion based disorder. Ex from Caspi MAOA gene varient interaction with maltreatment = conduct disorder another example from 5 HTT vairant interaction with maltreatment = depression diathesis stress model--> vulnerable and thus show greater reaction to env. stress.

CBT

founded by Beck, is a therapy that works on thoughts in a comparable way. It is based on enabling people to recognize and avoid errors of evaluations of incidents that lead to emotions. For instance, in depression, a client may keep a diary and is asked to write alternative explanations for an event, not necessarily what they believe, but something different. in this way, clients can distance themselves from emotions, see some of the repetitive causes, and understand the maladaptive cycles. Becks cognitive triad. attributions that are external rather than internal, local rather than global, and impermanent rather than permanent. mindfullness meditation can be added to this therapeutic approach

non-kin

from an evolutionary perspective, we form relationships with ______ for multiple reasons including alliances negate power of alpha female or male, more effective caregiving, defense, food provision, explore potential romantic relationships

emotional displays

humans negotiate their places in hierarchies by _________. for example, anger is a high power emotion that gains power within groups. people attribute greater power and status to those who display anger. pride is another power related emotion. those who experience pride are judged to be more powerful by others and their social rank increased. people who display embarrassment are judged to be of lower status and physically smaller- signals submissiveness. highly emotional exchanges -- confrontations, battles of wit, teasing and banter -- allow group members to negotiate status differences through .. term. study by Keltner p 225 frat boy study which showed that emotional displays indicated differing status of group members

cognitive change

in ________, the appraisal one makes of an event affects both the type of emotion and its intensity

response modulation

in _________, the last stage of emotion regulation, people can seek to suppress or emphasize expression of an emotion, usually by behaving or not behaving in particular ways. instructions to suppress emotions an emotion in experiments have generally been found to be ineffective in decreasing the intensity of emotions that are experienced.

shy, inhibited

in a _________ temperament one observes ore crying in response to novel stimuli, greater social distance to peers, higher sympathetic arousal when reading novel passages. physiological correlates are larger cardiac accelerations, larger raises in blood pressure, greater pupil dialation in tasks, increased cortisol, heightened amygdala reactivity, greater cooling on right side of face

heuristically, attention, cognitive processes

in a functionalist view of emotions, emotions inform judgements ________, emotions prioritize _______ to certain classes of stimuli, emotions organize _______; modes of perceiving the world (moral judgement)

theory of mind

in general, the ability to understand oneself and others in terms of mental states (emotions, desires, beliefs) -termed ______ - is critically important for children's socioemotional development. As this ability becomes more sophisticated across time, children acquire the mentalistic tools to understand the full range of emotions, thereby supporting their ability to participate in social interactions with others. associated with emotions such as pride, shame, guilt, and regret and comes on at about 3 years of age. develops with language abilities which help to negotiate relationships and enables the development of shared meanings about internal states

schema

in remembering stories or events, are words are never exact. what we perceive is assimilated into our own structure of meaning, called a ________, which includes a great deal of knowledge.

suppression, reappraisals

in terms of individual differences in emotion regulation __________ is associated with costs in terms of SNS activity, do less well in terms of well being and friendships and make others stressed. IN contrast, ________ is associated with distancing, better health, more friends, and acceptance

moral intuitionist perspective

in the _____________________ - we use our emotions to tell us what is moral

MAOA

in the study by Caspi and et al, those boys that had one "low" version of the ______ gene and were maltreated, 85% met criteria for conduct disorder between ages 10 and 18. These boys grew up to show a far higher rate of aggression than the boys who had been maltreated, but had the "high" gene varient.

affect as information, heuristics

in this perspective, emotions themselves can be informative when we make judgements. The accounts rest on two hypotheses. 1. emotions provide us with a signal - anger means i have been slighted. 2. many of our judgements are too complex to enable us to review all the relevant evidence (such as how good a political leader is). we often rely on a simpler assessmnet based on our current feelings. "how do i feel about this person." only seldom can humans act with full rationality. emotions are ______, guesses that often work better than change: shortcuts to making judgments or taking action. but not when they can attribute those feelings to a specific source such as feeling happy because of the weather.

dizygotic, monozygotic

increased sibling conflict predicts increases in depressive symptoms and increase in sibling intimacy predicts decrease in depressive symptoms. _______ twin show better emotion understanding that that of _____ twins. maybe the closeness experienced by the later group impeded ability to understand others' emotions.

engage caregivers

infants smiles are a source of interest and delight for parents, so that one function of smiling may be to _________ .

romantic love

intense feelings of sexual desire can give way to a second emotion with time ____________, or feelings of deep intimacy. The couple will feel comfort and security in being close, in knowing each other, and in the feelings of their identities coming to merge.

play

intimate relations also fare well when partners cultivate humor, amusement, and _____. Married life is full of drudgeries. This can help these times- better to tease during conflict instead of directly criticizing. humor and laughter also deescalate intense conflicts to more peaceful exchanges.

emotional intelligence

involves 4 different skills (1) ability to accurately perceive other's emotions through the careful reading of others' facial expressions, vocalizations, and posture and gesture. (2) ability to understand one's own emotions (3) ability to use current feeling in making decision (4) ability to manage one's emotions in ways that are fitting to the current situation, usually called emotional regulation *benefits bonds, friendships, hierarchical relations, and relations with other group members

parental responsiveness

involves the way in which parents are sympathetic and responsive to children's internal states, with the studies having been strongly influenced by attachment theory.

compassion

lower SES report greater _________ as an emotion they experience on a regular basis

sexual passion

metaphors of sexual love often include ones such as "mad", "hungry", "swept away" etc signify the single-mindedness and loss of control characteristics of early ________.

avoidant attachment

not upset at caregiver's absence and little response when caregiver returns treats the stranger similarly to the caregiver Results from unresponsive parenting

lower-class

occupying a _______ position in society is accompanied by more frequent and intense experiences of threat, anxiety, and stress related physiology

epigenetics processes

occur whereby env. experiences alters gene expression. Env. can affect the human genome without actually changing the nucleotide sequences of the genes. One way this occurs is through the addition of a methyl base to the DNA sequence in response to env. exposure in a process called DNA methylation, thereby altering gene expression. this prevents the gene from producing the amino acid sequence that it usually does. in other words, aspects of the env. can switch the expression of genes on or off since areas wit ha lot of mehtylation are less active during gene transcription

habituation

one method for studying recognition of facial expressions is _______, based on the finding that infants look at patterns that are new to them for longer than patterns that are familiar. For example, if they look at a new face (happy) longer than an old face(sad), this indicates that they can discriminate between the expressions.

parental sensitivity

one of the most extensively studied aspects of parental responsiveness is ________________. originally this is meant to mean a mother is alert to perceive her baby's signals, interprets them accurately, and responds appropriately and promptly. This is related to secure attachment style and studies show that their is a causal link between the two. important in also explaining range of children's outcomes such as enhanced moral development, better language and literacy, fewer behavior problems, and more developed theory of mind

parent-child relationship

one of the most proximal contributors to emotion-based disorders is the _______________. parental hostility is the element of parenting most clearly associated with children's disorders. again coercive parenting cycles due to difficult child - negative coercion cycles. research also suggests that controlling parenting increases feelings of self-doubt, manifesting as anxiety in performance situations

proximal

parents being harsh or abusive, children being raised in foster care with the absence of an attachment relationship are ________ risk factors, meaning near at hand: they bear directly on the child. Such extreme experiences are associated with the abnormal emotions we see in emotion-based disorders and carry over into adult life.

secure parenting

patterns of _________ are expressive warmth, touch, skin to skin contact, contingent behaviors (smiles, gaze, voice), parental sensitivity to child's states, synchronization, reflective functioning (giving children language of emotion)

Kindling hypothesis

people become progressively more vulnerable to depression with each episode of depression - it becomes much easier to relapse into depression once you've already experienced it.

Kindling hypothesis

people become progressively more vulnerable to depression with each episode of depression - it becomes much easier to relapse into depression once you've already experienced it. it is described in terms of mental patterns becoming established as habits, so that after each episode future activation is made more likely by progressively less severe events

suppress

people who generally try to _____ their emotions make themselves vulnerable to depression - this may not be true of all cultures.

positive, vagal

people with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder between episodes watched film clips and had stronger _________ experiences and less _______ regulation.

public form

perhaps the most potent rituals are based on emotions; one could almost say that a ritual is an emotion turned into a __________. the oldest such ritual is a funeral and such rituals are accompanied by stories. Scheff argues that ritual, drama, and narrative provide memory cues that will bring emotions to mind, but in a safe context where we can experience them at a best aesthetic distance.

child emotion disorder risk factors

poverty, all kinds of maltreatment, negative parental emotion, conflicts between parents/ domestic violence, attachment failures

gratitude, forgiveness, compassionate love, mimicry, altruistic behavior

predictors of better relationships include?

imbalance

probably the most common view of emotion-based disorders in childhood is that one particular emotion of family of emotions becomes prominent and dominates other possible experiences. According to this idea, disorders represent an _____ among emotions, and these emotions become incongruent with what actually happens in the outside world. think hostile attribution bias or depressogenic style of appraisal , rumination

maladaptive person-context interactions

psychopathology can be thought of as ____________: the child is difficult for the envionrmnet and the environment is difficult for the child. thus, children who are more difficult elicit more harshness and negativity from their parents during interactions and increase marital conflict. Both harshness from parent and marital conflict further increase the children's difficult behavior. selection bias--> select deviant peers transactional processes

status

rank. the level once can occupy in a hierarchy

social class

refers to differences in wealth, education, and prestige of work that individuals enjoys within a particular society. it is imbued with a sense of rank, a sense of high and low, of who has influence and who does not. not necessarily the case that a person of power comes from the upper class. lower class p's tend to respond to situations with threat-related emotions such as anxiety.

differential parenting

refers to one child experiencing more warmth, love, and affection, or more hostility, anger, and negative emotionality, than his or her siblings. interestingly, this effects both children negatively, even the child who is the "favorite" this effect is strongest when children are closer in age. dynamics of family as a whole are important

child maltreatment

refers to physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, or neglect fails to provide developmental needs necessary for normal development, problems are widespread, including delays with development of affect regulation, higher-order cognition, self-representation, and social information processing. problems increase with age as they fail to develop necessary competencies at each stage of development and the deficits compound one another

emotion regulation, situation selection (not going to the party), situation modification (putting on better music), attentional deployment (distracting oneself), cognitive change (reappraisal, reframing party as a way to make new friends), response modulation (e.g. expression suppression, trying to hide an emotion from others)

refers to the changing the intensity or duration of a given emotion. what are the 5 stages for which this can occur?

emotion congruence

refers to the idea that we should be able to learn material that is congruent with our current emotion. In a study by Bower et al, hypnotized people to feel happy or sad. Pts then read stories about two college students, one doing well, and another doing poorly. on a memory test the next day, pts that were happy remembered more facts about the student doing well, while those that were sad remembered more facts about the student doing poorly.

negativity bias

refers to the notion that, even when of equal intensity, things of a more negative nature (e.g. unpleasant thoughts, emotions, or social interactions; harmful/traumatic events) have a greater effect on one's psychological state and processes than do neutral or positive things. In other words, something very positive will generally have less of an impact on a person's behavior and cognition than something equally emotional but negative

styles of processing, involuntary, heuristics, effortful, overriding, Positive mood, anxious mood, broaden & build paradigm

refers to when we experience different emotions, we engage in different kinds of reasoning, or weighting evidence, and drawing conclusions. two systems are at work when we think, reason, and make decisions System 1 is fast, ______, and based on ______. Blurt out whatever comes to your mind as quickly as possible: System 2 is more _________, and is capable of ______________. System 1. _________ tend to facilitate the use of heuristics (System 1), whereas __________ tend to facilitate deliberate thoughts and careful attention to details (System 2). At the same time, positive mood can prompt us to think more flexibly and creatively. _____________: we think more globally, or "big picture" when experiencing positive emotions, which allows us to see connections and patterns across stimuli.

situation

regulation of emotions is often accomplished by means of changing the _______. i.e. selecting play environments, creating predictable schedules. responding appropriately to children's emotional displays so that children can cope more adaptively.

reflective functioning

related to mind-mindedness is ______, a term to indicate parents' abilities to reflect on their own and their child's internal mental experiences, to create both a physical and psychological experience of comfort and safety for their child. By reflecting on their won childhood experiences and relating them to that of their child, parents can better respond and exhibit sensitivity to their children. enables you to see world through child's eyes.

attachment, affiliation

romantic love is founded jointly on the social motivations of _________ and _________. with the first comes trustfulness and protection; the second comes the ability -- enormously expanded in humans as compared with other animals -- for cooperation in joint projects.

compassionate love

several emotional patterns that help romantic partners stay committed and close. One of these is _________: a positive regard for the partner and appreciation of the partner's foibles and weaknesses

capitalizing upon the good

several emotional patterns that help romantic partners stay committed and close. One such patterns is to share what is good in life with your partner, which is referred to as __________. when romantic partners share their joys and respond to each other's good news with engaged enthusiasm, they are more likely to feel committed to one another many months later. Thus, instead of stonewalling or criticizing, it is wiser to express appreciation and encouragement for good things that happen in your partner's life.

regulating

some children with emotion based disorders may have trouble ________ emotions adequately to meet situational demands. risk factors affect the self-regulatory system, which is comprised of cognitive, executive, attentional, and affective controls. children who develop internalizing cannot inhibit self-blame and rumination, have problems reappraesing difficult situations, or externalizing find it hard to shift focus to anything positive when they are frustrated.

self conscious evaluative emotions

sometime between the second and third year or life a more complex set of emotions is expressed, including pride, shame, guilt, and regret. These have been referred to as the ?

inframhumanization

tendency for in-group members to attribute animal-like qualities to out-group members -- that is to deny them full human standing. emotions play a critical role.

anger

the ________-prone individual Overestimate blame, perceive affront, anticipate injustice Experience more daily irritation, higher anger in specific situations Show greater anger in the face in neutral pose (Malatesta). Tease more aggressively (Keltner et al, 1998); share less, fight more with partner Hostile people greater cardio reactivity to harassment Greater blood pressure to frustration slower return to baseline in blood pressure in frustration

compassionate

the __________ person are rated by peers as more cooperative, show elavated vagal tone, share more in economic gains, better at regulating emotions, see self as more interdependent and intertwined with others, as adults, believe they share more common humanity with others

effortful control

the ability to regulate attention and behavior deliberately and voluntarily. this ability develops strongly during the preschool period. related to less negativity in children's emotional lives and to better attentional control, processes that are supported by neural development in prefrontal brain. can be thought of as the emotional aspect of executive functioning and is associated with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex

social referencing

the ability to use the emotional displays of others to guide one's own behavior. example from visual cliff experiment.

facial cues

the amygdala is fully developed in newborns and appears to have a role in directing infants' attention toward faces. The orbitofrontal cortex also has a role in the recognition of emotions, as seen by activation in response to happy versus neutral faces. humans have an evolved bias to attend to ____________. but maturation of these circuits require actual exposure to human facial expressions.

emotion regulation

the concept of _______ refers to the whole set of processes that modulate the onset, intensity, and duration of emotional experience, physiology, and expression. These processes may be automatic or voluntary. For instance, something may make you scared and this would show in your physiology, but you do not make facial expressions to show this so that others do not know you are scared. in many ways, it is predominantly interpersonal and this is the best way to conceptualize this term.

diathesis -stress, differential susceptibility

the conceptualization of differential vulnerability to env. risk has been called the _______ perspective. it assumes that the effects of positive env. will be similar for all persons. However, a recent alternative, called the theory of ____________, suggests that certain people are more influenced by both the positive (development-enhancing) and negative (psychopathology-promoting) environments that they encounter. thought to be neurobiologically based- reflects heightened reactivity to stress, heritable factors and early developmental experiences

empathy, embarrassment, mirror-rouge paradigm, 18

the development and mentalizing abilities in the second year of life allows for experiences of _______ and ________. This means they must understand the subjectivity of other's experiences or that they can can be the object of another's attention and social evaluations by others. This entails an awareness of the objectivity of one's own body, that is to say self-recognition. This ability to self recognize is typically assessed in the _________. IN these tasks, children are marked with a spot of rouge and then look in a mirror. Children who detect the mark and demonstrate self-directed behavior are said to recognize the objectivity of their own body. This ability emerges around ____ months,

feeling as information, signal, emotions serve as heuristics

the idea that emotions themselves can be informative when we make judgements. This approach is based on two hypothesis. First emotions provide us with a _____ (e.g. anger signals injustice). second, many of our judgements are too complex to enable us to review all the relevant evidence. As a result, ___________, or mental shortcuts to making judgements or taking actions (e.g. gut feelings) study by Shwarz In one group, they asked, "All things considered, how satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?" In the other group, they asked, "How's the weather down there?" before asking the same question. Schwarz & Clore (1983) found that people reported lower life satisfaction on an overcast day (compared to a sunny day) when no attribution is made about the weather. When an attribution is made to the weather, people rate their life satisfaction the same, regardless of whether it is overcast or sunny out.

risk, outcome

the relationship between _____ and _____ is nondeterministic and nonspecific. That is, the presence of a particular risk factor may increase the probability of a particular disorder, but it never guarantees disorder. likewise, many env. risk contribute to a single disorder and one env risk can lead to many types of disturbances. The processes involved in the development of mental disorders are also transactional- children influence their contexts.

epidemiology, prevalence, incidence

the science of _____ is concerned with how frequently disorders occur in the population and the ways in which their patterns are explained. Are concerned with _____, the proportion of a population who suffer from some disorder over a particular time period, and _______, the number of new onsets of a particular disorder in a given time period

contempt, disgust, anger

the tendency to think of one's own group as superior compared to others is amplified by different emotions such as?

bullying

the victimization and humiliation of someone with less power who is lower down in the social hierarchy often it includes physical assault and many other aggressive forms of behavior such as vandalism and pinning children down on the ground. preventing this is important and should involve adult members of a school, who become enthusiastically involved. the program requires adults to act with warmth to the children, but also set limits to unacceptable behaviors. this should motivate more students to report to adults.

negativity bias

the_________, in which bad affects us more strongly than good, develops early in life and persists into adulthood. However, this is not true in the earliest stages of life. this develops at about 7 months this is due to the fact that at this age, children start to move around on their own more and experience more danger and more child-directed negativity from caregivers. but early experience with positive interactions may be necessary to develop this later negative bias - thus highlights the importance of interpersonal influences on emotional development. During language development, children can talk to each other about emotional states. In learning about reasons' for others' negative expressions, children can adjust their own behavior in ways that elicit more positive reactions from others and can learn valuable lessons in emotion regulation.

failure of an attachment relationship

though problematic parenting has implications for the development of disorganized attachment, the absence of or _______________ is particularly damaging. such is the case for children raised in orphanages without the opportunity to develop attachment relationships. research have uncovered a dose-response relationships whereby the longer the period of institutionalization, the worse the emotional outcomes

secure attachment

uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration is upset when caregiver leaves, and seeks proximity and is comforted by caregiver upon return potentially comforted by stranger but has a clear preference for caregiver Results from responsive parenting

excesses, diminished, dysfunctions, depression, mania, anxiety, conduct disorder

we can see disorders as _____ of emotions, as ______ emotions, and as a ________ of emotions. we can say that the emotions of sadness, happiness, fear, and anger correspond to what disorders respectively? it is not the elicitations of emotions that are inappropriate, but their intensity, which remains cognitively impenetrable and which tends to prolong the disorder.

situational selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation

what are the five stages at which regulation can work?

contempt, criticism, defensiveness, stonewalling

what are the four horsemen?

positivity + connectedness + resilience

what is the happiness equation?

attention

whereas the cognitive mechanism for sustaining depression is influenced strongly by memory of events and circumstances, mechanisms that sustain anxiety are mostly based on _______.

rational

without social emotions, brain damaged patients are no longer __________.

depression, anxiety, GAD, substance abuse

women are 1.5X more likely to experience an episode of _______ and 1.6X more likely to experience an _______ disorder and ______ was almost twice as likely, but women are less than half as likely to have __________. except alcohol where men outnumber only 1.6 to 1.

peers

younger children are more likely to solicit teaching from older siblings than from older _____, and that they are more active participants in the process. likewise, older siblings are more likely to provide explanations and positive feedback, and give the learners more control of the task than do _________. this suggests a unique scaffolding process for siblings

18 months

• Self-conscious emotions (empathy, concern- related altruism, embarrassment, envy) • Begin to respond to others distress and comfort others • Development of consciousness and mentalizing abilities give rise to embarrassment and empathy. • Embarrassment requires self-awareness what month does this come online ? from section