English 143 Movie Terms

Flash forward

Like flashback, when the flash forward effect is employed, the continuity of the primary narrative is visually interrupted with a scene depicting another time and place in the film's story. In the case of flash forward, however, the narrative is broken up by scenes which occur in the future.(1) The flash forward effect lends dramatic irony to a particular scene, allowing the audience to divine something that the characters on screen do not yet know. This effect may also be used to focus attention on the importance of the scene at hand and the impact it will have on the remainder of the film's plot. The sample clip depicts Don Corleone (Marlon Brando) sitting across from his eldest son Santino (James Caan) and his consiglieri Tom (Robert Duvall). Tom begins to present information on a rising narcotics dealer named Sollozzo (Al Lettieri) who needs the Corleones' financial and political support in exchange for an entrance into the new enterprise of narcotic drugs. In terms of chronological continuity, Tom and Santino attempt to convince the Godfather that the future of the Family rests in their involvement in the narcotics business. While his son and lawyer wait for his decision, the audience already knows that he will meet with Sollozzo because frames of their future meeting interrupt the main narrative in flash forward effect. On one level, this effect works to let the audience in on something that is of yet still undefined to the characters, and on another level, it prefigures the attempt on the Godfather's life, making this an important turning point in the plot. In the sample clip, it is important to note that both Don Corleone and Sollozzo are positioned similarly as alone and facing a group of two or more persons. This establishes a subtle connection between the two. When the first flash forward frame shows Sollozzo entering the Godfather's office, Tom says that he is known as The Turk and that he's supposed to be good with a knife, but only in matters of business or some sort of reasonable complaint (2). This subtly ominous line foreshadows the shooting of Don Corleone at Sollozzo's request in response to the Godfather's refusal of a business partnership. In breaking the continuity of the narrative with scenes of what will occur in the future, the dramatic irony and foreshadowing lend the scene a sharp edge of importance via the effect of flashforward.

Line and vanishing point

Mathematically, when parallel lines within a plane come together at a central point, a vanishing point is formed. The point is found on the horizon line, the horizontal line observed through the viewer's perspective. In film, the lines may be imaginary or actually present within a movie clip. Objects in line with the vanishing point tend to disappear. Furthermore, "a shape that lies in a plane parallel to the picture plane has a perspective image that is an undistorted scaled down version of the original," and is still visible; however, if the shape is not parallel to the plane of the picture, the shape will no longer be present (1). In addition, the experience can be further explained by viewing train tracks. As one stands on train tracks, and looks down them in one direction, the spot in which the lines converge to one point is the vanishing point (2). In the clip, the viewer's perspective is focused on the brightly colored yellow purse that Marnie is carrying. As Marnie walks towards the other end of the train tracks, she and her purse get smaller and the horizon line, which runs across the middle of Marnie's purse, becomes more evident. Marnie's purse almost completely disappears as she travels down the tracks. The vanishing point in the clip distances the viewer from Marnie and her purse. Also the point is symbolic to one of the central themes of the movie that revolves around Marnie's bad habit of stealing. The bag Marnie carries vanishes as does the items that she takes from her employers throughout the film.

Pan (free + zoom)

Panning, short for panorama, is most simply described as the rotational movement of the camera around a fixed point as on a tripod (1). Panning is usually a horizontal camera movement but is not limited to side-to-side motion (2). Zoom panning, where the camera zooms in on a subject as it pans, is merely a combination of the two techniques. Free panning means that the movement of the camera is restricted to neither a horizontal nor a vertical axis. In other words, when the camera free pans, it moves both up and down and side to side at the same time. Panning can be combined with other techniques to achieve a variety of desired effects. The corresponding clip begins with the camera focused on Jack Nicholson's face as he plays the piano. While he plays, the camera free pans down his body to his hands as they strike the keys. It holds there for a few seconds before continuing on across the top of the piano where it finds the hands of a female character. The camera pans up her body and holds momentarily on her face before continuing on around the room. As it pans, the camera lens zooms in on objects that are further away. Panning allows the viewer to feel that he of she gets a full glimpse of the surroundings, making the situation all the more real. As the camera pans by the pictures on the wall, it is as if the viewer were in the room looking at them, getting closer to the pictures of interest. In the final frames of the clip, the camera has panned a full 360 degrees around the room and zooms out to give the viewer a full glimpse of Nicholson at the piano. In this clip, the panning technique gives scale to the scene by allowing the viewer to see everything. The free panning and zooming makes the scene seem more real because the camera moves almost as a human's eyes would.

Point of view shot

The Point of view shot (POV) shows the viewer exactly what a single character in the film is seeing at the exact same moment that this character is seeing it. If the character walks through a door and into a room, the viewer sees exactly what one would see upon doing this: viewers see the doorway, the first glimpse of the room, a quick glance to establish the surroundings. Often, the POV shot is established through the use of shot reverse shot: showing what a character sees and then showing his or her reaction (1). The use of shot reverse shot is a means of filmmakers to show not only the exact visuals a character is experiencing through the POV shot, but also the character's reactions to these visuals by using the back-and-forth pattern of shot reverse shot: going from what the character sees to how this affects him or her. The POV shot is frequently used as a "cheat" device, by which the director builds suspense by making the viewer think he or she is seeing through the eyes of a killer, when this POV ends up not being the killer's at all (2). The sample clip strictly uses only the point-of-view shot, not straying with the shot-reverse-shot addition to the technique. The clip shows the point of view of the killer, Michael Myers, walking from the outside of a house, past open windows, then into the kitchen, where he picks up a knife. The viewer progresses with Michael to the stairwell, climbs it, then picks up a clown mask from the floor and puts it on. This, perhaps, is the most striking use of POV in the film, for with the mask on, the POV shot is restricted even more: leaving only the two small eyeholes of the mask to witness the final, bloody moments of the scene. In fact, until Michael Myers stabs his babysitter, as shown through the two small eyeholes, the audience has no idea who he is; it is her screaming of his name that reveals this. The concealment of his identity up to this point, serves to show the duality of the point of view shot. While the POV shot does allow the audience to experience a more intimate and telling look at the reality of a certain character, it also hides certain key elements, such as any physical attributes of the character or the very important facial expressions that allow viewers to understand what the character is thinking.

Wipe

The wipe is a transition used in film to show a change in scene, and often but not necessarily, a change in time (2). A wipe is done when a line comes across the scene, revealing the next scene and "wiping" the previous scene away. The wipe technique was used frequently in older movies, especially around the 1930s (3). Thus, it has also been used in more recent movies to offer a retro effect. It was probably used in early film because of it's visual similarity to the turning of pages/chapters of a book. Akira Kurosawa was a master of the wipe technique, and this clip from The Hidden Fortress is exemplary. In this clip, the scene changes from one of light grays and whites to a much darker scene in order to show contrast (to make the scene change more apparent) (1). Also, in this scene, the direction of the wipe is, which is also characteristic of Kurosawa (1). In the following scene, he is going in the opposite direction of that of the wipe, but he is walking in the same direction as he was before; the perspective has simply changed to the opposite side. Sometimes in Kurosawa's work the person is going in the same direction after the wipe and sometimes he is going in the opposite direction (1). This simply depends on the perspective taken in the next scene.

Zoom (versus a track)

Zoom can be defined as a camera technique by which a particular scene is filmed close-up and then further away through the use of a camera lens in order to create the illusion of rapid movement away from a scene or towards a scene. It differs from tracking in that the camera is not moved at all while the scene is being filmed. By not having to actually physically move the camera, zoom provides more versatility than tracking. If a scene has obstacles in the way of the camera such as set props essential to the film that cannot be moved, zoom is the best technique for the scene. The scene in The Godfather in which a father is pleading to Don Corleone to exact justice for his daughter illustrates why zoom is the technique that needed to be used for that particular scene. Don Corleone is sitting behind his desk as he listens to the man tell his story about how his daughter's attackers had not been punished sufficiently for their crime. The scene begins with the camera lens zoomed in on the father so that the viewer can see his actions and understand his feeling of the matter. Next the camera zooms out and the viewer is able to see a silhouette of Don Corleone. Tracking would not have been possible for this scene because the Don is seated behind a desk and moving a camera back and forth to create the same effect is not feasible in this instance.

Cameo

A cameo is a very brief but nonetheless significant appearance by an important actor or director in a film. In many films these cameos are non-speaking roles such as a passer by on the street or a patron in a bar. Although a cameo role is very small, a director uses the cameo as a tool to highlight an important scene or moment in the film. Although famous actors had cameo appearances in films before, Alfred Hitchcock was one of the first directors to play a cameo role in his own film. In "The Lodger" Alfred Hitchcock made his first cameo to save money because he did not have to hire another actor, but after that he began using his cameo appearances as his trademark in all of his films.1 Once audiences began to recognize his trademark, they began to search for his cameos in his films.2 In "Vertigo" Alfred Hitchcock has a cameo in the beginning of the third scene as he walks past Scottie Ferguson in front of Gavin Elster's office. Alfred Hitchcock uses this cameo to highlight the important part of the film when Scottie Ferguson's old college friend asks him to watch his wife Madeleine who has been acting strange. It is interesting that Alfred Hitchcock would want to draw attention away from this important scene in the film by having a cameo, but as Thomas Leitch points out, Alfred Hitchcock used these cameos to show the connection between the lives of the characters in the film and those of the director and the audience. Also by allowing the audience to search for his face in the film, Hitchcock involves the audience in a game that promotes "pleasure," which was one of Hitchcock's main goals.

Close up (head)

A close up shot is one where the subject is magnified to fill up the entire frame (2). Close ups are most commonly used with the actor's head. A close up shot provides an immense amount of detail because the entire subject fills up the frame. A close up is achieved by focusing a camera closer to the subject to force it to fill the entire frame (1). The purpose of a close up is to make the audience pay attention to a particular detail. The subject in the close up is being enlarged for a reason; sometimes this is to evoke an emotion from the audience. For example, a close up shot would be used to show a character crying or getting frustrated. This draws attention to the emotion being displayed. The sample clip from The Graduate begins by focusing on a person underwater. The shot cuts and the camera then zooms in on Anne Bancroft sitting in a chair. As it slowly zooms in, her character fills up more of the frame. In the final shot, her face and arm are the only parts of her visible in the frame. The close up highlights her position and the expression on her face. She is almost lifeless; her arm remains still holding a cigarette. Her expression is frozen in a stoic, almost angry face.

Fade to red

A fade is one of the many transitions that can be used to signal the change from one scene to another. Most transitions are now done digitally and fall under the category of digital video effect; however, fades were possible prior to the digital era. A fade-in starts with a blank screen (white, black, or any color), on which an image gradually appears. Conversely, a fade out starts with an image and the screen gradually becomes entirely white, black, or the color of choice, in this case red. The longer the fade lasts, the more the dramatic the effect. Most range from .5-1.5 seconds. When a fade is done to a specific color, it is typically for thematic reasons. Therefore, the fades in a particular film are usually consistent. The film, from which the sample clip was taken, Cries and Whispers, is an example of a film where the director has chosen to use a color as a thematic symbol. Ingmar Bergman describes his use of the color red as a depiction of "the interior of the soul," and every fade in the film is a fade to red. The film is a commentary on sin, hatred, and guilt, and red is used as the color of sickness, blood, and anger. This specific clip first speaks to Agnes' jealousy of her sister Maria's close relationship with their mother. It then cuts to a scene where Agnes is watching her mother sit at a table in a red room. She approaches her mother expecting to be scolded, but instead, they experience a rare moment of closeness. Agnes touches her mothers face, and as the viewer focuses on that image, the screen fades out to red. The clip ends as the screen fades in from red to an image of Agnes on her deathbed. (see also fade to black and fade to white)

Yellow filter

A filter is any translucent material that changes the color or amount of light passing through it to the camera lens. A filter is used on a camera for lighting purposes and can be made of glass, plastic, or gel. The filter is placed in front or behind the camera lens to ultimately change the quality of the light. Filters can reduce or increase the frequencies of a light wave or remove unwanted frequencies. A filter can be used to convert film for use in day or night. A yellow filter transmits red and green light and partially or completely absorbs blue light. Therefore, yellow filters enhance the amount of color from sources such as fire. A Y-1 filter is a common pale yellow filter that is frequently used with flames (1). This particular scene in Apocalypse Now portrays Willard, played by Martin Sheen, drenched in blood and illuminated only by the thick yellow light of the fire. Willard has gone deep into the jungle to find and kill the renegade Col. Walter Kurtz, played by Marlon Brando. The juxtaposition here is between two different cultures, that of the Americans and that of the Vietnamese. This is symbolized in opposing lights: the natural light of the villagers and indigenous tribes of Vietnam with their torches, and the blinding searchlights of the U.S. army helicopters and intense spotlights (2). This particular scene is at night in the jungle around the Kurtz compound which is drenched in the eerie yellow light from the flames and torches around the tiger cage where Willard is bound. The yellow filter enhances the sole light source coming from the torches to create the dark and grim feeling of death and disease that the jungle and Kurtz compound portray. The yellow light is coupled along with the rain, mud, and musical score to create a suspenseful and horrifying scene. Therefore, the dark psychological mood of the film goes along well with the shadowy and evocative cinematography captured through the use of yellow filters. (see also: orange filter and blue filter)

Flash pan

A flash pan is a pan done extremely quickly, with the camera remaining at a fixed point and moving along a horizontal axis, which produces a blurring effect. It is often used as a transition, and sometimes for shock value (1). It may also be called a swish pan, whip pan, or zip pan (2). Frequently the panning shot is dissolved into the shot immediately following it, or out of the shot immediately before it (3). This clip from "Citizen Kane" uses the flash pan to symbolize the passing of time. The filmmakers use it as a transition between scenes that all have the same two characters, Charles and Emily, sitting in the same room and same table, but at different times. To show that they were different times and flip between those occasions quickly, the flash pan is used between shots, sometimes with the dialogue as a voiceover. As the series of flash pans progresses, and thus as time progresses, the images of the characters change slightly, allowing the filmmakers to show a progression using only a few minutes of screen time (4). (see also pan)

Rules of cont editing

A general or traditional set of guidelines for movie and film editing is known as the rules of continuity editing. Essentially, these rules were designed as a means of maintaining a relatively complete and smoothly flowing story-line for viewing audiences, despite the presence of large gaps in camera shots, film, and plot, making the work of film editors much less noticeable. Typically, these rules include the use of such techniques as graphic equality, the maintenance of a similar shot quality throughout a scene. Characters in a scene are aligned on stage symmetrically, lighting tones remain consistent, and any type of action or motion is normally directed toward the center of the screen. Additionally, the closeness of a particular shot is generally proportional to the timed length of that shot; thus, a close-up shot may last five seconds, while a shot involving three people and a car may last more like thirty. This technique is based on the idea that viewers need more time to take in more details. In our sample clip from "The Maltese Falcon" the rules of continuity editing are followed fairly closely. When only one character in the clip is being shot, he/she is set in the center of that shot, while two or more characters in any shot are arranged symmetrically, giving a very comfortable and flowing sense of space to the viewer. The lighting, which in many films often changes for various characters, shots, or points in dialogue, remains consistent throughout the clip. Though this clip does not contain much action, what action we do see, a young woman walking into Bogart's office and of Bogart himself smoking a cigar, is confined to the center of the shot. Finally, when the camera zooms and focuses in onto a particular character for a shot in this clip, the shot tends to last about half as long as the preceding or ensuing shot.

Graphic match

A graphic match is part of the visual continuity of a film. The purpose is to create a smooth transition from cut to cut. A graphic match is two successive shots joined to create a strong similarity of relative elements of shape or color. Normally, if characters are present in both shots, they are positioned the same after the cut to the second shot as in the first (1). The composition of one shot is duplicated in other shots, normally occurring immediately after one another, creating the match effect (2). By maintaining the character's positions in the same frame, it creates a link between two cuts. In this film, a graphic match is used from the back hole of an airplane to a room of celebration in a similar space. Before the cut to the second scene, a character is positioned to the side of the hole in the aircraft. The hole in the aircraft turns into a tunnel as the camera enters the hole. Once the camera reaches the other side, a similar character is also positioned to the right of the hole. In this film, the transition from hole, to tunnel, to another room creates a link as discussed in the above paragraph. This link is important to the film's visual continuity because it gives the editor an opportunity to create an important connection between two scenes.

Jump cut

A jump cut is a cut within a scene that moves forward in time. It can eliminate dead time in a scene, but it interrupts the natural flow of time (2). In general, it is a rule for directors to avoid jump cuts in order to maintain continuity, but it can be a stylistic decision to use them on purpose (3). Directors can follow certain rules to use jump cuts in an unobtrusive manner, or they can make such cuts obvious and sometimes jarring (1). This clip begins with a number of match cuts, the opposite of jump cuts. A match cut is when the flow of time does not change between cuts. The woman signals to Michel and the scene cuts to his response without removing any time in between. Later, when Michel is driving, there are a number of jump cuts. The shot comes from the point of view of the car as it moves down the highway and suddenly it cuts to a position further down the highway, surrounded by different cars. This lets the viewer know that car has made more distance than what was seen. In this clip the contrast between match cuts and jump cuts show the difference between the careful, calculated theft of the car in the first half and the rush of the drive in the second half as Michel passes one car after another. The jump cuts eliminate the less eventful parts of the drive, give the viewer an impression of the speed the car is going, and perhaps give an insight into the hurried mind of Michel. (see also match cuts)

Lap dissolve

A lap dissolve (aka overlap dissolve) is when one scene slowly fades out of one shot and gradually fades into the next shot, consequently superimposing the two images. Midway through each lap dissolve, both scenes should be in equal proportion to one another. A dissolve is a more subtle form of transition than a cut, although also indicating a distinct separation in action and a psychological connection between the two shots. Rapid dissolve suggests an immediate dramatic contrast between the two scenes, while slow dissolve suggests a more subtle contrast (1). The lap dissolve technique seen here creates a sense of suspense as the pictures slow dissolve over one another into closer and closer shots of the mansion. The focal point of the multiple dissolving shots is the lighted window, which viewers become centered upon as the camera moves closer. We view the static scene as containing movement due to the sequences of lap dissolves, and we begin to feel a moving sensation toward the window without the camera actually moving within any of the individual shots. Through such a technical device, the film gives us a sense that the scene is 'pregnant with possibilities' (2).

Effective movement with long lens

A long lens, sometimes called a telephoto lens, has a greater focal length than a normal lens and can function as a telescope (1). Telephoto lenses diminish the depth between planes, keeping the far plane comparatively large (2). This is known as the telephoto effect, or telephoto distortion. This technique is used in scenes meant to display a sense of compactness, for instance an object moving directly toward or away from the camera moves with extreme slowness and barely seems to move at all (2). The longer lens seems to condense the distance between objects (3). This flattening of the background creates the sense that both the different planes of action and the object or character remain the same size as they move forward or backward (2). The sample clip is a good example of effective movement with long lens. As the character approaches the camera he only very gradually gets larger. Even though he is running he seems to be moving very slowly and not cover much ground because of the telephoto distortion. In contrast, as he rounds the corner and the camera pans along with him, instead of running towards the camera he runs across the plane of vision and the he seems to move much faster. Next, the camera zooms out as it continues panning and the character gets much smaller and moves much faster compared to the initial shot. (see also long lens)

Accelerated montage

A montage is the conveying of an idea or mood through the use of parallel editing and the juxtaposition of scenes to create discontinuity. The word montage refers to the use of a series of frames that are combined so that one scene quickly dissolves into the next, shifting settings or locations so as to convey a quick passage of time (1). It is the viewer's job to bridge the gaps and infer meaning from the combination of shots. A type of montage known as accelerated montage is very rapid cutting from one shot to another, where several cuts are used in a short amount of time. This technique is designed to create a chaotic effect by using a sequence made up of shots of increasingly shorter lengths that creates a psychological atmosphere of excitement and tension (2). When rapid cutting from one shot to another is created, and the pacing is sped up for effect, accelerated montage has occurred. The baptism scene in The Godfather is a great example of montage, showing several m! Urders taking place at the same time as the Christening. Accelerated montage occurs when the same discontinuity is shown at a quicker pace, like in the clip from Amelie. The sample clip exhibits accelerated montage through the type of editing done to the clips. The viewer knows Amelie is standing on top of a building, yet the rapid change of locations conveys that several actions are going on at the same time. The accelerated montage in this clip uses rapid cuts from one shot of a couple to another. Several cuts are used in a very short amount of time, showing numerous clips back-to-back at an accelerated rate to create a feeling of excitement and energy. The pacing of the combination of scenes provides the audience with the understanding that these actions are taking place at several different locations all during the same span of time, while Amelie remains on the rooftop. The culmination of the sequence--after shot after shot has been shown, each a little shorter than the last--ends with Amelie saying "Fifteen", as if she herself has jumped from place to place, or imagined and counted each act. The subject matter makes it even more appa! Rent that each act is taking place at the same time but in separate spaces. Through her imagination, Amelie is showing us the various overlapping scenes at the same time from her bird's eye view. See also: Montage, Mise-en-scene

Normal lens

A normal lens is a lens that creates a picture that has the perspective of a normal picture when it is compared to other lens types (1). It does not over exaggerate the subject nor does it reduce the depth of the scene (2). The main factor in the difference of lens types is the focal length size difference, which is the distance from the lens to the item in focus (3). In order for a lens to be called normal in film the focal length is more or less equal to twice the diagonal of the image projected within the camera (1). In 35mm filming a normal lens is 35mm to 55mm (2). The sample clip for most of its duration stays at a constant angle and distance from the actors it is filming. The camera keeps the subjects in the middle of the screen and pans with them as Humphrey Bogart walks across the room. In order to maintain the same depth perception when the actors sit down farther away from the camera, the camera zooms in and maintains the same depth perception as it was when the actors were standing up. The camera maintains an angle as if the audience were following the actors and mimicking their actions.

Sequence shot

A sequence shot is a cinematographic effect used to change scenes/locations without incorporating a cut in the film. This unbroken shot, lasting longer than usual, is also referred to as a long take and is accomplished by following a character or object as they move from one location to another or having the camera follow different characters as the scene progresses (1). The change of venue occurs by using some type of tracking shot (such as on a crane or dolly) to follow the action. A sequence shot makes the viewer feel as if they are actually in the film as an invisible character that can view the action as it happens. In this clip, the camera starts by tagging along as a man places a bomb in a car, and then a camera on a crane follows this car around the building, also focusing in on the surroundings. This gives the viewer a feeling of omnipotence as they can watch one character place the bomb while the occupants of the vehicle do not know of the danger. The viewer is then taken for a ride while following the car and then the focus is switched to a couple walking down the street. Sticking with this pair, the scene concludes at what appears to be a customs checkpoint. The uninterrupted shot helps to change the location of the action, introduce new characters into the scene, and provides an insider's view for the audience.

Low level

A shot in which the camera is positioned below the objects being photographed or below eye-level. In contrast to a high angle shot, low level shots mantain a straight camera orientation instead of being angled upwards toward the subject. In this clip of "The Graduate", the low level camera orientation can be seen as the bride and groom run down the path away from the wedding chapel. The technique places an focus on the subjects feet, drawing emphasis to their flight. At the end of the clip, the technique is substituted for low angle, as the camera angle tilts to gain a full view of the church.

Tracking (with dissolves)

A tracking shot is a moving camera shot made by securing a camera to a dolly and moving the dolly while filming. A dissolve, or "cross-fade", is a transition between two shots during which the first image gradually fades out while the second image gradually fades in. For a brief moment during this transition the two images blend in superimposition. Dissolves are used to link shots, like those in a montage, or to indicate that there has been a progression through time or space. Dissolves are created in the lab during the printing phase. Sometimes when composing a tracking shot, especially long ones, it may be difficult or mechanically impossible for the camera to travel the entire distance in one take. Or, the track, as originally filmed, may improperly paced or be too long. In which case, the filmmakers may use transistions, such the dissolves in these clips, to compose the entire tracking shot. The sample clip includes two dissolves. The first dissolve is from a stairway landing to the room below indicating a lapse in time during which there has been a change in place. The second dissolve is from the doorway of an empty bedroom to a gala party. Linking these two shots with a dissolve indicates that the characters absent from the bedroom are at the party.

Zoom

A zoom shot can accomplish one of two things to an object as it is filmed: increase its size (by zooming in), or decrease its size (by zooming out) (1). One can zoom in or out by using a zoom lens to alter focal length without interruption (2). While zooming, the cameraman does not move the camera itself, but relies solely on the lens to vary the size of the object(s) being shot (2). It is the zoom shot that enables filmmakers to make close-ups or to produce the effect that the image is a long way from the camera (3)--not to be confused with the dolly or tracking shot (1). The use of zoom in the sample clip intensifies the mood of the scene by accentuating the sternness of the woman's face. The clip begins by showing a jumbled mess of greenery and furniture, and, amid the rest, the scarcely recognizable figure of a reclining person. As the lens zooms in, the woman becomes the clear focus of the scene, her image growing larger on the screen while all props gradually drop away. It becomes apparent that the only important thing in the entire picture is the expression on her face. The zoom shot here is especially vital because the stillness of the camera underscores the utter immobility of everything in the scene. As it enables a close-up of the protagonist, the zoom feature uses both the magnification of her face and the removal of the surrounding area to highlight the emotional detail conveyed. (see also tracking shot)

Point of view shot

Also called an "optically subjective shot," a point of view shot privileges what one subject experiences, specifically what the character sees or hears in the scene (1). Because it relates--and also restricts--the viewer's range of knowledge of a scene or character to only what that character experiences or knows to be true, the point of view (POV) shot renders the viewer a more subjective perspective of the events and how they may or may not relate. One famous example of this subjective experience is Alfred Hitchcock's North by Northwest, a film which relies upon the viewer's gradually expanding range of knowledge in order to build suspense and surprise into the film. A POV shot can be demonstrated by camera movements which reframe individual shots and scenes, by sound experience, or by overt clues in the director's vision of the scene. In this clip, from The Graduate, demonstrates the possible comic possibilities of the point of view shot. Note that the initial shot of the scene demonstrates the awkwardness of Benjamin Braddock (Dustin Hoffman) as he walks across the hall in his scuba suit (complete with flippers), preparing the viewer for what he or she is about to witness. As the shot switches to show Braddock's point of view--as indicated by the use of the framing device of the scuba-goggles and the switch in sound perspective--the absurdity of the situation is made obvious. Braddock walks awkwardly down the stairs (shown by his flippers flapping) as a man we are unable to hear yells and indicates with his hands for Braddock to enter the pool. The experience is a subjective rendition of events from Braddock's perspective, showing his own unease among his family and his awkward inability to exert control over his own life.

Arc shot (rear projection)

An arc shot is a camera movement technique in which the camera circles the subject(s) who remain stationery. The arc shot is sometimes used in conjunction with rear projection. Rear projection is the technique in which images and lighting are projected from behind the background screen. By projecting the images and lights from the rear but shooting actors from the front, filmmakers eliminate the possibility of shadows being cast on the screen. This combination of background imagery with foreground action also places actors in a strong location (3). When shooting the scene from 360 degrees via an arc shot, camera and lighting crews must find some ways to hide their equipment. Because most filming takes place in a studio, they must also create an area that gives the feeling of a real environment, not a movie studio. By projecting background images from behind a screen that may be previously recorded (2) film makers can add fullness to their scenery. The combination of the arc shot and rear projection creates an intimacy, keeping all characters in the shot and placing them in their environment. In addition, the audience sees the action from all sides, including the expressions from those involved, enabling the viewer to understand each character. The sample clip demonstrates the ability for arc shot and rear projection to create a more passionate and intimate feeling by enabling the audience to clearly see the expression and action of both characters while embracing and kissing. The viewer can read the facial expressions of James Stewart and Kim Novak and understand some of the heartache and feeling behind their embrace. The additional use of rear projection adds legitimacy to the scene and conveys a strong feeling of place. Their location in a hotel room is made real by being able to view all parts of the room, even a glimpse of the neon "Motel" sign which shines through the translucent window curtain. This scene was most likely not filmed in a hotel room with walls on all sides of them; otherwise film makers would have had a hard time fitting and moving their equipment. Most likely, James Stewart and Kim Novak stood in the studio with a blank screen behind them while the camera circled their kiss. Rear projection was then used to project the image of the hotel room as the background, placing the foreground action in front of the background imagery (2).

Arc shot with cuts (in series)

An arc shot is a film technique where the camera moves in an arc around a given scene. More specifically, the arc shot is a simple procedure where the subject being photographed is circled by the camera (1). Cuts are sometimes necessary throughout so that the crew filming the scene can adjust certain settings such as lighting. Also, the cuts allow the crew to change their positioning so that they are not in the picture when the camera comes full circle. The arc shot with cuts technique adds to the realism of a scene as the audience views the entire surroundings of the characters. See also arc shot with rear projection to learn how the arc shot can be accomplished with no cuts. The arc shot with cuts is illustrated in this film clip as the camera arcs around the main characters while in a restaurant. The camera begins to the right of Holly and nearly completes a 360-degree circle before cutting to the next scene. During this particular clip, the camera work accentuates the central character, Lee, as it circles the table while mostly focusing on her even as the other women are talking. As the camera arcs around the characters, the viewer better understands their surroundings and realizes the seriousness of their conversation for them to fight in such an elegant restaurant.

Iris

An iris is a circular mask (usually black) that is placed over the camera lens in order to block off part of a frame (1). It can gradually contract or expand depending upon the desired effect. It is used as an editing technique either to emphasize a particular detail in a scene by closing down around it, called iris-out, or to widen the field of vision by opening up from a detail, called iris-in (1). This effect is often used at the beginning or end of a scene for continuity in a transition. The iris technique was used more often in silent films and early cinema; its use is rare in most contemporary films (2). This sample clip, excerpted from the opening newsreel montage in Citizen Kane, illustrates the iris-in technique as the iris expands from the single word "Chronicle" in the title of the newspaper to eventually reveal the entire top half of the front page. As the iris expands, the camera also zooms out, enhancing the effect. Welles might have used the iris in this scene because the lead story exposes Kane's love affair with the opera singer Susan and figuratively "opens the eyes" of the public to this scandal.

Shot analysis example

Any shot has multiple technical dimensions to it. The following information is provided to aid in analyzing different aspects of movies and provide an example of the types of things to look for during the midterm exam. When Jack Nicholson and Shelley Duvall are first walking down the hallway looking into the small bedroom, we only see them from the waist up. This is a medium shot. In this same shot we see what is called an action match which means the camera's action matches the action of a character. Therefore, the camera is seeing what the character sees. In this case, the camera pans left and looks into the room just as Jack does. Panning is also another technique used in this scene. This is when the camera moves in a somewhat scanning way to reveal more of a scene or situation that the viewer would be unable to see if the camera stayed in the same position (1). As they move through the doorway the filming is being done by hand held tracking. Tracking occurs anytime the camera is physically moved (2). Hand held tracking occurs when the camera is actually being held in someone's hand and not on a dolly (2). In this case, hand held tracking is being used because a dolly could not fit through the doorway. (see also "tracking shot" and "handheld") Before Jack and Shelley enter the bathroom and Jack is checking out the bed, we see an example of zooming and tracking. (see also "track" and "zoom") The zoom occurs when the lens gets closer to Jack. Zooming is often used to increase the interest in a scene (1). In this shot, the camera is also simultaneously moving through the doorway to the bathroom, which again demonstrates tracking. As Jack and Shelley begin entering the bathroom they are being framed. The camera literally frames them with the doorway. Also, once Jack and Shelley enter the bathroom we can see that a backlight is being used, because there is additional lighting in the scene. (also see "lighting") At the end of this clip, we see the fading out of Jack and Shelly in the bathroom and the fading in of the next scene. This is a transitional effect known as a cross dissolve. The two clips are crossing one another while simultaneously one is dissolving in and the other is dissolving out. (see also "tracking with dissolves")

Early example of depth of field

As the camera lens focuses sharply on one figure, depth of field is the measurement indicating the amount of extra focus that is given to the foreground and background of the main figure (1). This brings certain shapes into better focus than others in front or behind it, as they remain somewhat blurry. The lower the measurement, the more concentration is centered on the main figure; the greater/deeper the depth of field is, the more focus will be distributed evenly to all aspects of the scene, allowing us to view the figure within its surroundings (2). Early examples of depth of field don't provide a great sharpness to distinguish key figures (3). Although the quality of the film and the digital clip make this entire scene seem grainy or out of focus, this clip is actually a good early example of a deep field of focus. The subjects are each relatively in focus as they move from the foreground to the background. The pier helps support the sense of depth and perspective. To have a deep field of focus, one generally needs a tight camera aperture, which then typically requires abundant light to expose the film properly. Thus, it's no surprise that early examples of deep focus, such as this one, are shot in very bright, outdoor, natural light.

Color repetition

As the name color repetition seems to present, I feel it can be defined as the deliberate repeating of certain colors, no more than 2 or 3, within a given scene or time period within the film. The repeating of the colors is done so with substantial detail in order for the director to use the colors as a metaphor or symbolism for what is actually the events and the characters that are taking place within the scene. The director can use certain objects around the setting of the scene to express a theme he is trying to put across to his audience. In the movie Sirc the scene that I watched was very interesting in its color repetition and gave me a strong sense of the division of the characters the director was trying to get across. The scene opens with a black woman holding a red bag, red and blue are the colors we are concerned with in this scene, she enters a class of all white children seemingly in school uniforms which are all blue. The lady is trying to find her child, who happens to be a white girl that is very embarrassed by the appearance of her black mother and does not want the red bag, she then runs out of the classroom and goes through a table full of coats that are all either red or blue, she chooses a blue coat, runs out of the school past two red signs until finally being stopping to see her mother carrying the red bag, then the scene ends. The director was clearing using the red and blue as a metaphor for the embarrassment of the white girl for her peers to know she had a black mother, a strong symbol of the power or racial tension in America at the time.

Color noir

As the term might suggest, "color noir" refers to a film noir movie shot in color. Typically, the term "film noir" suggests films shot in black and white in order to darken the shot and to heighten tension between dark and light (see terms "noir lighting" and "film noir" for further detail). More recent films in the genre, shot in color, are conventionally referred to as "neo-noir." This clip, from the opening credits of Chinatown, demonstrates the neo-noir quality of Roman Polanski's film-making. His deliberate homage to the noir genre is evident by Polanski's choice both to shoot the credits in a sepia tone, and to introduce the viewer to the action of the movie through a black and white photograph. The viewer is given the impression that the movie itself will be shot entirely in black and white until the camera retracts from what the audience discovers is a black and white evidence photo, being referenced in a world of color.

Associative editing

Associative editing is the art of cutting shots and placing them in a specific order to establish a metaphorical connection. Directors can achieve these symbolic--as opposed to narrative--relationships by using quick jump cuts as well as sharp juxtapositions (1). In addition, certain elements portrayed in these shots are associated in ways that enable the viewer to make intuitive leaps about the scene's deeper meanings. For example, if a shot of a rainbow follows a shot of a young couple getting married, the audience can infer that their relationship will continue to be happy and successful. It is important to note that the juxtaposition of shots can also present specific contrasts as well as comparisons (2). The sample clip of Blue Velvet uses associative editing to illustrate the heart attack of Jack Harvey (Mr. Beaumont) through images of a malfunctioning garden hose. For example, the camera first focuses on the clogging of the garden hose and the escalation of water pressure. Then, the camera reverts to a shot of Jack Harvey becoming physically paralyzed as he violently grabs his arm and chest. This associative editing suggests that Harvey's arteries, symbolized by the garden hose, are becoming blocked and that his blood pressure is rising dangerously. This vivid representation of a physical blockage enables the viewer to visualize and understand what is going on inside of Harvey's body. The association between the garden hose and Harvey's arteries is further emphasized when the hose becomes kinked and entangled, and Harvey, mirroring the hose, grabs his throat and struggles to breathe. By reverting back and forth between shots of Harvey and the garden hose, the suspense of the scene intensifies. Harvey's death is also foreshadowed by the use of associative editing. For example, as Priscilla Pointer (Mrs. Beaumont) watches T.V., the camera focuses on a gun that is portrayed on the television screen, and then the shot switches to Harvey watering his garden. This juxtaposition of shots serves as an omen to the viewer that something negative will happen soon.

Background and foregeound

Background and foreground are elements of a scene that give depth to a shot and frame the action (2). Background is the distant plane within a scene. Foreground is the close plane. The background acts as a setting behind the action or imagery in the foreground (1). The two planes can interact with the middle ground to unveil relationships between different people and objects in the various planes. Emphasis on a specific plane gives emphasis on the objects in that plane. The placement of the boy in the background and the lady in the foreground interacts with the conversation between the lady and the father. The conversation is about the boy's future, however, he is lost in the background out of the window. His placement out of the focus of the scene, and the lady's, in the foreground, foreshadows the lack of importance in the boys actual future in the conversation. The father is the link between the two planes, in the middle ground. He opposes the view taken by the lady, although, his placement behind the lady gives the impression of his inferiority in the argument (3). The (dis)agreement about the boy's future is evident when the conversation begins because of the interaction between the background and foreground.

Blocking

Before a movie can be filmed, every aspect of the movie has to be carefully planned out, including blocking. Blocking refers to the process of putting together the visual aspects of each scene to be filmed. During blocking, it is decided where the actors will be and where the cameras will be placed to best capture the action of the scene (1). As a part of this process, a rehearsal usually takes place to allow the production crew, director, actors and camerapersons to effectively construct the scene for filming (2). They also exchange ideas and discuss problems as the action is blocked or charted on the floor or on location (3). The sample clip starts with a boy playing in the snow in the center of the frame. As the camera zooms out and shows the interior of the boarding house (established by the shot of the snowball hitting the sign), we see the other characters that the action of the scene will center around. The mother is placed on one side of the window and the lawyer is on the other so that the audience can still see the boy outside. As the camera continues to zoom out, following the action of the characters as they move further into the house, the boy is still seen out the window in the background of almost the entire scene (which is important because he is the subject of the discussion in the scene and the subject of the film itself). This allows the characters of the scene to be in the same shot. The last shot shows the mother in the center of the foreground with the father and lawyer in the background on either side of her, representing the opposing arguments of the men about what the mothe! R should do. This way of setting up the scene (where the characters and cameras are placed) is no accident, and it is the result of meticulous planning so that the audience will see all of the important visual aspects of the scene, which can convey important meaning.

Russian film stock

Before shooting the first scene, the director must choose a film stock: the physical film with a clear base that is light-sensitive on one side (1). Filmmakers choose from many film stocks, all producing a different color quality. To create uniformity, most countries standardize their film stocks; for instance, America uses the ASA guidelines while Russia employs the GOST standard (2). These standards control for "densities and contrasts" that eliminate any graininess or flickers (3). Color quality is extremely sensitive as color film stock accepts a much smaller brightness ratio than black-and-white films (2). Because of this variability, filmmakers use different film stocks to produce grainy or distinct images to invoke an emotional response. In the clip, the Russian film stock creates color that forms a blurriness pervading the characters' lives. At first, the movie appears almost black-and-white with a little brown added. The only color that breaks these neutral tones is the skin colors. Combined with the low lighting, the grainy grey scale creates a very drab existence. Shot without any cuts, the scene tracks through the house revealing a monotony of color. The uniformity of color augments the graininess of the film showing an almost static background which the actors move across. As the scene tracks outside, the lush greens and vibrant orange-yellow of the fire overload the screen. Contrasting with the previously bland shots, the intensity of color illustrates the dramatic effect of the fire upon the characters. By using Russian film stock, the director conveys the texture of the characters' lives while providing smooth transitions with black-and-white scenes intermixed throughout the rest of the movie.

Zoom with wide angle lens

By employing a zoom lens, the cinematographer is able to alter the focal length of a shot in accord with the director's vision of the scene. While a telephoto range literally "zooms" in on the distanced subject, magnifying it within the shot by flattening the foreground and background, a wide angle lens highlights the difference between the foreground and background, making the subject appear smaller to emphasize its distance from the camera (imitating the viewer's perspective) (1). Specifically, a wide angle lens measures 30 mm or less, as opposed to 35mm shooting. In the clip, the opening scene from The Conversation, the camera begins with a wider angle than usual to emphasize the distance of the aerial perspective from the people on the ground. The people in the shot are increasingly enlarged as the camera zooms in to focus on the mime awkwardly imitating pedestrians in the lower left hand corner of the screen. The camera then transitions its focus from the mime to Gene Hackman as he moves away from the imitator.

Cinema verite

Cinema verite literally translates as film truth. French filmmakers developed this style in the late 1960's. Cinema verite is a type of movie that shows normal people doing actual activities without being controlled by a director. This is a unique style, in that it is much different than the typical feature film in Hollywood. Rather than having professional, high paid actors, expensive sets and props, and exotic locations; cinema verite utilizes inexpensive equipment, hand-held cameras, actual locations, non-actors, as well as a relatively small budget. A central characteristic of cinema verite is the use of real people in unrehearsed situations. The use of small cameras is done so that actors will hopefully forget the about them and simply behave as they normally would. Moreover, props and sets are not used. All scenes are shot on location, wherever that may be, in a store, a car, etc (2). This scene from Bowling for Columbine is a perfect example of cinema verite. It employs every characteristic from this distinctive style of film. Initially, the shot moves from a car through a parking lot and into the Kmart headquarters building, a very commonplace activity. It shows normal people doing normal things out of their daily lives. For instance, waiting for the person in front of you to move through a door so that you, yourself, can pass through; or helping a handicapped person up the stairs, because there is not a ramp to use. In addition, we see a patron approach the counter and ask to speak to a particular individual. This was obviously in real time and unrehearsed, as we see the employee respond by asking the man to turn the camera off. Camera work is another obvious distinction this scene has from other feature films. It is very apparent in this scene that the camera is not set, because the camera bounces and slides around as the cameraman moves. Mo! Reover, the quality of the film is not "feature film caliber." It looks more like a home movie than a movie produced by a studio for profit.

Color achieved through lighting

Color achieved through lighting is really exactly what the phrase says. This term refers to a filmmaker's use of colored light in certain scenes, often giving the entire shot a colored glow. For example, a green neon light outside a window can cast the entire room in a green hue. A director might choose to use colored lighting in order to emphasize specific emotions or symbols associated with that color; for example, using blue to suggest sadness or red to indicate danger or a passionate emotion such as anger or love. This technique can be very subtle, as the color provided is softer than, say, painting the walls in that shade, and it is efficient and effective, as one single light source can illuminate the entire set with the desired tint. The sample clip from Vertigo features James Stewart as Scottie with Kim Novak as Judy in her hotel room. Outside the window, there is indeed a green neon light, which shines in, bathing the entire room in a green glow. One in-depth review suggested that colors, especially red, green and blue, were integral throughout the film and provided much of its symbolism (1). Green, perhaps, represents an Edenic perfection, which, in this scene, Scottie seems close to reaching with Judy. Hitchcock also clearly is trying to make this scene look dreamlike or ghostly (as when Judy emerges from the bathroom and appears to be surrounded by a mist or fog), and certainly filling the room with green light helps create that eerie feeling

Saturated colors

Colors, in general, may be described as being saturated or unsaturated. Saturation is the term referring to the dilution of a color by white light (1). A saturated color is deep and bright; whereas an unsaturated color would appear to be more pastel (1). Saturated colors therefore have little dilution and are closest to the pure form of the specific color. Often, saturated colors appear to be unnatural due to their vibrancy. White light is present everywhere, and colors are rarely seen naturally without some degree of dilution. The sample clip shows the opening scenes of the movie, Blue Velvet. Beginning with a shot of bright, red roses set against a white picket fence and a vivid blue sky; the audience is confronted with starkly contrasting, unrealistically vibrant colors. Lynch chooses this technique to aid in his portrayal of the illusion of "small-town America." These dreamlike sequences create a fantasy that enhances the grotesque nature of the rest of the film (2). Lynch's use of color in Blue Velvet has been compared to that of the Wizard of Oz; both films use color to highlight the contrast between reality and fantasy (2).

Cross cutting

Cross cutting (also known as parallel editing or parallel cutting) is the relationship between two or more separate scenes that are occurring simultaneously (1). The scenes are filmed, then spliced together in short clips with the intention of impressing the viewer with this separate and simultaneous action. Without this technique, the connection between these scenes would be left to the audience. Cross cutting is found in action films, often during chases. The film cuts back and forth between the person being chased and the pursuer. (2). The sample clip uses cross cutting to follow Detective Doyle in a car as he chases Alain Charnie. Doyle commandeers a car under the elevated train, on which Charnie shoots a police officer and another passenger. The clip cuts between Doyle and Charnie. Doyle drives wildly; swerving to avoid cars, trucks, and people in his way. Meanwhile, Charnie is running to the front of the train, killing a police officer and another passenger. Charnie then holds the engineer at gunpoint, and the engineer dies of what appears to be a heart attack. Also, the viewer watches part of this scene through a first person camera angle (what Doyle sees as he is frantically chasing the train). Imagine trying to convey the intensity and events of this scene without cross-cutting--it would be confusing to see Hackman driving around frantically without knowing exactly what he's chasing above.

Cutting for reaction shots (psychology of cutting)

Cutting for reaction shots is a technique used to show an immediate shot of an actor's reaction, or a group's reaction, to an event on film. A cutaway shot, in which the camera cuts immediately from one scene or viewing angle to another, is used to transition from the scene in which the event occurs to a shot or a close-up of the reacting actor's face. (see also close-up) This film clip demonstrates the use of cutting for a reaction shot twice during the conversation between Phillip Marlowe (Humphrey Bogart) and the book seller (Dorothy Malone). The technique is implemented immediately after Marlowe flips up his hat, puts on his glasses and asks the book seller, 'Do you remember me now, hmm?' The camera cuts immediately to a close-up of her face, revealing that she is perturbed. The technique is used a second time after Marlowe asks her 'Is Geiger in?' The camera again cuts directly to her, revealing that she is made nervous and uneasy by his last question. By using this technique, a director is able to capture the instantaneous reactions of his characters, thereby revealing their initial emotional responses; thus, this technique is sometimes called the 'psychology of cutting.'

Deep focus (democratic shot)

Deep focus is a photography technique that was later applied to film in which the foreground, middle ground, and background in a scene are all in focus. This is accomplished using camera lenses and lighting. Gregg Toland is widely known for his use of this technique in film, especially in Citizen Kane (1). This technique is highly related to depth of field, or which aspects of the scene are in focus according to the distance from the camera. The depth of field for deep focus photography must be large to include the staging for the whole scene (2). Because deep focus allows the viewer to see the whole scene in focus, the viewer can be given an omniscient, unbiased perspective. For this viewing experience, the viewer may choose what to watch and determine the overall meaning of the scene. Deep focus does not allow for as much directorial editorializing, because all aspects of the situation are in focus for the viewer to see. This gives films depth, allows for multiple interpretations and psychological complexity, and adds dramatic irony in a scene or film. For example, when the men at the bar react to Homer's ability to play the piano despite his handicap, we see their amazement and discomfort, but Homer cannot. The viewer must draw her own conclusions about how their reactions fit into the scene and what meaning they add to the film.

Early example of deep space (v deep focus)

Deep space is a way of demonstrating distance or space within a scene by placing significant objects both far from and near to the camera (1). The two objects do not need to be in focus for deep space (1). In contrast, deep focus, which also shows space or distance between objects in a shot, uses the camera lens and lighting to keep all aspects in the plane of the shot in sharp focus (2). This includes elements in the nearground, the middleground, and the background of the shot (2). Both deep space and deep focus emphasize depth within the plane of the scene and space between different objects, including people, things, and places. Deep space and deep focus can also be used to illustrate emotional or metaphorical distance between characters or entities (1). The sample clip portrays the townspeople awaiting an approaching carriage. The townspeople are situated in the nearground in the scene, and the carriage is in the background. As the carriage moves toward the nearground and the waiting townspeople, and eventually arrives, the use of deep space serves to emphasize the journey from which they have returned and the distance they have traveled physically, from the far plane of the scene to the nearground. Additionally, as the awaiting townspeople celebrate the return, the metaphorical distance they have traveled to triumph over the Indians is also demonstrated.

Tracking shot (dolly + high angle)

Defined as a type of "mobile framing that travels through space forward, backward, or laterally," a tracking shot emphasizes the smoothness of transition from one space to another, following a character's movement or a theme through different environments (1). The fluidity of this style of film-making is further emphasized by the use of a dolly, a mobile construction that moves the entire camera on a device, maintaining the same distance between the subject and camera (2). The addition of the high-angle lens gives the effect of height and expanse, with the camera's upward tilt from a lower level creating a sense of reverence to the subject being filmed. In this clip, from _________, the camera smoothly follows the ceiling as the narrator describes the elegance and regal quality of the subject. Note the slow and smooth movement of the camera as it follows the natural flow of the ceiling. This, combined with the narrator's smooth and even pitch as he describes the deathly silence of the mansion, gives the scene an eerie quality, as if the viewer floats through the quiet and expansive mansion of another age and another world.

Method acting

Description Method actor or method acting is a popular term used to describe any actors or actresses that used the Stanislavsky method of naturalistic acting. Naturalistic acting or naturalism was a stylistic approach in literature, drama, or film to emphasis reality in art. All artifice is done away with and the environment within the film, stage or literature becomes the major condition for the outcomes of the characters. Actors/actresses according to the naturalist approach would use the settings in the film, stage, as a way to determine the development of the characters behavior. It combined "a psychological attitude with learned technical skills" of acting to produce a more realistic approach to visual art. So those who studied the Stanislavsky methods in naturalism were known to be method actors. Method acting became popular in the 1930's when directors and actor studios sought to bring greater realism in character interpretation. Actors and actresses like Marlon Brando, Julie Harrris, and James Dean who came through these Actor Studios are some of the first to incorporate this new acting style within the American filmmaking. In the clip from the movie The Shining (1980) Jack Nicholson, who is playing the antagonist within the film, is using the different naturalistic approaches mention before to create a character that comes off to the audience as realistic villain. As Nicholson's character (the father) stalks the character played by Shelley Duvall (the mother) the audience gets to see the depth and the actual psychological status of these characters. As Nicholson stalks the mother he incorporates the environment (the setting) as a way to intimidate by walking slowly around chairs and looking through a phone book just including basic every-day-things to further make the scene more realistic. Also at the same time he uses mannerisms and facial expressions to reveal his agitation. Even his speech with its calm, stern, and cold tone helps to further illustrates his mindset. The audience can gather from these actions that something bad is soon to happen or just that his character is sinister. Nichol! Son's method acting allows for the audiences to visually see and understand the depth of the character that could not just be represented just by the dialogue by the character. Shelley Duvall's response and counteraction to Nicholson by her emotional display is also a way to view the magnitude of the fathers psyche on the other characters in the film. The method acting in the clip is what brings the horror and thriller category to this film. It makes the characters more realistic to audience, which makes the movie watching experience more enjoyable.

Digital color

Digital color is color created and implemented digitally, or merely the manipulation, or creation, of color strictly through digital means. Digital color can be employed to manipulate, or create, atmospheric and natural color, as well as, artificial lighting situations using unnatural hues. The processing of digital color takes place within the digital medium of computer software. Digital color is used widely, yet subtly, throughout the film, Amelie. For instance, there is a particular scene involving Amelie in her apartment, which is all yellow, green and red, setting in front of a table cutting letters out of paper. In this situation, there is a lamp on the table situated to Amelie's left. The lamp has a very bright blue lamp shade. This blue color that is so vibrant is an entirely ersatz effect. The blue was implemented digitally as a blue point against the red scenery (1). In a similar scene, Amelie is in her apartment on her couch. This situation was also mostly all red. To Amelie's right there is a glass lamp that is very bright and blue. The lamp is entirely artificial, and obviously so, because the bright blue lamp appears to be turned on yet the blue color from the lamp has no affect on its surroundings. There is only a hint of reflected color on the dresser where it is placed, but otherwise, there is nothing. The purpose of the spots of blue is to create an interesting discord between the rest of the scene and a subtle lone object.

Dramatic color opposition

Dramatic color opposition can be used as a technique to draw the eyes of the audience to specific areas of the screen in particular moments. Juxtaposing extreme colors simultaneously, or making sudden changes in contrasting colors can effectively draw focus to different areas of the screen (1), and change the tone of scenes significantly. Dramatic color opposition can be achieved through a variety of extremely simple and technical methods, including the use of lighting, digital effects and camera filters. The use of dramatic color opposition in the sample clip contributes significantly to the tone of the scene. The bright yellow-green smoke against the dark jungle in the first few seconds helps to create a dreamlike state. This is a crucial element to the stream-of-consciousness style the director strives to create throughout the entire film (2). The sudden introduction of bright fiery orange and red to the screen accentuates the violence of the explosions in the background. The original mood of the scene created by the haze of the smoke and the music in the background is jolted by the flashes of an opposing color. The color opposition bends the viewer's previous stream of thought and points it in another direction, as the camera moves for the first time during the final few seconds of the clip.

Extreme wide angle lens that distorts space

Extreme wide-angle lenses can be used to create a number of visual effects that result in, well, the distortion of space. First, a photographer/cameraperson is able to have more area in the picture than with a regular lens. Second, it amplifies the distance between an object and the camera such that objects closer to the camera are disproportionately larger then objects in the background. This leads to the picture/screen having a curved looked as opposed to a flat one. This curved look should also be contrasted with the spherical appearance one can achieve with a fish-eye lens. While wide-angle lenses can capture more than regular lenses, because of the distortion of space, wide-angle lenses can also make a small area seem more spacious. The clip that correlates to this definition. Twenty-first century eyes can easily detect in this 1960s movie that the room being shot is not terribly large, though one cannot deny the appearance of spaciousness in the clip. What's more is that in this clip, the camera moves so that not only does one experience the qualities of an extreme wide-angle lens, one also experiences the different affects that can be achieved by changing the angle of the camera. (see also fish-eye lens)

Fade to white

Fade to White is an optical effect in which the image of a scene gradually fades into a white screen. This effect is used as a transitional device to signify a strong break in a film's continuity, indicating a change in time, location, or subject matter(1). This is created by a gradual decrease of exposure for each frame with the last frame completely white(1). This effect is very similar to a fade to black, in which the image of a scene gradually fades to a black screen. A fade to white is usually created in the lab in the printing phase. The negative cutter cuts an overlap of white into the A&B rolls(2). Fades can only be done in fixed amounts, such as 24 frames, 48 frames, etc(2). The fade to white device used at the end of the scene in this clip provides an outlet for transition, which could also be seen as an escape. At the end of the scene, the camera begins to spin and the images slowly fade into a white screen. The spinning of the camera spurs feelings of confusion and disorientation. However, these unsettling feelings are shut off as the screen fades to white. Similar to the fade to black device, this effect closes the book on this particular chapter in the film.

High angle

Films are shot using multiple camera angles, one which is high-angle. The camera angle is how the camera is placed in comparison with the image being filmed. In a high-angle shot, the camera is placed above eye level of the actor and films with a downward angle (1). High-angle shots are often used to make one actor seem more important than another. Since with a high-angle shot the audience is looking down on the actor, it "gives the audience a sense of power" (2). There are also low-angle shots where the camera is placed below the image it is filming and films with an upward angle. Low-angle shots are often used by actors, such as Sylvester Stallone, to make them look taller. High-angle shots have the opposite affect. The Graduate utilizes high-angle shots in its production. One famous scene that uses a high-angle shot is when Dustin Hoffman, Ben, is in a raised gallery overlooking Elaine get married. The camera angle films Elaine getting married from the point of view of Ben looking down, and therefore is a high-angle shot. The angle makes Elaine and her groom seem smaller than Hoffman and therefore less important.

Technicolor (saturated)

First pioneered in the 1930's, Technicolor became widely known and celebrated for its hyper-realistic, saturated levels of color, and was used commonly used for filming musicals such as The Wizard of Oz and Singin' in the Rain (3). The richness of color was achieved by means of a specialized designed camera and sophisticated printing process, however, Technicolor needed a significant amount of light on the set and the light had to favor certain hues and it was an expensive process (1). At first Technicolor came out as a two strip process which produced sickly skies in long shots but then evolved into a three strip process which utilized red, blue and green so that all colors could be faithfully reproduced thus drastically improving upon the two strip process. The three strip Technicolor process does not involve color film strips but instead three strips of black-and-white film with each color being registered onto a different strip of film through filters thus producing a black and white record of each color (2). Then each of the three films are soaked with a dye that is an exact chromatic opposite to the color in question: cyan for red, magenta for green and yellow for blue. Afterwards the colors were brought to a single clear strip of film which was referred to as "dye imbibation," from which the final strip of film would have all the dyes soaked into the film thereby producing the rich and deeply saturated color (3). Before Technicolor, all color films were produced only using one strip of film with all the colors contained on the one strip thereby not producing the deeply rich and dazzling colors that Technicolor was able to create. The sample clip illustrates the vibrant colors that are possible when using Technicolor, such as the rich reds in the sky background and the red the spotlight produces on the two people, along with the brilliant blues when the man places the spotlight on the girl. Even though the lighting remains dim throughout the scene the colors are still easily distinguished, detailed and vibrant. Notice the rich color in the background painted sky which is offset by the darkness of the foreground. Donen and Kelly would have chosen Technicolor not only because it was the best choice available for quality colors but also because they were directing a musical. Generally musicals are known for their exaggerated and cartoon-like colors which is the exact effect that Technicolor gives to Singin' in the Rain.

Framing

Framing is creating the on-screen borders of a certain shot. When a person holds his hands out with the forefingers and thumbs making a square to view something, that is an example of framing. Frames give definition to the shot and provide a certain vantage point onto the material within the image (1). Frames are created with lines (vertical, horizontal and slanted) that occur in the shot. Building tops, poles, horizons - anything linear can be used to frame a shot. Frames can be balanced and symmetric or unbalanced and asymmetric. Open-frame compositions keep the shot open and endless, as the camera's eye does not restrict the frame (2). Closed-frame compositions use lines to focus on the objects (2). An internal frame refers to objects that enclose other figures, such as a mirror, window or door (2). Similar to these terms are tight framing when the subject is constrained and loose framing when there is free space between the subject and the frame(3). Canted framing means a tilt of the camera that makes the objects appear slanted. A mobile frame is one that moves and changes because the camera is moving. Examples would be the pan, tilt, tracking shot and crane shot. The antithesis of the frame is the off-screen space. Other elements involving the frame include distance, angle and height, which have been defined further by other contributors. Citizen Kane: Multimillionaire newspaper tycoon Charles Foster Kane, played by director Orson Welles, dies at his private estate and castle, Xanadu. As Kane dies in the opening scene, he utters the word rosebud. Jedediah Leland, a reporter played by Joseph Cotton, visits family, friends and coworkers to find out the significance of his last word, and in the process revealing Kane's life and how he came about his fortune (4). In one clip, a young Charles (Buddy Swan) is playing outside in the snow. The scene has an open frame created by a monotone, snow covered ground and overcast sky. The child playing and the open frame create a feeling of freedom and carelessness, the opposite emotions of what is going on inside. His mother (Agnes Moorehead), who is inside, yells out the window at him, and the camera then moves back so the window becomes smaller and turns into the background. This mobile frame keeps Charles as the focus as he fades to the background. He is now in an internal frame, or frame within the shot, created by the window. His mother, father (Harry Shannon) and Mr. Thatcher (George Coulouris) are in the foreground, finalizing Charles' placement into the guardianship of a bank. Yet, the frame around Charles brings the viewer's attention to him. As he is the focus of the conversation, thanks to the frame, he is also the focus of the scene even though he is in the background.

Orange filter

Garvin Entertainment Partners, Inc. Describes a filter as "a tinted glass or small tinted plastic sheet placed in front of the lens or behind the lens in a filter holder, used to change the color rendition of the entire shot (1)." Realityfilm.com seconds this definition with its description of a filter as "glass or gel placed before or behind a camera lens to change the effect of the lighting within the frame (2)" The term, orange filter, refers to the use of a glass with an orange tint that alters the color of anything viewed by the lens of the camera. Garvin Entertainment Partners' website (www.gepi.tv) also elaborates that "color film for outdoor shooting is balanced for daylight, otherwise the image would appear blue in hue." If a camera is using daylight balanced film indoors without a correction filter the image will have a orange hue. Thus, it is very likely that movies being filmed outside use an orange filter to give off the essence of daytime as opposed to a more darkened blue hue. The clip from the movie "Do the Right Thing" gives a prime example of how orange filter is often used in Hollywood. This movie takes place on a sweltering day and it is imperative that the outside scenery appear bright and hot. Orange is typically thought of as a "warm" color and has an aura of heat. It was in the director's best interests to use the orange filter to avoid the calming, cooler blue hue that would have invaded this scene given the orange filter had been absent. Aside from the theoretical advantages of using an orange filter in this scene, its reality turns out beautiful, also. The entire scene has an obvious orange tint to it, as the same camera pans out from the radio station and shoots the street. One is able to listen to the disc jockey talk about how hot it is supposed to be on that day, and take a look at a heated scene (a scene that appears so heated because of the orange filter). The use of the orange filter is maximized in this scene, to say the least.

Graphic match

Graphic match is seen when two shots filmed one after another are joined to produce a significant relationship through repetition of color, shape, size, etc. (1,2). Graphic match is a popular technique used in many films to help the movie flow smoothly from one scene to another. The director often uses graphic match to help the viewer establish the connection between the two shots or objects. In others words, graphic match can be a nonverbal way of communicating a message or underlying meaning to the movie(2,3). The connection between these two successive shots is usually symbolic but can also allow for smooth transition from one frame to the next. In the clip, a graphic match is seen when the monkey throws the bone up into the air and remains there and then the next frame or scene switches over to the space ship. The space ship is about the same shape as the bone and is relatively in the same place on the screen in the next shot. Kubrick had a couple of reasons for choosing to relate the bone and the space ship. Kubrick uses this technique more likely to keep the viewers' eyes on the same point on the screen as he switches from one reality to another. Also, there is an emphasis on the bone and the space ship being relatively the same shape, showing that there must be some important connection between these two objects.(3) The hidden meaning behind this use of matching has to do with technology. The sample clip is the very first scene in the movie and where Kubrick suggests that technology has changed significantly over time. We see the monkey using the bone as a simple tool for destruction; it is being compared to the space ship, which is also a tool, albeit a more complicated.(3)

Hand painting

Hand painting refers to a technique that involves celluloid acetate (cel for short). A cel is a transparent material upon which animation films are created. Every individual character in a production frame requires a hand painted production cel. A single cel, or a group of many cels are then laid over a background painting. Once this is done, photographs are taken with the use of an animation camera, thus creating the finished film. The technique of painting on clear cels allows the creation of animation, giving life to the characters as they move through the environment. This technique has been widely popular with Walt Disney Productions, as they have been known to recreate cels of some of their most classic films such as Lady and the Tramp, Cinderella, and The Delivery Boy. The sample clip reveals a series of hand painting animation scenes with different background paintings. A simple dark background of a sky is apparent initially, as bright sun slowly appears, with the movement of clouds. The animation has a slightly fuzzy component, which is expected when representing a cloudy sky scene. The production cels in this scene are represented by the movement of the sun as it enlarges, and the clouds as they slowly move back and forth. As the scene changes the background is darker, alluding to the fire scene. This scene seems to be much more simple, with consistent patterns of flames dominating the entire frame. The scene changes to a more complicated clip in which fire has burned some of the land. The characters in the clip are moving about and wearing different colors, which suggest that a more complicated set of production cels were necessary for the composition of this scene. The director chose to use handing painting for this film to illustrate the animation of characters. This film is classified as a kids adventure movie, and therefore has a strong appeal to children.

Homage

Homage can be defined simply as an aspect in a film that pays honor or respect to a different film. In other words, directors may have "a cause to pay homage" (1). Directors and filmmakers pay homage to another film when they include elements of that film in their own work. An homage or paying homage to a film can be shown by the inclusion of cinematography techniques and content from the original film in the second film, but it does not have to be limited to these aspects. An homage can be as simple as adding similar background music or style of dialogue or it can be as complicated as duplicating an entire scene using the same or similar cinematography techniques like camera angles or lighting concepts. An homage can also be an exact duplication, like a student assignment to duplicate a scene from a film. It is important to note that homage can be as similar or as different to the original film as the director wants it to be. It also does not have to be limited to one scene or one aspect of the original film but can be as lengthy or brief and is up to the director's discretion. In the film The Graduate (1967) there is a scene in which the character, Benjamin played by Dustin Hoffman is in a scuba diving outfit and jumps into a pool while his parents and others look on (3). Director Wes Anderson, in his film Rushmore, included an homage to The Graduate in a scene in which Bill Murray jumps off a diving board and into a pool surrounded by onlookers (2). The scene in Rushmore is in homage to the scene in The Graduate in multiple ways. The most obvious similarity is in content when both actors jump into an empty pool with people surrounding them. The less obvious aspects would be the music in the background of the scene in Rushmore, which is reminiscent of the distinctive Simon and Garfunkle soundtrack in The Graduate. Also, Murray mimics Hoffman's countenance in his acting. Both are silent and independent of those around them while also melancholic. Murray's character stays in the pool long after it would have been natural for him to surface, like Hoffman's character, even though Murray is not wearing scuba gear. The coloring in Rushmore is also similar to The Graduate in the usage of blue and outside lighting. The underwater camera shots of Murray are inspired by the shots taken of Hoffman.

Low angle

In a low angle (LA) shot the camera is placed below the plane of the object that it is filming (1). The camera is then tilted upwards in an attempt to view the object from a lower vantage point. One can imagine talking to someone face to face and then squatting down, you are thus forced to raise your head in order to maintain eye contact with them. Varying camera angles can be used to affect how we feel towards a given object. A low angle shot is used to create the feeling of power or dominance toward the object we are viewing (2). The sample clip starts off with the camera at a high angle (HA) shot, slowly moves in to a straight on shot, and then finally ends with a low angle (LA) shot, all in order to show contrast. We are left to view Kane's speech from this low angle in order to give us the feeling that we too are part of the audience and his words are directed at us. By being on stage, elevated above the crowd, a sense of power and leadership is exuded. (see also high angle)

Character acting

In his online guide, "The Actor's Roadmap," Peter Malof explains character acting thusly: "The old-fashioned term 'character actor' used to refer to those who enjoyed putting on heavy makeup or thick accents. They tended to play oddballs or criminals with polished physicality"1. Today's actors are often trained in a variety of approaches; so, it in can be difficult or impossible to distinguish between the philosophies used to prepare for a specific role. In the crudest terms, character actors focus on the characteristics, mannerisms, or outward appearance of the role. Method acting emphasizes more a psychological, interior evaluation of the character. Character actors might ask, "What might the character look or act like?" Method actors might concentrate more on "What might the character think or feel?"--although these lines can become quickly blurred. This clip from the Godfather was selected because Michael's brother Fredo is a caricature, whose character is conveyed mostly through his exaggerated, almost predictable actions. Early on, Fredo fumbles guns, cries, and is at a loss for words. In this clip, he's schmoozy in the hallway and dances around the hotel suite in an almost clown-like representation of a cheesy

Over exposure

In order for an image to appear on film, some amount of light exposure is required. Overexposure is a technique that allows more than the normal amount of light to reach the film, creating a bright, washed-out image (1). The experience of overexposure is like that of emerging from a dark theatre into the sunlight, images are overly bright and hard to focus on (2). This technique is commonly used in films to signify pain, confusion or dreams. The opposite technique, underexposure, makes an image appear to be underlit. This technique is more commonly used in film, as it is an experience that occurs more in everyday life. In Traffic, Soderbergh uses the technique of overexposure in the scenes taking place in Mexico. By using this technique, the director separates the story taking place in Mexico from the other two stories going on simultaneously. These stories employ other coloring techniques that help the audience understand the seperation of the three stories (3). Overexposure gives scenes in Mexico a feeling of intense dry heat, which is quite characteristic of the Mexican climate. The bleached-out look of Mexico also makes it look old and dirty, like a worn-out photograph.

Tracking shot (crane)

In order to capture characters' movement to various locations and from different heights, it is necessary to use a tracking shot with a crane. A tracking shot is performed by placing a camera on a moving platform with wheels (usually a dolly). Rails similar to train tracks (but much shorter in distance) are set up to wind in the direction that the director wishes to capture the shot. However, it must be noted that rails do not have to be used in order to do a tracking shot, though it is the typical procedure. A crane that can typically rise up to twenty feet high then moves the camera around on the moving platform to not only follow character movement, but to capture this movement from various heights and angles by rising and falling as well. "Dizzying effects" can also be created using a crane by showing an aerial view of the set form far away followed by immediately focusing in on the characters. The main reason the tracking shot was invented was to obtain various perspectives of the characters and their movement as smoothly as possible. This particular shot should not be confused with zooming in or out, because tracking involves literally moving the camera while with zooming, the camera remains stationary. The sample clip offers a superb example of tracking movement using a crane. As the movie begins, the camera is very close in distance to the actor. As you can see, the camera is able to show us two different perspectives at the same time and separately in a short amount of time by using both the tracking method and a crane. The crane is especially crucial to this scene because it allows us to obtain different angles of the action as well as a view of what is happening from various heights. The dizzying effect of the camera moving really close to the actors and then far away in a short amount of time gives us a sense of disorientation that the characters (especially the woman) feel. The camera movement in this scenes varies from most tracking shots in that there is no use of rails. We know this because as the camera moves up, backwards, and left to right (essentially retracking places where the camera has been), we fail to see any tracks. Tracks were probably not used because the moving platform would have to retrace its steps in order to capture all the action and angles.

180 rule (playing with)

In the 180 rule, the camera is stationed on one side of a 180-degree line, so that the scene can be read going from left to right (1). This imaginary line helps orient the viewer to the location of the characters, or objects, and where they are in relation to each other (2). This visual technique can also be played with to manipulate the viewer's spatial orientation, and to transition from a scene. By playing with the 180-degree rule, the director can create suspense, confusion, and action. The movie The Shining offers a supreme example of this technique. Stanley Kubrick plays with the 180 rule, and by doing so, he arouses suspense and disorientation within the viewers. In the clip of the movie, Shelley Duvall enters the room with the breakfast cart. At first, the viewer is led to believe that Jack Nicholson is actually on Shelley Duvall's right side, but as the camera moves back, the viewer learns that they are actually looking at a mirror image of everything. The viewer is taken aback by the confusion and takes a minute to become reoriented. Using this technique leads the viewer to wonder if they are seeing the truth or if everything they see is a distortion. (see also 180 rule)

Eye line match

In this clip's flying sequences, we see the pilot looking toward the sky, then we see what he sees in the sky. In the lounge sequences, the characters start a sequence of looking at the other characters. The first character peers into the distance, then the next character turns to acknowledge the first character's look, then cutting back to the first character to confirm that the perceived second character is the intended character.

Blue filter

In this clip, from Payback, a blue filter has been positioned over the lens in order to give the scene a blue cast, signaling the dark and menacing quality of the action in this neo-noir film. The blue quality of the dismal scene is highlighted comically by Fairfax's (James Coburn) comment that he "wished he could say he was glad to be back. He was swimming with the dolphins this morning." The blue/gray New York sky reflects the morally dubious actions of Porter (Mel Gibson) questing as he is to get his money back at any costs and the even more despicable Fairfax who has no moral compass at all.

Steadicam

In this clip, from Stanley Kubrick's The Shining, the director uses a steadicam, or a "gimbel-balanced camera mount" to maintain a constant relationship to the shot being filmed (1). In this scene, note how the camera follows seamlessly Danny Torrence (Danny Lloyd) as he pedals his tricycle throughout the hotel's corridors. By following behind him, the camera mimics the young boy's movement and perspective in order to create suspense. The sound and seamless movement of the camera build up not only the physical momentum of the tricycle, but also the emotional momentum juxtaposing the boy's innocence and the evil hotel.

Match on action

Match On Action is a method employed when editing a film in order to convey precise chronological continuity between two different shots separated by a cut in a given action sequence. Through this technique the action shown in one view transitions simultaneously to that same action in a different view without a temporal break (1). This technique has the effect of concealing the cut through the presentation of continuous action through the scene (2) while adding diversity and energy through the camera movement onscreen and the change in the perspective of the audience (3). This sample clip from Z shows a scene in which one man is being attacked by various aggressors in a large crowd. The camera follows the victim through much of the one-minute scene as he is attacked. The transitions between the shots centered on the victim illustrate match on action. As the victim and the man with him move, there are cuts made in the film, but the audience sees every moment, because when one shot stops, another picks up at the exact same point in time. These different shots are seamless chronologically, making the cuts themselves almost imperceptible to a viewer engrossed in following the path of action through the area around the crowd and eventually into the ambulance. A particularly impressive example of this technique is seen when the victim and gentleman that is helping him fall to the ground. There is a significant cut made midway through their fall but because there is no temporal gap in time when the camera shots switch, it is not easily detectable.

Parallel montage (cross-cutting)

Parallel montage, also called cross-cutting, is the combination of disconnected images into a scene. Often used to convey a large amount of information in a short time, cross-cutting combines shots that depict the actions of various characters in rapid succession. The result of this combination accomplishes several goals. First, it shows the concurrent developments of several sub-plots. Second, it aids in the development of the film's themes (1). Cross-cutting is also an effective means of manipulating the natural progression of time (2). This scene of the Godfather depicts Michael Corleone, played by Al Pacino, in his ascension to the position of Godfather in both his family and in the Mafia. While Michael takes the vows to act as Godfather to his sister's son, the scene cuts to the assassinations of the heads of the major crime families in New York. Parallel Montage is an effective method for illustrating these events as it compresses a large amount of action into a few minutes and allows for the simultaneous viewing of the actions of several characters. Cross-cutting also illustrates that the family and business are inextricably linked; each provides context and directs the actions of the other. The compilation of these murders into interwoven clips accentuates the incongruity between the murders and the christening, enhancing the religious theme that runs through the trilogy.

Tracking shot (dolly)

Paramount to any tracking shot is the wheeled device commonly referred to as a dolly. Affixed to a dolly, a camera is capable of being pushed or pulled while simultaneously filming a shot. This filming technique is often employed to accentuate a specific character or object. Beginning the shot closely focused on a central character or object and then smoothly moving the camera back is a technique referred to as dolly-out. Conversely, opening the shot with a panoramic view, and then moving the camera closer to the significant object is designated as dolly-in (1). Though these tracking methods are mere opposites of one another, each gives an entirely different feel. This sample clip showcases the dolly-in technique, fixating on the various actors as they each begin their stereotype-laden tirades. The dolly-out shot effectively adds exposure to a scene, inviting the viewer to gaze at various objects or characters which were previously out of view (2). In opposition, the dolly-in shot diminishes view, forcing the viewer to take in an unambiguous focus. The technique utilized in this scene lucidly illustrates the racist animosity the characters have toward one another. Thrust into a maelstrom of hate, the viewer is converted into the recipient of the racial slurs. Placing the viewer in this position enable the dialogues of the characters to become more personal, and consequently, induce a stronger impact. The mechanics of dolly tracking are brought to our attention at the end of this clip, when Sam Jacskon 'dollies' toward the camera, rather than vice versa.

Rack to focus

Rack to focus is a filming technique in which the camera's focus shifts from one object to another (3). For example, an object in the foreground will be in focus and the lens slowly shifts to an object in the background (1). Rack to focus is also used to move the camera's focus from an object in the background to one in the foreground (1). In either case, the initial object of focus slowly is blurred while the new object comes into focus (2) This shot can be done either with a still or moving camera (2). The rack to focus shot is a useful technique that is often used to direct the attention of the audience from one object to another (4). In this particular example of rack to focus, the viewer's attention shifts from the airplane to Jack Nicholson's character. This is an example of rack to focus in which the focus moves from an object in the background, the airplane on the runway, to an object in the foreground, a man drinking at a bar. Focusing on each of these objects, but one immediately after the other, provokes the audience to think of how they might be related, or how each object holds a certain significance for the other. For instance, the viewer wonders if someone important to the character at the bar left on the flight and how this departure affects him personally.

Sepia tone to color

Sepia tone is a reddish-brown hue that occurs as a result of processing film with metallic compounds. This gives the film an "antique" appearance. In cinema, black and white images can be colored in sepia giving them a brownish tone that is tinted slightly red. Moving from sepia to color film is often a dramatic way to convey a change in emotional experience, shift the mood of the scene, or delineate between conceptual worlds. Moving from sepia tone to color has a powerful effect upon the audience because it is a signal that they should be paying attention to this scene since the film is going to make a sharp change of direction. Moving from the subdued sepia tone to colors strikes the audience's emotions and cues them in to the shift in direction in the film. In the Wizard of Oz, the Kansas scenes were all sepia toned while the scenes taking place in Oz were vividly colored. The contrast between the antique, dull appearance of the real world and the fantasy world of Oz is characterized by the emergence of colors. Moving from sepia tone to color signifies a changing of world. Dorothy leaves behind reality as she is propelled from her farmhouse by a horrific storm. As the cyclone dies and Dorothy steps from the antique, brown-tinted house, there is a dramatic change in the mood and plot of the film. The bright colors of Oz are a dramatic means in which to convey the shift between the two parts of the movie. In addition to the plot change that occurs as a result of the transfer to Oz, Dorothy's emergence into the colored world of Oz denotes a change in the pace and emotional crisis of the movie.

Steady cam

Steady cam is a camera rig and film technique using a special handheld camera. It is especially useful when a camera operator needs to follow the motion of the shot without the shakiness associated with most handheld shots. The camera is rigged with counter balances to minimize the up and down jerkiness of the film (1). It is also much more versatile and less bulky than other film techniques and camera movements such as crane shots. For example, the camera can move through doors and hallways while maintaining a clean, crisp shot. The sample clip for steady cam is a shot starting in the basement locker room of a boxing arena and moves out and up the stairs, through a hallway, and eventually onto the boxing ring. With the steady cam, the camera can follow all the motion of the actors without any breaks and it is not shaky at all. This movement would not be possible with other camera rigs. In this clip, the audience can get a real sense of being an observer to the action, and it makes the shot seem more lifelike in that you follow the preparation for the boxing match in its entirety from the locker room all the way to the ring.

Superimposition

Superimposition, also known as double exposure, is the exposure of two or more images on the same strip of film. This is done so that all the images superimposed on top of each other in the same frame can be seen at the same time (1, 2). Superimposing images can be done in a variety of ways. The same strip of film can be exposed in the camera more than once, or the film may be printed multiple times (1). It can also be accomplished digitally during the editing process. This is done by taking a digital image, a title, animation, or another strip of film and overlaying it on the original clip (2, 3). Editing software, such as Adobe Premiere, provides multiple tracks for footage or has separate processes in which superimposition can be done. Superimposition can also be seen during cross-dissolves and fade ins/fade outs (4). The sample clip uses superimposition when showing the machines at work. Gears are seen grinding and wheels are seen turning. Using superimposition, multiple clips of these gears, wheels, and levers are shown at once. This fills the entire screen with the guts of the machinery at work, overloading the senses and showing how important the machines are and how dependent the city is upon them. Metropolis shows that this mass of machinery relates to the mass of workers that keeps it running. There are also two different types of clocks shown, which relates to the fact that although the workers run the machines, the machines also run the workers. This constant churning of the machinery is therefore emphasized by the use of superimposition to show its importance in the lives of the workers and in the city's survival.

180 rule (transitioning along)

The 180 degree rule is one of the foundations for the rules of continuity editing. This rule suggests that the camera angle should never rotate more than 180 degrees within a given scene, because doing so may confuse the basic orientation of the characters and objects. But, it is possible for filmmakers to transition along the 180 degree line in order to display action from more than one side without disorienting viewers. In doing so, the shot and camera reside on one side of the action but then move 90 degrees or so before moving another 90 degrees, essentially reestablishing orientation as the camera eventually presents the action from opposing views. In this clip, the camera moves from the rear of the truck to one side. But, the camera almost always returns to a rear or front view before flipping to the opposite side. In other words, the camera never flips directly from the left to the right side of the truck, as that would confuse the direction of the action and the orientation of the elements on screen. But, since the action in the scene obviously takes place on both sides of the truck, the filmmakers must transition along the 180 degree line to reveal the entire scene without confusing viewers. (see also 180 rule)

180 rule

The 180 rule is an important cinematographic standard, upheld when a director is attempting to use multiple cameras in shooting a scene to give the audience several angles of the action taking place, and planning to later edit them together into one smooth sequence. The rule says that all of the cameras must be placed on one side of an imaginary axis, as a form of a reference point for the audience. The result is that the audience is able to continuously follow the action, even when viewing it from a sequence of different angles. If the 180 rule is broken, the result is usually a hard-to-follow, disoriented scene (1). The sample clip follows the final play of a basketball game. With a game as complicated as basketball, it is important for the audience to have a point of reference from which to interpret the scene, and the cinematographer follows the 180 rule to avoid confusion regarding the way the play unfolds. This sample clip does not actually exist in the film as such. It's actually a splice between clips from the first half and second half, making it seem as if the teams begin shooting at their own baskets. Splicing the two clips together this way demonstrates how confusing it can be when the 180 rule is broken. In the film itself, none of the cameras actually break the imaginary axis in place, however, and the result is that the game is much easier for the audience to follow, from the inbounds play until the shot hits and the buzzer sounds.

180 rule (breaking)

The 180 rule is that the camera must remain on one side of an imagined 180 degree line established between two people or objects. When this rule is broken by the camera switching from one side to the other, it gives the appearance that neither person is facing the other. This technique is used to change the perspective of the viewer, to change the mood of the scene and to create tension and confusion. The sample clip shows the 180 rule being broken by Welles in the 'Hall of Mirrors' scene with Elsa and Banister. When Banister enters the scene, the viewer is unsure where he is in relation to Elsa. This effect is created by the camera constantly switching between the different sides of the 180 degree line. Additionally, Welles uses numerous mirrors to create a complex array of different illusions and images. This purposefully confuses and disorients the viewer to reflect the complicated mystery of the plot. The convoluted tale of fraud, deception and betrayal reaches a climax in this scene, leaving the viewer confused as to who or what to believe. The multitude of reflections and images of the characters makes the viewer question which of their personalities is the true one. The breaking of the 180 rule enables Welles to illustrate the 'shattered relationships and fractured personalities' of these characters within the film (2).

Dutch angle

The Dutch angle is a type of camera angle that is differentiated by its diagonal axis. Put another way, the Dutch angle does not present the horizon as parallel to the top or bottom of the screen, but rather as a skewed line (1). The Dutch angle gives the impression that the camera is tilted to one side of its normal upright angle. This can be used to give the audience a slightly unsettled or uncomfortable feeling, usually to match the feeling of the character being filmed within the shot (2). This psycological effect can be enhanced by juxtaposing the Dutch angle with an angle on the normal horizontal axis. In the clip from "The Shining," the Dutch angle is used after a long tracking shot that moves parallel to the horizon. The camera lingers on Jack Nicholson for several moments as he is dragged across the floor by Shelley Duvall. Then, when she reaches the freezer door, the shot switches to a high angle over Jack Nicholson, focussing on Shelley Duvall as she attempts to open the door. When she finds she can't open the door, the shot switches to a Dutch angle as she repeatedly tries to make the door budge. This shot, along with her reaction, conveys a sense of exasperation and panic which is undoubtedly linked to her semi-conscious costar. The Dutch angle, by contrasting the other shots, enhances the feeling of escalating danger.

Dissolve through window

The camera closes in from a larger scene shot containing the window and fills the frame with it. The picture of the window (and what is behind it, if transparent enough) dissolves into a new scene of what lies beyond it. The camera can either zoom in on the window (using lenses), or it can physically track closer to it. The current shot is optically merged with the next shot, gradually replacing a fade out of the first shot with a fade in of the second(1). The purpose of the dissolve through a window is to move the audience from one side of the window to the other. Now that the audience is party to the second scene, previously unavailable to them, they can see and hear what is going on. The camera tracks to the window different ways, such as through the camera following a character's own look through the window, or an autonomous, voyeuristic camera that seizes upon the window on its own. In the clip from Citizen Kane, the dissolve is a double lap dissolve, using an out-of-focus rainy image as the medium between the exterior tracking shot and the interior shot. The director intentionally chooses to use a dissolve instead of a straight cut due to the different effect of the two. The straight-cut's "eye-blink" effect would have been slightly jarring to the audience, as their point of view would shift dramatically in place and time (2). However, the dissolve, with its prolonged change between scenes, gives ample time for the audience to realize that there is a change taking place, and thus the audience does not have to spend time thinking, "What just happened?" Furthermore, the device of moving an audience through a window offers the audience a feeling of omniscient power. By flying through a window to see what is going on inside, they do not have to follow the physical laws that the characters of the scene have to follow. Thus they realize that they are not observing the scene as an equal to the characters, but as an omnipotent. The audience's attitude toward seeing Susan sitting at the table after coming through the window is that they are seeing the real Susan, not a person tempered by being knowing that they are being watched. (see also lap dissolve)

Compression of time

The compression of time is the most utilized continuity technique. The purpose of time compression is to reduce insignificant parts of the plot. This can occur within and between scenes. Films accomplish this technique with a variety of methods. The most basic approaches to time compression are cuts and dissolves. This decreases what would occur in reality. For example, if a scene begins within a man entering an office building and then cuts to him walking towards his cubicle, the viewer's logic suggests that his cubicle is somewhere in the building. It is not important to portray him taking an elevator or climbing up the stairs. Therefore, real-time minutes and even days can be compressed into seconds (1). The sample clip compresses months into minutes. It follows H.I. (Cage) and his criminal exploits, which frequently lands him in jail. H.I. continually gets arrested, goes to the police station where he meets Ed (Hunter), spends time in jail, meets in front of a parole board, and then gets arrested again. This use of time compression is achieved by cuts. The time between the scenes is insignificant. The whole purpose of the time compression is to set up H.I. and Ed's desire to have a baby. After H.I. is finally paroled for good, cuts convey his marriage to Ed, his job, their desire to have children, Ed's infertility, their futile attempts at adoption, and their overall lost pleasure. What would take months in real-time is condensed into minutes. Thus, time compression effectively gives the background for what lies ahead.

Flashback

The film term flashback can be most accurately described as a method where the chronological order of the story is manipulated to jump from a present time frame in the film to an event or sequence that has happened in the past (1). This technique is often used to show the back-story of a character by revealing memories of past events in the character's life. The flashback is considered the antithesis of the term flash-forward, in which the story jumps from the present or past to events that happen in the future tense. A film that employs multiple use of the flashback is Memento (2). One solid example of this use is within a small portion of the film where the main character remembers his wife through examination and eventual burning of her belongings. The scene starts with the man sitting behind a small fire. He examines a hairbrush, which until the flashback sequence occurs is assumed to belong to someone with emotional ties to the man. The scene then flashes back to a memory of the man's wife brushing her hair. The sequence then flashes forward to a shot of the brush burning in the fire. Once again the man reminisces of his wife while handling a book that she admired and read diligently. Again the scene flashes back to his memory of watching his wife repeatedly read this book. And once again the scene flashes forward to the book in the fire. Thus, this use of flashback reveals to the viewer the man's back-story and clue about his previous life.

Tracking shot (handheld)

The handheld tracking shot is a technique involving a camera that is carried manually to follow the physical progress of the actors in a scene. A tracking shot is generally used when the subjects are moving over a moderately long distance. One function is to keep the size of the subjects constant as they move (1). Also, the tracking shot creates an observational point of view for the audience. 'The effect of the camera moving fluidly through space, omnipresent and omniscient, is in large part what creates the grandeur of cinematic space' (2). One benefit of the handheld method is that it is relatively inexpensive and not very time-consuming. Also, the movement of a handheld camera is not perfectly smooth, almost mimicking the natural movements of the actors themselves. In the scene from the film "Breathless", a handheld tracking shot is used to follow Michel Poiccard and Patricia Franchini as they walk and converse. This shot creates a sense of direct observation on the part of the audience; the slight unsteadiness of the camera contributes to a casual effect. The camera moves as they walk, stops when they do, and follows them as they retrace their steps.

Helicopter shot

The helicopter shot, also called an aerial shot or bird's-eye view shot, is a variation of the crane shot. It is usually taken from a helicopter from an elevated overhead distance. Just because it is called a "helicopter shot" does not necessarily mean that it is always taken from a helicopter. Sometimes it is taken from an airplane, blimp, balloon, or kite. There have also been devices developed to embrace a camera atop of a building that it can be operated from the ground by way of wires or aero devices. The helicopter shot usually incorporated at the beginning of the film in order to ascertain a particular setting and give the viewer an idea of where the movie is taking place or will be headed. It also allows for the viewers to attain more information than what is given just by the presence of the characters in the scene. When a helicopter is used, it is used like a crane because it is flexible and is easily manageable and transportable. A helicopter is used instead of crane when a crane is impossible to use. When presented with an aerial view in a film, viewers are often exhilarated by the astonished by the visibility of the action. In this clip, the shot starts over water and is focused on a little island area. As the seconds pass, camera moves over the water at a rather fast speed. It gives you the sensation of skimming over the water yourself as if you are in a boat. The shot eventually fades into another shot that takes place from high up in the air. This overhead shot allows you to get an idea about where the movie is taking place. This opening to the movie portrays a sense mysteriousness, because you don't know where you are or where you're going; it therefore draws in your interest. Using the helicopter shot for the opening of this film was an appropriate way to focus in on the story of the film.

Long shot (toes)

The long shot usually constitutes a "full-body" shot where figures are more prominent but the background still dominates. (1) The long shot uses both camera height and angle to portray the characters a certain way. Camera distance, as with the long shot, is important because the subject appears a different size depending on the camera distance from the subject. A long shot is used to pull the audience's attention to the scenery, background, or setting. This is in contrast to a close-up or a medium shot, which are used to focus on the interaction between two characters. As the sample clip shows, the camera begins with a low angle medium shot of the 3 main characters of the scene. It follows them (in the typical long-take shooting of this film) (2) until they are all in one room together. As the camera falls back into a long shot the three men look somewhat minute compared to the background. And because of the way each character is placed within this long shot, the man closest to the camera appears larger than the one furthest away from the camera. This not only gives the characters prominence in the scene but the setting of this room becomes enormous to the audience's eyes. The long shot also intensified the fact that they are arguing by placing physical distance between all of them. Camera distance, as with the long shot, is important because the subject appears a different size depending on the camera distance from the subject. The man at the doorway is shown from head-to-toe during the entire sequence. But when the men begin to shift places, and Orson Welles enters the room, the men appear to be close to the same height in this large room. Even though it is known that Welles was a tall man, he looks physically equal to the other actors in this scene because of the camera distance and placement.

Mise en scene

The mise en scene or the literal meaning "the placing on stage" (1) refers to the specific arrangements of space, time, actors and scenery on the stage. The mise en scene takes place when the director "choreographs the actors in order for the scene to be a message or statement" (2). It accentuates the importance of each frame as depth and scale are "manipulated by the filmmaker" to pass on a message to the film's audience (1). The mise en scene involves lots of primary action in front of the camera as well as a lot of camera motion. Some important things to consider when viewing a mise en scene include where the actors are standing, what exactly the camera lens does and does not show as well as how the actors move across the screen and how the camera moves. In this mise en scene from Casablanca the camera is following some people into Rick's Cafe Americian, a nightclub in the film. The camera travels throughout the nightclub showing many different scenes in a series for about one minute. The camera captures many different conversations from different characters in the movie, shows a man getting a drink, a piano player, and at one time follows an actor as he is traveling to a table. In this particular scene, the director seems to be setting up suspense as people seem to be making plans and getting ready to take their own individual courses of action. (See also "blocking" and "setting".

High level

The movie term high level refers to a type of film composition that is most often used to begin a new scene in a movie. High-level composition begins with a downward shot of a city, town or an area in which the next scene is about to play out. It often starts from very high up and gradually begins to descend, getting closer and closer to where the actors are within the shot. High level is associated with a feeling of semi-omniscience because it allows the viewer to see what's going on outside the next scene and see what type of situation the characters might find themselves in. It can also be used to show a contrast between the events going on within the scene and what's going on outside. To distinguish between a high-level and a high-angle shot, note the position of the horizon on the screen. In a straight high-level shot, the horizon will be in the middle of the frame. The sample clip from Psycho shows how high level is used in the composition of a film. In the scene, the camera looks out from high above the city and all it's buildings. It pans 360 degrees as it descends closer to the rooftops. It eventually falls below the skyline and moves toward a window on one of the taller buildings, behind the window are our characters. This type of compositional technique first establishes broad context and then draws the audience toward specific action. When the camera eventually descends to the window of the next scene, it makes it seem as if the viewer, out of all the possible windows to look through, has consciously made the choice to watch what's going on through that particular window.

Over the shoulder shot

The over the shoulder shot or the cutaway shot is a telephoto shot which shows the back of one actor in front of the face of the other actor (1). This shot gives us an idea of the observer's viewpoint and reminds us who is doing the looking. In this shot, there is limited or no movement of the camera. When taking the over the shoulder shot, you are looking from behind a person at the subject and cutting off the frame behind the ear. The person facing the subject should occupy about 1/3 of the frame (2). This shot establishes the position of each person and helps you to see one person from another person's point of view. This shot does not necessarily have to be taken behind the ear; it can also be shot from a wider point of view and include the shoulder of the person facing the subject. This shot is sometimes referred to as the cutaway shot and is mostly away from the main action. A lot of times this shot is used in interview or discussion scenes as used in The Godfather. The shot of the discussion in this case between Don Corleone and a client that has come to him for help; we are able to see Don Corleone listening to the client. As the main focus begins from the client's face and moves slowly farther and farther away, the camera is slightly behind the ear of Don Corleone. This emphasizes that Don Corleone is in control. The shot lets the audience focus their attention on one actor at a time in a conversation, so we are able to see Don Corleone's perspective.

Track + zoom (horizontal)

The technique of track + zoom involves two separate actions occurring simultaneously--the movement of the camera itself and the movement of the camera's lens. When the camera zooms in on a subject while being moved backwards on a track, the subject stays at relatively the same distance/plane while the foreground and background are distorted around the subject. Sometimes referred to as the "trombone" shot, this effect was first used in Alfred Hitchcock's 1958 film Vertigo (1). The sample clip involved a reaction shot of Roy Scheider's character Martin Brody. It marks the first time in the film that he sees a shark attack, assuring him of the necessity to close the beach. According to filmmaker Paul Wilderman, the "trombone" shot is "particularly useful when a character gets a piece of bad news as it visually denotes that their world has altered" (2). This is particularly appropriate in this scene, as it clearly expresses the horrible reality of what Brody is being forced to deal with.

Eyeline match

The term "eyeline match" refers to an editing cut that follows the principle of the axis of action: specifically, the cut first will show a character looking in one direction, and then will show what specifically the character sees. In neither individual shot are both objects depicted (1). This type of shot necessitates the adherence to the axis of action rule in order to orient the viewer to the action taking place on screen. If the rule is not followed, the viewer will become confused as to direction and the spatial relationship of the action on screen. In this clip, from Jaws, Stephen Spielberg creates suspense by cutting back and forth from Roy Schneider's character to the people he watches in the ocean. As he watches concerned for their well-being, two different instances anticipate a shark attack, each building the connection and tension in the scene between Schneider's relative helplessness against the unknown monster in the ocean. In addition to the increased tension in the film, the eyeline match also increases the suspense of the viewer with the increased concern demonstrated by Schneider's character. Most poignantly, when the other man comes over and speaks to Schneider, the over the shoulder shot conveys Schneider's preoccupation and intense desire to protect the inhabitants of his island from the shark.

Fade to black

The term "fade to black" applies to the gradual transition, or dissolve, from a shot on the screen to total blackness (1). Fading is the most common way to transition between scenes. Psychologically, it allows viewers time to process the shot's information and ready themselves for a new shot. Generally, this subsequent shot will change locations or time periods, or switch from reality to dream or vice versa. The black screen gives the viewer a visual guide for breaking down the film into smaller, more easily digestible segments. The final color used in a fade can range infinitely, but directors use other colors much more sparingly due to their metaphorical implications. (see also fade to red or fade to white.) While fade to black implies the disappearance of the image into a black screen (2), fading can go "in" or "out." The same term applies to a screen that dissolves from black into a full image at the beginning of a shot. Many directors choose to use both techniques in adjacent shots so that the transition from one scene to another feels smooth for the viewer. In The Man of Laramie, Mann uses both techniques to take the viewer clearly and concisely from night to day, allowing the audience to accept an accelerated passage of time. Fading out of the store to black closes that shot in the viewer's mind, and fading into the cattle herding shot makes the time and location changes less confusing. Also note that a director might choose to leave the screen black at the beginning or end of a scene while the sound rolls. This technique highlights the audio or contrasts it to the visual shot. (see also fade to red and fade to white)

Rear projection

The term "rear projection" refers to a process of filming the background of a scene and the events taking place in the scene's foreground separately, using the previously shot background (projected on a screen) as a backdrop for new events, filmed anew to create the finished product. Common in earlier cinema, the use of rear projection has more recently fallen out of favor due to its lack of realism. The separation of foreground and background prevented actions or shadows from breaking the planes as they normally would, contributing to the process's lack of verisimilitude (1). In this clip, we see the most common (and most maligned) use of rear-projection--the use of stock scenery behind what attests to be a moving automobile. In actuality, the two actors sit in a Hollywood studio set of a car and are filmed in front of a screen which rolls the film of what the cinematographer imagines would be the drive of the couple.

Tracking shot

The term "tracking shot" (also known as a dolly or "trucking" shot) refers to a style of film-making that seeks to orient the viewer to the characters, their environment, and the camera position. While a panning shot moves the shot along a or horizontal axis, a tracking shot moves the position of the camera itself, shifting the camera in any direction in order to accommodate the subject and to establish its relationship with his or her surroundings (1). In this clip from the thriller The Shining, Stanley Kubrick privileges the smoothness and sense of transition in the scene over verisimilitude. He does this by maintaining the characters' relationship to the frame as they move throughout the lobby of the hotel. Note how, as Shelley Duvall and Jack Nicholson are shown the hotel by the manager, the camera glides, following them as they stroll through the expansive lobby, showing them as they pass behind columns that obscure the viewer's perception of the shot, all the while the distance between the camera and characters remains the same.

Sepia tone

The term described in this entry is sepia tone. Sepia tone is the use of black and white picture in film. When filmmaking was first developed, the technology to make color picture was not available. Thus, sepia tone was the only option for color in film. Now, color film is used in almost every film made. However, occasionally a film director will use sepia tone for a certain effect. These effects include making a scene or character stand out, look older, plain, tougher, or evil. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid was filmed only in sepia tone. The film was produced in 1969, several years after the use of color film had become the norm. Thus, the director (George Hill), wanted to use sepia tone to appeal to his audience. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is a western about a tough man who robs banks. Hence, Hill could have used sepia tone for several reasons. Western movies were very popular at the time and Hill may have been paying homage to the original westerns by filming his movie in black and white. Also, the use of sepia tone would make Butch Cassidy (Paul Newman) look older and tougher, and also make the towns in the movie look older and more "western" like. In the clip of the movie, Butch Cassidy (Paul Newman) is shown walking around town and checking out a bank as it is closing for the day. Just from the short clip, one can describe how much more effective the use of sepia tone is over the use color in this film. As mentioned in the paragraph above, the first effect noticed is that Butch Cassidy looks old and tough. The use of black and white shadows brings this effect on the human face, where as color would make him appear younger and pleasant. Next, the town in the clip looks older. The buildings and extras in the clip are all in black and white, which gives the town a feeling of being older, like the traditional western. Thus, George Hill used sepia tone in his film to create the natural feel of a western for his audience.

Track + zoom (vertical)

The term track and zoom consists of two different film techniques, the tracking technique and the zoom technique. The tracking technique can be most aptly described as the camera itself physically moving (1). The zoom technique most often occurs when the camera remains in place but the lens is moved to draw in or out on the action (1). When track and zoom are combined they make what is now known as the 'Vertigo effect' (2). The Vertigo effect is made when the camera literally moves at the same time that the lens zooms, distorting the relationships between the foreground and background. The camera may either track horizontally toward or away from the subject while zooming in the opposite direction, or the camera may move vertically. At two points John stops on the stairs and looks down and Hitchcock employs both the track and zoom method together. The camera focuses on a point on the floor and zooms out while the camera moves closer to the floor. This makes it look like the floor is in the same place while everything around it stretches. It is a very dizzying effect and was dubbed the vertigo effect. It has been used in many movies since this one

Track to crane shot

The track to crane shot is a very interesting camera movement because it combines two moving techniques. A tracking shot is when the camera is mounted on a dolly that runs on a track alongside the subject (or the action). A crane shot is when the camera is mounted on a crane (they are movable), allowing the camera more vertical movement, (see defns. For tracking and crane shots). Hence, if these two are combined, the crane is essentially the dolly, therefore it is tracking at the level of a track before craning. The idea of using these two shot types together is to establish a "linkage" between the tracked subject and the newer subject introduced by the crane. Because the camera moves from a more intimate view/shot to a broader view can suggest that the initial subject is but a small component of a larger perspective. A good number of cinematographers (and directors) realize that crane shots can be an effective means of revealing a deeper or complementary meaning to the previous shot - if this is the aim, of course (1), and this would especially hold true for such a combination shot as the track to crane. Since this type of shot may not be found as track to crane, it should be considered under the notion of the development shot because it is utilized in order to dramatically/creatively, yet unobtrusively shift the viewpoint(2). To give a better illustration in the clip from Far From Heaven, Julianne Moore's character (Cathy) is tracked as she moves toward her home, where for just an instant she pauses as she walks and looks over her home, which is being bought into broader view and dwarfing her simultaneously by the elevating crane. Having not seen this film, the shot conveys the notion that Cathy's life is relative to her home or that her home defines her. This shot draws on her life as a stay-at-home wife and mother. However, it is imperative to keep in mind that when crane shots are employed they do not necessarily conform to this scenario; crane shots are effective means of opening up space, i.e. Showing more of the scenery/location; remember this is a combination of track and crane!

Handheld

The turbulent years of World War I gave rise to a desperate resurgence of entertainment. Hollywood readily answered the call, leading the world into a new era of Expressionist film. As an aspect of Expressionist film, fueled by German influence, moviemakers removed the camera from its support and used their own bodies to carry the camera (1). The handheld technique is also known as the point-of-view shot. With the lens now in closer range to the immediate action, the audience is brought into the scene on the same level with the characters, seeing what they see and partaking in their experience. As the audience now shares in the subjective POV of the characters, key objects in the scene become more substantial and three dimensional, and pertinent to the story's narration (2). In this clip, the audience is provided with a stationary view of three men on a boat frantically struggling in preparation to spear the monstrous shark before it attempts to devour the small vessel. Using the handheld technique, we are taken onto the boat so that we don't just see it rocking on the ocean, but our orientation is now shifted so that we sense the boat's unstable movement on the water. Having virtually boarded the ship, we are allowed to experience each character's sense of urgency. We watch Richard Dreyfuss' hands fumbling with the strobe light as though through his eyes. As if we were Robert Shaw standing on the bow, gun in hand, we watch the shark gaining quickly on the boat. The ever-increasing rapidity between these two points of view work to heighten the anticipation and intensity of the scene, involving the audience directly with the fear of an inevitable shark attack.

Long lens

The use of a long lens in certain cases enables the director of the film to shoot certain scenes from farther distances. The long lens works much like binoculars or a telescope in these cases, in that it will provide a magnified view of a small area (2). Some common uses of the long lens would be for close ups from extreme distances, to flatten depth or bring the background closer to the foreground (3). Objects shot using the long lens would not appear to get any larger or smaller when moving toward or away from the camera, respectively (3). Long lens, which brings the foreground and background together, directly contrasts the wide angle lens, which separates the foreground from the background (1). The sample clip depicts two subjects at extreme differences in distance to the camera. By compressing the foreground with the background the director is able to film the entire scene with the long lens even though one subject enters the scene from the end of a long hallway and must travel toward the camera to meet Ben. The long lens is able to handle such scenes by acting as a telescope and focusing on Mr. Robinson as he enters the scene from far away and maintain focus throughout the scene even as he approaches Ben.

Digital special effects

The very idea behind digital special effects has been to stretch the impact of film, to make the unreal real and go beyond what was once perceived as even possible. This is accomplished by the use of digital technology, such as computers, and includes a wide variety of features including: practical effects, in-camera effects, miniature effects, matte paintings, Hitchcock zoom, optical effects, travelling matte, bluescreen, prosthetic makeup effects, motion control photography, audio-animatronic models, digital compositing, wire removal, morphing, and computer-generated imagery (4). Computer-generated effects is one of the first types of digital special effects to have ever been used and has been a pioneering influence in filmmaking since 1976's Futureworld. This type of digital effect involves the use of computer graphics (2). Digital compositing, one of the other many forms of digital special effects, is often used for retouching and color correction, such as in Amelie. In this process multiple images are brought together to create what will be the final product (1). Digital special effects can be used to create images that cannot otherwise be achieved. Sometimes the desired image is too expensive, or it is impossible to create because that image is not real (4). In the film, Amelie, digital special effects are used to highlight what is not real instead of trying to make the unreal appear real. The director, Jean-Pierre Jeunet, chose to symbolically emphasize aspects of the storyline and title character, Amelie, through the use of color. In the clip from Amelie the hues yellow, green, and red are presented together and saturate the entire frame of the shot in color. However, in order to highlight this massive use of color, digital special effects such as digital compositing are utilized. One blue lamp is introduced in the shot, very saturated in it's color quality, and the contrast of one extreme shot of blue surrounded by yellow, green and red enhances the visual imagery. In a review on Amelie, Vladimir Zelevinsky comments on the use of digital special effects when he says: "This sadness, contrasted with the wild exuberance of the rest of the film, is what gives Amelie its emotional heft: the knowledge both of magic and its t! Ransience" (2). The contrast in color is a means of showing the contrasts in the film as a whole: it's very ability to be both comedy and drama fully saturated.

Extreme wide angle lens to fisheye

The wide angle lense differs from a normal lense in that it has a wider angle of view. It provides a large depth of field, allowing for focus of both the background and foreground. Because of this ability to view wide areas, wide angle lenses are best used in tight spaces, such as room interiors or close-up group pictures; although, they are also ideal for natural landscapes because they can take in panorama (1). There are a variety of wide angle lenses that can give wider angles of view (extreme, super, ultra, etc), with the widest being the fisheye lense. The fisheye lense has the ability to capture extreme wide angle shots (up to 180 deg. Or more), but the image is heavily distorted around the edges of the viewframe (2). They generally produce a circular or spherical image. Fisheye lenses have traditionally been used to capture environments, such as the night sky, and other panoramic shots that could not otherwise be captured with a rectilinear lense (3). The sample clip shows two different views. The character Dave (Dullea) is walking down the corridor of the spaceship. Since the setting is in a tight space, the view is shot at an extreme wide angle. Dave then starts a conversation with HAL, or HAL 9000, the onboard talking computer with artificial intelligence. The view then transitions to fisheye lense, which seems to allow the audience to see HAL's perspective, perhaps as a way of personifying his character.

Blue filter

There are many different filters that are used to either cause a change in an image or a change in the light. A filter is composed of glass or gel that is placed on the lens in order to change the image but still keeping it optically correct (1). Some films use different colors to provide a distinction between scenes (2). The filter that is chosen could be a specific color or particular texture depending on what kind of effect the director is trying to create (1). In a film that contains many different stories, directors may use different color filters to aid the audience in distinguishing the stories because of the different looks that they would have(2). Therefore, if a director wants to create a different illusion or look to a certain scene than one way that he can do this is by adding a filter to the lens of the camera or in front of the light source. The sample clip clearly provides a great example of how a blue filter can be used to provide a different look. In this clip, the blue filter conveys a sense of security and it allows the audience to distinguish this scene from the others. Therefore, the use of a blue filter technique in this scene is giving off the sense that this character is doing the right thing in his fight against drugs. However, near the end of the clip the blue filter is removed once the character is done discussing the drug campaign and is now relaxing at home. This might suggest that the blue filter is being used to help give a purifying mood to the scene. (also see yellow filter and orange filter)

Modelling special effects

This is a camera trick that is done by taking pictures or shooting a model (a replica of something that is usually smaller in scale (1)) and then using other film techniques to add the picture(s) or shot in with the rest of the scene or movie. The ways one can do this is either by recreating a whole scene by making a model of what one wants, digitally adding in pictures or film of the model into a scene or do a combination. The sample clip comes from a scene of Monty Python and the Holy Grail, where the knights arrive at Camelot. In this scene we get a camera shot of the castle of Camelot as well as a shot of the castle in the background with the knights in the foreground. As it is stated in the clip, Camelot is "only a model". What we have here is a model of a castle, and possibly some of the surrounding ground, that has had a shot taken of it and added to the scene. In the true scenery of the area where the knights are, there really isn't a castle there, but by using modeling special effects, the director is able to put a castle (or anything else) where he/she wants it. We also see in this clip the use of combining two shots into one, using a model special effect. In the approximately last eight seconds of the sample clip, we see that the model has been effectively placed as the background with a shot of the knights that is placed as the foreground of the scene. As another example, the same technique is used in the sci-fi series Star Trek: The Next Generation. In this case, the starship Enterprise is nothing more than a model, but with the use of a camera, shots of the Enterprise (external, not internal) can be taken and then digitally placed in whatever scene is needed, to give the feel that this model is really orbiting a planet or warping through space.

Shot reverse shot

This term indicates two or more nearly opposite shots. Each shot generally focuses on one of two different characters, who are typically in a conversation situation (1). The camera cuts back and forth from one character to the other, either focusing on the speaker or on the reaction shot of the listener. A double eye line match is typically utilized to strengthen the link between the two characters (2). This technique also generally follows the 180 Rule, so as not to confuse the viewer with an apparent switch of position. One common type of shot/reverse shot is the over-the-shoulder fshot. Here, two characters face one another with the cameras placed over each character's opposite shoulder, so that speaker or listener can be easily filmed. The sample clip illustrates a classic example of the shot/reverse shot technique. Once Toni Collette's character leaves the scene, a conversation begins between Haley Joel Osment and Bruce Willis. The first shot focuses on Osment's character as he listens to Willis. The reverse shot is of Willis, sitting in the chair, speaking towards the camera. An eyeline match is established between the two characters, even though the conventional over-the-shoulder framing is not present. While Osment does not speak to Willis, his reactions to the conversation (shaking/nodding his head or looking at the chair/after his mother) show that he is listening. As the shot cuts back and forth, the conversation between the two becomes apparent. (see also eye line match, 180 rule)

Medium shot (waist)

Unlike close ups and long shots, a medium shot shows characters from the waist up. The shot includes the torso, chest, arms and head, which allow facial expressions and the character's body movements to be more noticeable (1). This shot is also helpful in noticing the size of characters in relation to each other. There are three types of medium shots: close medium shots, medium shots and long medium shots. Close up medium shots frame mostly the upper chest and head, medium shots frame only the waist up, while long medium shots frame the knee up to the head (2). The sample clip shows Don Vito Corleone as he sits in his chair behind a desk. With this shot, it shows enough of Corleone's facial expression as to not need the effect of the close up. It also shows his arms movements in order to understand his emphasis of what he is saying to Bonasera. Close ups are sometimes too intense; in contrast, long shots are sometimes unclear when trying to identify a person and recognize the emotions they are experiencing. The audience wants to participate in the clip, yet not confuse which actor is who. In this clip, there are three shots shown which emphasize the importance of a medium shot at this particular time in the film. (see also close up and long shot)

Dialectal montage

When it is essential to demonstrate events over a long period of time in film, a director will routinely turn to montage in order to indicate a "temporal ellipsis" (1). Quick shots are unified under a theme or by music (or both) and compressed to indicate the long passage of time, through the use of dissolves and other transitional devices. In his essay, "Word and Image," Sergei Eisenstein asserts that because montage "originates in the 'collision' between different shots in an illustration of the idea of thesis and antithesis, ... [it] is inherently dialectical" (2). The inherently contradictory nature of montage allows the film to explore a complexity that a straight narrative would have to sacrifice in the interests of time and space. This clip, from The Godfather, demonstrates the effectiveness of montage on multiple levels. On a superficial plot level, the montage indicates the passage of time between Michael's (Al Pacino) murder of Sollozzo and mccluskey in the Italian restaurant, the subsequent actions of the mob war and finally, Vito Corleone's release from the hospital. On a more thematic level, however, the montage offers the contradiction of the Corleone family's initial action and subsequent inaction--the men hide out as the news breaks (which they have released). This deliberate scripting of events for the press (signified by the Extra! Headlines) is juxtaposed by the relative domesticity of the mafia bosses, who are shown in live-action sleeping in flop-houses, playing the piano (supplying the diegetic sound for the montage) and staying out of overt trouble.