English Grammar and Punctuation Practice (AP Exam)

1. When selecting verbs, choose verbs that favor ACTION above states of being whenever possible. -I AM creative (state of being) -I CREATED an interactive curriculum for a college-level writing course. (action)

ACTION VERBS

1. This points out or describes any noun or pronoun in a sentence. 2. A relative pronoun ("who, whom, whose, which, that) usually introduces an adjective clause. However, this can sometimes be introduced with a relative adverb. ("when, where, why") 3. Adjective clauses may be RESTRICTIVE or NONRESTRICTIVE -The car THAT IS PARKED BY THE CURB belongs to me (The " " restricts meaning to clarify which car) -The car, WHICH IS PARKED BY THE CURB, belongs to me

ADJECTIVE (OR RELATIVE) CLAUSES

1. An (___) is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun by telling type, quantity, or specificity 2. An (___) can be a proper, demonstrative, descriptive, quantitive, qualitative, or predicate " " 3. A PROPER (___) is formed from a proper noun (e,g, American, Democratic, and French) 4. A DEMONSTRATIVE " " answers the question, Which one? (e.g. this, that, these, and those) 5. A DESCRIPTIVE " " answers the question, What kind? 6. A QUANTITATIVE " " answers the question, How many? 7. A QUALITATIVE " " answers the question, How much? 8. A PREDICATE " " follows any linking or state-of-being verb. -The men WERE SICK from eating the raw oysters. 9. In comparing the quality of nouns, " " CHANGE BY DEGREES -The POSITIVE DEGREE covers one item: big, good -The COMPARATIVE DEGREE covers two items: bigger, better -The SUPERLATIVE DEGREE covers three or more items: biggest, best. 10. A PARTICLE is a VERBAL that can function as this. In a PRESENT PARTICLE, the verb ends with the suffix -ing (NOTE: A verbal is a verb form that can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb) -The GIRL TALKING on the phone is Mary. (The participle "talking" modifies the noun "girl.") 11. In a PAST PARTICIPLE, the verb typically ends with the suffix -ed. -The LETTER SIGNED by John was ready for the mail. (The participle signed modifies the noun letter) 12. An INFINITIVE is another kind of verbal that can function as an adjective. -She had the MONEY TO SPEND. (the infinitive "to spend" modifies the noun "money")

ADJECTIVES

English is a melting pot of WORDS that have been (___) from other languages -"cafeteria" comes from Spanish -"chipmunk" comes from the North American Indians -"cola" comes from Africa -"tycoon" comes from Japanese -typhoon comes from Chinese

ADOPTED WORDS

1. This functions as an adverb 2. An " " is introduced by a subordinating conjunction ("after, although, as, as if, because, before, if, since, so that, that, unless, until, when, where, while") 3. When an adverbial clause begins a sentence, set it off with a comma. Generally, do not use a comma when the " " appears at the end of a sentence -BECAUSE HE STEPPED ON HER TOE, she was annoyed. (The " " modifies the adjective "annoyed.") -She was annoyed BECAUSE HE STEPPED ON HER TOE.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

1. An (___) is a word that describes or modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. 2. An (___) answers one or more of these questions: -How? "quickly, slowly, fast" -When? now, then, never -Where? here, there, down, up 3. Many end up with the suffix -ly 4. Generally, an " " follows a verb. However, there are exceptions -John walked SLOWLY -John walked FASTER than PETER -He RARELY goes to the movies (The frequency adverb rarely comes before the verb goes) 5. An " " that modifies an adjective or verb PRECEDES the word being modified. -John walked SURPRISINGLY SLOWLY for someone so tall. 6. Add the suffix -er or -est to form a comparative (___) from a word of a one syllable word, such as "slow" -John walked SLOWER than I did. -John walked SLOWEST of all 7. Generally, add the word "more" or "most" to form a comparative adverb from a word of more than one syllable, such as "effectively" -John works MORE EFFECTIVELY than I do -In fact, of all the workers, John works MOST EFFECTIVELY NOTE: Two-syllable words that end in y get -er and -est 8. Some " " have irregular comparative forms, such as badly, worse, and worst, or little, less, and least 9. AN INFINITIVE is a verbal that can function as an adverb -Juan STUDIED TO GET A GOOD GRADE (The phrase "to get a good grade" modifies the verb "studied") -Tanya STRETCHES TO PREPARE FOR THE RACE.

ADVERBS

1. Many words in English have opposing meanings. Words with opposing meanings are called this 2. Writers may use this to convey contrast -The hikers are FREE to move about the nature preserve; there are no RESTRICTED areas -The mother worked to PACIFY the cranky child with a toy. She did not want to AGITATE the child any further -In the SORROWFUL days that followed the funeral, Mario could not appreciate the JOYFUL emergence of spring

ANTONYMS

This shows possession, plurality, and contracted word forms Possession 1. Add -'s to form the possessive of most singular nouns, irregular plural nouns not ending in s, and indefinite pronouns not ending in s. -My MOTHER's purse held many treasures. -The WOMEN's League is very active. -Can ANYONE's dog enter the kennel show? 2. This rule applies to singular proper nouns ending in s, x, of z. -We listened to the stereo in CHRIS'S new car -LIZ's dress was the sensation of the party. -The Bible speaks admiringly of MOSES's wisdom NOTE: A less common convention is to add only an apostrophe to singular nouns ending in an s or eez sound if the addition of the -'s would create awkward pronunciation. 3. Add only an apostrophe to form the possessive of plural nouns ending in s. -The CATS' toys were spread around the room. -The latest car designs were engineered for DRIVER's comfort. -Did you receive an invitation to the VANDERBILTS' party? 4. To form the possessive of compound nouns, add -'s to only the last word. -My MOTHER-IN-LAW'S furniture was imported from Havana. -Webster BROTHER-IN-LAW'S office was vandalized. 5. To show joint possession, make only the last noun possessive. -JAMES'S AND SUSAN'S dog chased our cat. 6. To show individual ownership, make both nouns possessive. In the following sentence, two cars have been vandalized- James's and Susan's: -JAMES'S and SUSAN'S cars were both vandalized. 7. Do not use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns. -OURS is the bright red Mustang. (not our's) -The squirrel held an acorn in IT'S paws Plurality 1. Some style guides recommend the use of an apostrophe to form certain plurals, while others do not. -Philip's report card had three A's and two B's (MLA) -Philip's report card had three As and two Bs Contractions 1. Use an apostrophe to indicate CONTRACTIONS, or shortened forms of words. In these cases, this indicates missing letters or numbers. -I'M not permitted to enter the restricted zone. -The '92 hurricane left a wide swath of damage through the Miami area. (1992) -Strangely enough, we never had the opportunity to try FISH 'N' CHIPS while we were in London. 2. Do not use contractions with possessive pronouns: for example, your (possessive)/you're (you are), their (possessive)/they're (they are), its (possessive)/it's (it is)

APOSTROPHES

1. An (___) is a word that precedes a noun and conveys specificity, either indefinite or definite (the) -Please hand me A doughnut (any doughnut) -Please hand me AN envelope (any envelope) -Please hand me THE book 2. Use "a" with nouns that begin with consonant sounds and "an" with nouns that begin with vowel sounds

ARTICLES

1. This enclose editorial comments inserted within quoted material. 2. Make sure that words in these provide context of clarify for the original quotation. Do not use bracketed comments to change the meaning of the original quotation. -Machiavelli, the political pragmatist, argues that "princes [I.E PEOPLE IN POSITIONS OF POWER] have accomplished most who paid little heed to keeping their promises."

BRACKETS

1. These introduce additions, modifications, and basic examples, including explanations, summaries, series, or quotations. -Frank introduced four kinds of fish into his new aquarium: three angels, six tetras, a pair of Bala sharks, and spotted catfish. -After a few months, Frank encountered a problem with his new aquarium setup: algae growth. -Tamara suggested a solution: "I keep quite a few snails in my aquarium. They eat the excess algae." 2. Do not use a colon inside a main clause. -Frank's favorite fish is: the angelfish. (incorrect) -Frank's favorite fish is the angelfish (correct) 3. However, a colon may link independent clauses when the second modifies the first. -Frank learned a serious lesson about aquarium maintenance: Do not overfeed the fish, as this action causes the water to cloud. NOTE: Some style guides recommend capitalizing the word after the colon, while others only do so if the independent clause before the colon introduces more than one complete sentence. 4. This has several other uses; for example, -BIBLICAL CITATION: Genesis 1:1 -BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRY: Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. -FORMAL BUSINESS LETTER SALUTATION: Dear Mr. Brown: -TITLE AND SUBTITLE: Dudes: My Story

COLONS

1. A " " occurs when a writer places a comma between the two or more independent clauses in a compound sentence -Bobbie likes John, she loves vacations. 2. To fix a " ," use of one of these constructions: -Bobbie likes John. She loves vacations. (period) -Bobbie likes John, BUT she loves vacations. (comma and coordinating conjunction) -Bobbie likes John; she loves vacations -Bobbie likes John;HOWEVER, she loves vacations (semicolon, conjunctive adverb, and comma) -ALTHOUGH Bobbie likes John, she loves vacations. (subordination)

COMMA SPLICES

1. Use this to separate main clauses within sentences, which are joined by coordinating conjunctions. -Mary counsels students, AND she volunteers at the local hospital. -John planned to invest his tax return, BUT he bought a computer instead. -Doug will play the game, OR he will mow the lawn. -I don't smoke, NOR do I eat near people who smoke -Sandra won't be going with us, FOR she returned her application too late. -The bank lowered its interest rates, SO we decided to refinance our mortgage -I haven't seen the new house, YET I know how to get there 2. Do not use these before conjunctions that link phrases -Mary counsels students, and delivers meals to shut-ins (incorrect) -Two inches of snow and a glazing of ice covered the streets. (correct) 3. Use these to separate elements that introduce and modify sentences -AFTER LOOKING AT SEVERAL CARS, Michael decided on a sporty model. 4. Use these with DATES that include a month, day, and year -On DECEMBER 7. 1941, Japanese warplanes bombed Pearl Harbor -On WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 28, 2014, I will celebrate my 30th birthday 5. Use these with ADDRESS AND PLACE NAMES -The president of the US lives at 1600 PENNSYLVANIA AVE., WASHINGTON, D.C. -We visited NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE, last summer 6. Use these with LARGE NUMBERS -The city marina cost $8,479,000 to construct. -Jill's dress has over 2,500 hand-sewn beads -Martin planted 1,500 marigold plants 7. Use these with QUOTATIONS to separate the quoted words from the sources. -JFK said, "Ask not what your country can do for you---ask what you can do for your country." -"Sometimes love is stronger than a man's convictions," wrote Isaac Bashevis Singer. -"I never forget a face," said Groucho Marx, "but in your case, I'll make an exception." -"Don't speak to me," she sighed. "Your words are meaningless." 8. Use these with PARENTHETICAL WORDS ANF PHRASES -John's new car, IN MY OPINION, is a lemon. 9. Use these with nouns of DIRECT ADDRESS -ADAM, do you want to plan the palms this afternoon? 10. Use these with INTERJECTIONS -WELL, that about does it for today 11. Use these with COORDINATE ADJECTIVES THAT MODIFY NOUNS SEPARATELY. Coordinate adjectives can be joined with "and," and their positions can be changed without altering the meaning of the sentence -We felt the SALTY, HUMID air near the beach. (We felt the HUMID, SALTY air near the beach) -Maratha created a THREE-TIERED, WHITE, FLOWER-COVERED wedding cake for Jason and Renee. 12. Do not use these with cumulative adjectives. " " cannot be rearranged because they are different types of adjectives. Their rearrangement would break the general order of adjective progression, as in the second example: determiner, observation, physical description, origin, material, and qualifier. -Adam bought TWO TALL palms (NOT Adam bought tall two palms) -I found a shard from a MYSTERIOUS ANCIENT GREEK CERAMIC FUNERAL URN. (NOT I found a shard from a funeral Greek ancient ceramic mysterious urn.) 13. Use these with NONRESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS. Restrictive elements can be omitted without affecting meaning -Frank's new aquarium, A MARINE TANK, hosts brilliant coral and brightly colored fish. -AWAKENED BY A STRANGE NOISE, Alan wondered he remembered to lock the door when he went to bed. 14. Do not use these to set off RESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS. " " are essential for meaning. -The first house on the left is for sale. ("On the left" is needed to show which house is for sale) -Those people who have already purchased tickets may enter the theater now. 15. Use these with PARALLEL WORDS, PHRASES, AND LISTS OR SERIES -The department store offered A SUIT, A SHIRT, AND A TIE for one low price. -The kitten stalked the ball of yarn BEHIND THE CURTAIN, OVER THE TELEVISION, AND UNDER THE TABLE. -Marie offered her students a treat if they would COMPLETE THEIR ASSIGNMENTS, CLEAN THEIR DESKS, AND STACK THEIR BOOKS NEATLY 16. Use these TO PREVENT MISREADING AND TO INDICATE OMISSIONS -TO SUSAN, Jason's choice of costume was unacceptable. (The " " clarifies the there are two people: Susan and Jason) -AS SOON AS WE LEFT, Marilyn closed the store (The comma indicates the omission of "the store") -Helen bought a new television; Mark, a laser printer; and Sarah, a stereo system (These indicate the omission of the verb "bought.")

COMMAS

1. A (___) is a word that joins or links parts of a sentence 2. A (___) can be coordinating, correlative, subordinating, or adverbial 3. A COORDINATING " " joins words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance. -Joe AND Mary went to the show -You will find it in the cupboard OR under the counter -Jim shut the door, BUT he did not lock it. 4. A CORRELATIVE " " is a pair of words that link words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance -NOT Tom BUT his brother won the tournament. -NEITHER Mary NOR Jane was impressed by this. 5. A SUBORDINATING " " causes one clause to be dependent on another -Tom and his brother won the tournament BECAUSE THEY PRACTICED HARD -ALTHOUGH THE BROTHERS COMPETED FIERCELY, they shook hands in the winner's circle 6. A CONJUNCTIVE " " joins the main clauses. This is always preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma -She knew her lack of studying would be a detriment; NEVERTHELESS, she took the test -She was sick and tired of all this nagging about studying, HOWEVER, she did find the chart useful

CONJUNCTIONS

1. These emphasize a material within a sentence more emphatically than commas. -I would suggest-OR SHOULD I SAY, ARGUE--that all aspects of the present economy must be changed. -Three members of the board regents--EVEN THE NEWLY APPOINTED MEMBER--voted to reduce the education budget. -Adam's mother-A WOMAN OF HIGH ENERGY, INTELLIGENCE, AND WIT--always hosts the best parties. 2. EN " " show number ranges. -Please read pages (21-53) in your textbook.

DASHES

this can be noun clauses, adjective clauses, or adverbial clauses

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

1. These points indicate an omission from a direct quotation. Three spaced periods indicate an omission within a quotation; four spaced periods indicate an omission at the end of a sentence in a direct quotation. -"Another PROBLEM... is acid RAIN...RESEARCHERS at Yale University studied effects on the rain forest over a period of years." 2. These points can also be used to suggest fragmented speech or a thought that trails off.

ELLIPSES (back to punctuation)

1. PERIODS end most sentences -Mary asked us about selling her house. 2. QUESTION MARKS end direct questions -Is Mary going to sell her house? 3. EXCLAMATION POINTS end emphatic statements. -No cigars! Put that out now!

END PUNCTUATION

SIMPLE SENTENCE 1. A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains a subject and a verb and expresses one complete thought. 2. Because a simple sentence meets this criteria and can stand on its own, it is an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. 3. In a simple sentence, the subject, the verb, or both may be compound. -John slept. -John and Bobbie slept -John and Bobbie ate and slept. COMPOUND SENTENCE 1. A COMPOUND SENTENCE contains two or more independent clauses and expresses more than one complete thought 2. Independent clauses are joined by a comma and coordinating conjunction ("and, or, nor, for, so, yet, but") or a semicolon when a coordinating conjunction is not present -Bobbie likes watching TV, BUT she prefers going to the movies -Bobbie likes watching TV; John enjoys exercising on the treadmill NOTE: When the sentences are very short and integrally related, a comma may not be necessary. COMPLEX SENTENCE 1. A COMPLEX SENTENCE contains an independent clause and a dependent clause 2. Although the dependent clause may contain a subject and a verb, it cannot stand alone as a sentence; it is dependent on an independent clause for completeness. -She rarely takes vacations because she is the CEO. ("Because she is the CEO" is the dependent clause; "she rarely takes vacations" is the independent clause) 3. A dependent clause that appears at the beginning of a complex sentence is set off by a comma -If you are going to walk, be sure to stay on the path COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE 1. A COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. -If you are going to walk, be sure to stay on the path; you will not get lost. ("If you are going to walk" is the dependent clause; "be sure to stay on the path" and "you will not get lost" are the independent clauses)

FORMS

1. A " " does not express a complete thought because it does not contain both a subject and a predicate. A " " may also be a dependent clause. For these reasons, a " " cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence. -Enjoyed the movie (no subject) -Speaking of movies, Joe, Lucy, and I. (no predicate) -Although I enjoyed the movie. 2. To fix a " ," add the missing component or join with a complete sentence. -I enjoyed the movie. -Speaking of movies, Joe, Lucy, and I saw "Quakes" yesterday. -Although I enjoyed the movie, I prefer romantic comedies.

FRAGMENTS

1. A " " occurs when a writer places no punctuation between independent clauses. -Bobbie likes movies John likes vacations 2. To fix a " ," use of these constructions: -see previous notecard.

FUSED OR RUN-ON SENTENCES

Many English words have been built from ROOTS, or units of meaning, that come from GREEK (G) or LATIN (L) -"aqua" (L), "meaning "water," as in "aquarium" and "aquatic" -"bio" (G), meaning "life," as in "biography" and "biology" -"chron" (G), meaning "time," as in "chronic" and "chronology" -dic (L), meaning "speak," as in "contradict" and "dictate" -"graph" (G), meaning "write," as in "autobiography" and "autograph"

Greek and Latin roots

1. These are sometimes used to form compound words, mark line breaks, and indicate certain prefixes. Different reference sources and style guides may give different info. regarding " " in compound words and prefixes -The ILL-FATED ship sank quickly -The PLAYER-KING delivered his lines expertly. -ANTI-IMPERIALIST protesters stood near the GOVERN-MENT building during the MID-SEPTEMBER meetings.

HYPHENS

1. An interjection is a word or phrase that functions alone to convey intense emotion. -Goodness! -Oh my! -Wow!

INTERJECTIONS

1. This, such as an adjective or adverb, provides additional information. 2. To avoid the confusion of a MISPLACED " ," place a " " near its subject in a sentence -The boys unpacked "COMPUTERS" from the "BOXES" THAT WERE DAMAGED. (What are damaged? The computers or the boxes?) -The boys unpacked "COMPUTERS" that were damaged from the boxes. 3. Make sure a " " gives information about only one subject. -The damaged computers that angered "PAULO" ENORMOUSLY amused "SANTO" (Is Paulo enormously angered, or is Santo enormously amused?) -The damaged computers that Paulo amused "SANTO" ENORMOUSLY. 4. Make sure to state the subject to be modified; an unstated subject produces a dangling " " -OBSERVING THE DAMAGED COMPUTERS, a call to the manager was placed. (Who observes the computers?) -OBSERVING THE DAMAGED COMPUTERS, "PAULO" placed a call to the manager (Paul observes the computers) -BY STUDYING CONSISTENTLY OVER SEVERAL WEEKS, it was easy to pass the test. (Who studies?) -BY STUDYING CONSISTENTLY OVER SEVERAL WEEKS, "STEVE" easily passed the test. (Steve studies)

MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

1. Some English words have more than one meaning; some of these things are different parts of speech -"count," a noun meaning "a European nobleman" -"count," a verb meaning "to name numbers" 2. Often, readers must use the context of a sentence to determine which meaning a writer intends -As part of Malik's workout routine, he rotates his outstretched ARMS -The p0lice arrested the criminals and charged them with illegal ARMS dealing -In the ancient TEMPLE, the monks began to chant. -As Kai sensed the onset of a migraine headache, she began rubbing her TEMPLE.

MULTIPLE-MEANING WORDS

1. This functions as a noun. -THAT SHE HAD NOT FINISHED THE PAPER was the reason for her low grade. (The noun clause is the subject.) -I know WHAT I WILL DO TODAY (The noun clause is the direct object of the verb "know.") -She wondered about WHAT SHE SHOULD DO NEXT

NOUN CLAUSES

1. This is a word that names a person, place, object, or idea. It can be common, proper, collective, countable, or uncountable 2. A COMMON (___) names a nonspecific person, place, object, or idea 3. A PROPER " " names a specific person, place, or object (e.g. California, Maria, and Paris) 4. A COLLECTIVE (___) is singular in form but names a group 5. Some are COUNTABLE (e.g. one boy, nine planets, and fifty states) 6. Others are NOT COUNTABLE. These represent unknown quantities (eg. blood, sand, and traffic)

NOUNS

1. To convey comparison or contrast, effective writers use the same form for words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. This practice creates this. -The horses like prancing, galloping, and to run. (To run is not parallel with prancing and galloping) -The horses like prancing, galloping, and running. (parallel) -The horses like to prance, to gallop, and to run

PARALLELISM

1. These enclose supplemental information that is not necessary to the meaning of sentences. -There are three sections to a thoughtfully composed essay: (1) the introduction, (2) the body, and (#) the conclusion -"Hamlet and the Law of Desire (1987) suggests that Shakespeare's famous tragedy is about the traditional rite of passage all boys go through as they mature into men.

PARENTHESES

1. The (___) of sentence, which includes the verb, tells what a subject is doing, states what is being done to a subject, or expresses a state of being. The verb may be singular or compound. -The bandits CAPTURE THE STAGECOACH (singular) -The bandits CAPTURED AND LOOTED THE STAGECOACH (compound) 2. The verb may represent action, thought, or state of being. The verb may be written in the active or passive voice -JOHN RAN the race (active voice) -The race WAS RUN BY JOHN. OBJECTS 1. In the " ", an OBJECT receives the action of the verb. 2. An object may be direct or indirect 3. A DIRECT OBJECT is a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that receives the action expressed by the verb. -I have read the BOOK -The author researched the TIME PERIOD prior to writing the book 4. An INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun, pronoun, or nominative element for whom, to whom, or to what the action of the verb is done -I read the CLASS the entire book. -My teacher give ME an A for my presentation 5. Gerunds and infinitive phrases may function as direct objects. Note that verbals may also contain direct or indirect objects. In the second example, "me" is the indirect object and "practice" is the direct object of the infinitive "to give": -The football fans do not appreciate my PLAYING -The coach agreed TO GIVE ME SOME ADDITIONAL PRACTICE 6. The object of a preposition answers the question whom, what, or where after the preposition. Note that a gerund may serve as the object of a preposition. -John traveled TO THE COUNTRY (To where? The country.) -Proper shoes are needed FOR comfortable WALKING

PREDICATE

letter combinations added to the beginnings of base or roots -may change the meanings or parts of speech of base words -the following are commonly used in English ~"un-" meaning "not or in opposition to," as in uncomfortable ~"re-" meaning "again or reverse," as in rewrite and recall ~"il-, im-,in-, and ir-," meaning "not or in opposition to, " as in illegal, impossible, indirect, and irregular ~"dis-," meaning "not or in opposition to," as in disappear ~"em- and en-, " meaning "cause to," as in embody or encourage

PREFIXES

1. A (___) is a word that conveys a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word. The following are common: -about, above, according to, across, after, against, along, among, around, at -before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by -down, during -except -for, from -in, in place of, inside, into -like -near 2. A " " introduces a PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, which is made up of a preposition plus its object and any modifier and functions as an adverb or adjective -The mouse UNDER THE TABLE ate some crumbs (The prepositional phrase "under the table" modifies the subject "mouse") -The students IN THE LAB made aspirin WITH A CHEMICAL REACTION

PREPOSITIONS

1. A word that can assume the position and function of a noun, but it does not specifically name a person, place, object, or idea 2. This can be subjective, objective, possessive, indefinite, or relative 3. A SUBJECTIVE (___) can function as the subject of a sentence -HE fed the cat -SHE fed the cat -IT got extremely fat -THEY wished they had fed it less 4. An OBJECTIVE " " can function as a direct object, an indirect object, the object of a preposition, or the subject of an infinitive. -Mr.Iman called HIM at noon -Yumi gave HIM the message -Yumi gave copies of the message to THEM -The company expects HIM to respond 5. A POSSESSIVE " " demonstrates ownership. -MY fax machine is malfunctioning -I will borrow HER fax machine -She said that she begun using THEIR fax machine when HER machine broke -May I use YOUR fax machine? 6. An INDEFINITE " ",which may also be a subjective pronoun, makes a general rather than specific reference. -ANYONE can attend the game -EVERYBODY is invited -NOBODY will be rejected -SOMEONE will greet you at the gate 7. A RELATIVE " " begins in a modifying clause. -The library THAT RENALDO DESIGNED is featured in an architectural magazine -Renaldo, WHO ALSO DESIGNED OTHER PUBLIC BUILDINGS, is gaining recognition in his field. -The library, WHICH HOUSES MANY HISTORICAL COLLECTIONS, attracts many visitors. -The librarian, WHOSE CREDENTIALS ARE IMPECCABLE, conducts regular tours

PRONOUNS

CASE 1. Errors in " " CASE occur when a writer uses one type of pronoun to do the job of another. -Marco and ME want to attend the soccer game. (objective pronoun acting as a subjective pronoun) -The ticket seller was annoyed by THEM chanting. (objective pronoun acting as a possessive pronoun) 2. To fix an error in pronoun case, make sure the form of each pronoun matches its function in a sentence. -Marco and I want to attend the soccer game -The ticket seller was annoyed by THEIR chanting (correct use of possessive pronoun) REFERENCE 1. Because a " " takes the place of a noun, the pronoun must refer clearly to a specific noun. 2. Generally, a " " refers to the last named noun. -Jerome shot the "BASKETBALL," and IT bounced off the rim. -The ball rebounded to "SHARON,"and SHE passed the ball to her teammate 3. If the pronoun reference is unclear, the meaning of a sentence will be unclear, too. -I could see the scoreboard and the clock as IT kept record of the points. -"What the sentence says:" I could see the scoreboard and the clock as the clock kept record of the points. -"What the sentence intends to say:" I could see the scoreboard and the clock as the scoreboard kept record of the points. 4. To fix a pronoun reference error, you can usually rewrite the sentence so that the pronoun refers to the last named noun. -I could see the clock and the SCOREBOARD as IT kept record of the points. ANTECEDENTS 1. The noun to which a " " refers is called an ANTECEDENT 2. " " must agree with their antecedents in number, person, and gender. 3. Shifts in PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT cause confusion for readers. -"EVERYBODY" (singular) will wear THEIR (plural) fan shirts to the game (number error) -"FANS" (third person) should bring YOUR (second person) signs, horns, and body paint (person error) -If your "PARENT" does not stay, have HIM leave a contact number (gender error) 4. To fix a pronoun-antecedent error, match the " " with the antecedent in #, person, or gender. If the construction becomes awkward, try to recast the sentence. -EVERYBODY will wear HIS or HER fan shirt to the game; (YOU) Join the fun and wear YOUR fan shirt to the game! -FANS should bring THEIR signs, horns, and body paint. -If your PARENT does not stay, have HIM or HER leave a contact number. 5. Plural antecedents demand plural " " -"JOE AND SUZETTE" will need THEIR megaphones for the game 6. If "or" or "nor" joins singular and plural antecedents, the pronoun agrees with the last named antecedent -Neither Smith nor the "CHEERLEADERS" remembered THEIR signs. 7. Collective nouns demand singular " " unless the participants act as individuals. -The "TEAM" appreciates ITS fan support (The team as a whole appreciates the fan support.) -The "TEAM" wrote thank-you notes to THEIR fans 8. Singular indefinite " " demand singular " ," plural indefinite " " demand plural " " -"EVERYONE" will wear HIS or HER team hat -"MANY" fans will get THEIR autograph books signed.

PRONOUNS (2)

Use correct punctuation and mechanics to clarify the meanings of sentences

Punctuation and mechanics

1. Use these to enclose direct quotations. Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation. Do not capitalize the first word in the second part of an interrupted quotation unless the second part begins a new sentence. -Martha whispered quietly, "I'M SCARED OF THE DARK." -"WHEN," she breathed, "DO WE GET OUT OF HERE?" -"WHAT IF WE GET STUCK IN THIS PLACE?" she asked -"I KNEW I SHOULD NOT HAVE TAKEN UP SPELUNKING." 2. Do not use " " with indirect quotations -Father said that we should be frugal with our money? 3. Use " " marks with ARTICLE, ESSAY, AND SHORT-STORY TITLES -The current edition of "Vanity Fair" contains an article titled "RAIDER OF THE LOST ART." 4. Use " " with CHAPTER TITLES. -Susan quoted from chapter 3 of Carole Jackson's "Color Me Beautiful," "THE SEASONAL PALETTES" 5. Use quotation marks with song titles -The Commodores' "THREE TIMES A LADY" was the number one hit when I graduated from high school 6. Use these with TITLES OF SHORT POEMS. -T.S. Eliot's "THE LOVE SONG OF J. ALFRED PRUFROCK" remains a landmark poem of the 20th century. 7. Use these with TELEVISION AND RADIO EPISODE TITLES -More people saw "GOING HOME," the final episode of "M.A.S.H, than any other tv show to date. 8. Use these with SPECIAL WORDS, PHRASES, OR SENTENCES -The phrase "RULE OF THUMB" has a violent history -The infamous declaration "LET THEM EAT CAKE" represents the arrogance of the French aristocracy. 9. Direct " " longer than four typed lines are set off as BLOCK QUOTATIONS by indenting one inch from the left margin. If the quotation contains multiple paragraphs, use a first paragraph indent for each new paragraph after the first. Include a citation after the closing punctuation, if needed. -There are many reasons why a pond ecosystem fails. For instance, industrial pollution might disrupt the natural biodiversity of the system. Another problem, due in part to industrial pollution, is acid rain, which acidifies the pond system. (53) 10.Periods and commas should go inside ending " " -He said, "Let's go to the beach today." 11. " " and exclamation points go inside ending " " when they are part of the quoted material outside when they are not: -Frank asked, "When can I add to the fish tank?" (The question mark is part of the quoted material) -Do you agree or disagree with the saying, "A penny saved is a penny earned"?

QUOTATION MARKS

1. These join related main clauses when there are no coordinating conjunctions -I will not paint the house; you can't make me. -Sally built a tree house; she painted it blue. 2. These work with conjunctive adverbs to join main clauses. -I would like to go to the museum with you; HOWEVER, I must visit my dentist instead. -Jim had given much thought to his future; THEREFORE, it came as no surprise when he returned to school. -The audience was sparse; IN FACT, there were only five people. -I want to travel this summer; ACCORDINGLY, I will have to save money this winter. -Six people saw the bandit leaving the store; MOREOVER, one customer even got his tag #. 3. Semicolons separate ITEMS IN SERIES that contain commas. -I packed my suitcase with OLD, COMFORTABLE JEANS; RUGGED, WARM SWEATERS; AND NEW, FRESHLY STARCHED SHIRTS.

SEMICOLONS

Sentences must show fluidity and logic

SENTENCE FLOW AND PHRASING

Sentences must express complete and clear thoughts

SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND CLARITY

Sentences can be placed into categories based on meaning and structure

SENTENCE TYPES AND FORMS

1. The (___) of a sentence tells "who" or "what" a clause or sentence is about 2. The (___) is often a noun or pronoun. The subject may be singular or compound. -The PIRATES captured the ship and stole its treasure (singular, noun subject) -SHE appreciated the jeweled gifts from the ardent, if criminal, suitor (singular, pronoun subject) -JOHN AND PETER quit their jobs to pursue a life at sea 3. Generally, a subject appears before the verb, but it may be separated from the verb by modifiers or prepositional phrases. To determine a subject, ask, "Who or what is the sentence about?" -THE TRAIN runs. -JOHN, who is late for the train, runs. 4. A subject may have a COMPLEMENT, or a noun, adjective, or phrase that appears after a linking verb for the purpose of restating or telling about the subject. -DR. SAWYER will become an outstanding university PRESIDENT (Dr. Sawyer is the subject; president tells about about Dr.Sawyer) 5. A GERUND is a verbal that features the -ing form of a verb and acts a noun. Therefore, it can take any position in a sentence that a noun can take, including subject, direct object, subject complement, or object of a preposition. The -ing verb form may introduce a phrase. These gerunds or gerund phrases function as sentence subjects: -WALKING is a healthy exercise -READING TRAVEL BOOKS is my hobby 6. An INFINITIVE is a verbal construction that includes the word to followed by a simple verb. An infinitive may function as a noun, adjective, or adverb. When it functions as a noun, it may appear as a subject, direct object, or subject complement. Make sure not to confuse the infinitive form with a prepositional phrase. The infinitive form may introduce a phrase. These infinitive phrases function as sentence subjects: -TO SING THE NATIONAL ANTHEM at the World Series is a goal of the pop star -TO TRAVEL BY TRAIN across Europe has been a long-time dream of mine. 7. A NOUN CLAUSE may also function as the subject of a sentence -THAT ONE NEEDS A CLEAR GOAL is stressed in college preparatory classes

SUBJECT

1. letter combinations added to the ends of base words or roots 2. INFLECTIONAL (____) indicate the form of words, such as case, tense, part of speech, or number 3. DERIVATIONAL (____), which create new words, may change the meanings of base words. 4. The following are commonly used in English: -es and -s indicate plurality, as in "bushes" and "magazines" -ed indicates past tense, as in "played" -ing indicates the present participle verb form, as in "dreaming" -ly indicates a "characteristic of," as in "neighborly" -er and -or indicate "a person associated with," as in "preacher" or "inventor"

SUFFIXES

1. Many words in English have similar meanings. Words with similar meanings are called this 2. By understanding the shades of meaning that distinguish this, a writer can choose the best word to convey his or her meaning; for example, -sorry: "expression of apology or mild regret" -remorseful: "full of a deep sense of guilt over a wrong" -repentant: "characterized by a feeling of sorrow over a sin"

SYNONYMS

1. " " WORDS AND PHRASES help writes convey connections between ideas to readers; for example, -CAUSE AND EFFECT: "as a result, because, consequently, due to" -COMPARISON AND CONTRAST: "however, in contrast, on the other hand, similarly -SUMMARY: "in fact, in conclusion, in other words, to sum up." -TIME: "first, next, soon, then"

TRANSITIONS

1. A DECLARATIVE " " makes a statement and ends with a period. -Today is my birthday. -2On my birthday, I like to eat cake. 2. An IMPERATIVE " " gives a command and ends with a period. In an imperative " ," the subject "you" is often implied. -(You) Close the door on your way our -Brandon, open the door. 3. An INTERROGATIVE " " asks a question and ends with a question mark. -Who was that woman? -Were you happy to make her acquaintance? 4. An EXCLAMATORY " " expresses strong feeling and ends with an exclamation point. -What a beautiful morning! -On such a beautiful morning, I love to run!

TYPES

1. A " " has four basic forms: infinitive ("to" plus the verb stem), past tense, present participle, and past participle. Each form works alone or with other verbs to express times of action and states of being. -"to hope" (infinitive) -"hoped" (past tense) -"hoping" (present participle) -"have hoped" (past participle) 2. In addition, a " " has five properties: tense, person, number, voice, and mood TENSE 1. THE SIMPLE TENSE of a " " of a verb expresses when the action takes place: past, present, or future. -I RIDE my scooter. (present) -I RODE my scooter (past) -I WILL RIDE my scooter (future) 2. THE PERFECT TENSE of a " " expresses the completeness of an action in relation to another action -I HAVE RIDDEN my bike to the park (one complete action), but I HAVE NEVER RIDDEN it to the river (an incomplete action). 3. THE PROGRESSIVE TENSE of a " " expresses the continuance of an action. -I HAVE BEEN RIDING my bike every day for a year. 4. Writers must be careful to maintain a consistent " " tense when writing -I RODE (past) my bike before I GO (present) to the store. -I RODE my bike before I WENT to the store (consistent tense) -I RIDE my bike before I GO to the store (consistent tense) 5. Some verbs, such as "lie" and "lay," and "set" and "sit," are a source of confusion for writers. PERSON 1. A " " must match its subject in PERSON -I AM HOPING for rain. (first person) -"YOU" ARE HOPING for rain. (second person) -"HE" IS HOPING for rain (third person) NUMBER 1. A " " must match its subject in # 2. A SINGULAR " " requires a singular subject; a PLURAL " " requires a plural subject. -THE WOMAN WAS tall -THE WOMEN WERE tall. 3. When two singular subjects are joined by "and," the verb is plural -THE MAN AND WOMAN WERE tall. 4. When two subjects are connected by "or, either..., or neither...nor," the " " with the nearest object -Neither the teacher nor THE STUDENTS ARE tall enough to dunk the basketball. 5. When a noun is collective (with or without the suffix -s), the " " is generally singular -The tall, coed basketball TEAM WINS the game. -THE NEWS REPORTS the win. 6. With many indefinite pronouns, the " " is third-person singular -SOMEONE IS measuring the height of each man and woman 7. With other indefinite pronouns, use context to determine whether the verb is singular or plural -SOME of the (women) ARE tall -SOME of the (height) COMES from their mothers. 8. With relative pronouns, the " " agrees with the antecedent. -I have a TEAMMATE (who) JUMPS high. 9. When the subject comes after the " ," make sure that the " " agrees with the subject. -There ARE three COURSES of action that the team can take. 10. A " " agrees with the subject, not the subject complement. -The strategy BOOKS that I received WERE (technical) VOICE 1. In a sentence, a subject may perform or receive the action of a " ." This condition is called VOICE 2. Voice may be active or passive. 3. In the ACTIVE VOICE, the subject does the action. -The car STRUCK the barn -The bear STOLE the campers' supplies. 4. In the PASSIVE VOICE, the subject is acted upon. The PASSIVE FORM consists of some form of the verb "be" plus the past participle. -The barn WAS STRUCK by the car. -The campers' supplies WERE STOLEN by the bear. 5. In general, writing should favor the active voice over the passive voice MOOD 1. The MOOD of a " " expresses the writer's attitude toward the action. 2. A " " may be indicative, imperative, or subjunctive 3. The INDICATIVE MOOD makes a statement or asks a question -It is 40 miles to Gainesville, but we will get there in time. 4. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD expresses a command, request, suggestion, or entreaty where the subject is understood. -Stop! Please sign the form before returning it. (NOTE: This is also an imperative sentence.) 5. The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD equals the past tense in structure and is used after "if" and "wish" when the statement is contrary to reality -I wish I WERE a rich woman (NOTE: Use "were" for both singular and plural subjects) -If I KNEW her number, I WOULD call her.

VERBS

1. A (___) is a word that describes the action or state of being of a noun or pronoun. 2. A (___) can be transitive, auxiliary, linking, or phrasal. 3. A TRANSITIVE " " requires an object to complete the action. - PUSH "THIS BELL" if you WANT "ADMITTANCE 4. An INTRANSITIVE " " does not require an object to express action. -The sun SHONE brightly ~NOTE: The same verb may be transitive in some sentences and intransitive in others. 5. An AUXILIARY or HELPING " " appears before a main verb to express tense or mood -They HAVE STUDIED diligently -I CAN ENROLL in the course 6. A LINKING " " demonstrates the state of a noun or pronoun by linking a subject with a word or phrase that follows and restates or describes the subject -He IS sad -He SEEMS HAPPY NOTE: The same verb may be linking in some sentences and transitive in others. 7. A PHRASAL " " is usually a two-word verb that combines a main verb with an adverb or preposition. In such cases, the two word verb takes on its own meaning that may be separate from the meanings of the individual words -Joe and Mona decided to BREAK UP -The pile of unpaid bills began to EAT AT Rita's sanity (The unpaid bills are bothering Rita's sanity) -Melanie RAN INTO her chemistry professor over the summer.

VERBS

1. When CHOOSING WORDS, identify the type of writing, the purpose, and the audience. Then consider these issues: -BIAS: Words that show favoritism toward a particular subject at the expense of another. -CLICHÉS: Words or phrases that are overused and lack originality -DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION: The dictionary definition of a word versus the associations readers make with a word -FORMALITY: The appropriateness of language for a given purpose and audience, including slang, idioms, or jargon -TONE: The writer's attitude toward the subject -WORDINESS: The use of many words where a few will yield greater clarity

WORD CHOICES

words make up the two main parts of a sentence: the subject and the predicate

parts of a sentence

words that can be placed into categories based on function

parts of speech

built from parts; an understanding of Greek and Latin roots, prefixes, suffixes, and word families will help you determine the meanings of unfamiliar words

words