English Language 3/4

- Sentence types and their communicative function in texts

Academic and legal texts: declaratives Job interviews- interrogatives from employer and declaratives from applicant

shortening

Also referred to as reductions This process involves dropping the endings (and sometimes beginnings) from a word to create a shorter form e.g. Fridge Gym

simple sentence

Contain a single main clause e.g. I bought three potato cakes (contains a subject, verb and object)

free morpheme

Free morpheme stand alone; they are words in their own right. e.g. banana

substitution

Involves replacing one element of a sentence with something else - Cohesive texts: substitution can only occur if the element has already appeared in full Any phrasal elements that undergo substitution (single words, phrases, clauses, sentences) Pronoun- replaces nouns and noun phrases Auxiliary verb- replaces verbs and verb phrases Adverbs- replace whole sentences Aids cohesion by reducing unnecessary repetition e.g. I love cats. I have three of [them]. I like pie. I bet you [do] too Will it be sunny tomorrow? I hope [so].

commonisation

Involves the development of common, everyday words from words that began life as proper nouns. Such words are referred to as eponyms e.g. Band aid Kleenex Esky Thermos

- information flow including

Involves the modification of the structure of a sentence or clause, so that the element that holds the most importance gains prominence - Clefting - Front focus - End focus

public language

Language used in public domain e.g. field of politics, media, the law, bureaucracy - Not the language one should use in public Register is more formal - Speakers and writers adhering to the language standards of the relevant field - Language used in these contexts are subject to greater scrutiny - Show greater levels of planning in spoken texts- more time and care has been taken in constructing Politics: - Traditionally: representing country required to be more formal, politically correct and diplomatic - In Australia, rules have been relaxed Media: - Must comply with the standards of public language - Rules of politically correct language are strictly enforced in most forms of reportage- news (factual recount or objective observation) ○ e.g. person with a disability rather than disabled Law: - Distinctive - Needs to be factual and objective, clear and unambiguous - Contain fewer anaphoric and deictic references- which introduce ambiguity - Archaism Bureaucracy: - Wordiness, circumlocutions, euphemisms and jargon - Language of government and officials (officialese, corporate-speak, management-speak, government-speak) ○ Pass: satisfactory completion ○ Help people understand: facilitate stakeholder engagement - Intent is to impress, increase authority - Marker of in-group membership- use of jargon- includes members of a group with specialised language, excludes others outside of group - Viewed pejoratively (negative) - Strong connotations of deliberate confusion in order to hide meaning - Excessive use of jargon and euphemism ○ Aim to add prestige or gravitas to everyday concepts ○ Cleaning management- advertise themselves as facilities management service provide ○ Software bug- unexpected system event - Harder for an outsider to understand what has happened- thus save face- physical network failure: joe accidently unplugged the cable- sounds less unprofessional

anaphoric reference

Particular type of substitution that occurs in texts. - Element or entity introduced to a text can be referred back using substitution, such as pronoun instead of the full phrase - Referent: initial full phrase - Anaphor: replacement Reduce unnecessary repetition- supports cohesion and thus coherence e.g. Charlie really enjoyed the slice of cake he was given

adverbs

Perform a range of functions - Modify verbs - Modify adjectives (very tired, really angry) - Modify other adverbs (terribly slowly) Types of adverbs: - Time: soon, later - Frequency: always, occasionally, never - Manner: unconvincingly, slowly, torrentially - Place: around, everywhere, here, there - Degree: completely, totally, very, somewhat Most common feature- formed by adding -ly to adjectives (slowly, promptly) Answers how? How often? Where? When? How much? Flexible in location in a sentence: if you can move it around and still make a sentence in Standard English, there is a good chance it is an adverb (of manner) e.g. ○ He skated gracefully (post modify- modifying verb) ○ He skated very gracefully (modifying adverb) ○ Pretty pink pen (modifying adjective) ○ Certainly... firstly... (entire sentence)

conversions

Process of converting words from one word class to another class without adding any suffixes to the word e.g. Email became verb and can now take verb suffixes (emailing)

compounding

Process of creating new words by putting two free morphemes together e.g. Blueberry Facebook

mode

Speech Writing sign

- Semantic fields/domains

Topic Lexemes with interrelated meaning

sentence fragments

Typically used in informal or casual written texts, and acts as a sentence even thoguh they aren't a complete main clause e.g. Potato cakes 3 for $1 (no verb)

vowel reduction (schwa)

Vowel reduction (centralisation) is similar to elision but, instead of disappearing completely, vowels in unstressed positions are reduced to a schwa. e.g. And -> an

archaism

Words that are no longer used in everyday life e.g. Thy thee thine

Primary auxiliary verb

'To be' (am, was, are, were, is, be/been), 'to do' (do, does, did, done, didn't), 'to have' (have, has, had)

connotation

Additional emotional associations or values that attach themselves to that word over time - Community's attitude towards it - Specific setting or situation in which a word is used can also determine whether its connotations are negative or positive

assimilation

Assimilation occurs when a sound changes to become more like a neighbouring sound. Assimilation may be progressive where the sound is affected by a preceding sound or regressive where the following sound is affected. e.g. bitter bidder

3 types of accent

Classified by Mitchell and Delbridge (1965) May move towards an accent if they wish to fit in with a group of speakers There is a shift towards a general accent, with very few people speaking with a Broad or Cultivated accent

oxymoron

Combines two apparently contradictory words for special effect e.g. O brawling love, o loving hate Deafening silence Lead balloon Walking dead

animation

Gives life or movement to inanimate objects, ideas or places - Not specifically human qualities and can be associated with other living things e.g. the wind howled

ellipses

In relation to coherence, ellipses can reduce unnecessary repetition, as information that is already known is omitted - Often employed as part of syntactic listing to provide concise and salient information

determiners

Introduce noun phrases and function as modifiers 3 articles: a, an (indefinite), the (definite) Possessive adjectives (my, your, our, their, his, her) Demonstratives (this that) Indefinite determiners (each, every, all, some) Cardinals (one, two) Ordinals (first, second)

- Function word (grammatical morphemes)

Perform a job such as convey grammatical relationships between words in a sentence Type of function words - Determiners - Auxiliary verbs - Modal verbs - Preposition - Pronouns - Conjunctions - interjections

features of spoken discourse

Prosodic features (stress, pitch, intonation, tempo, volume)

- phonological patterning

Sound patterns in language- deliberate repetition of particular sounds

setting

Time and place Setting which utterance is made (tv) Setting which utterance is being interpreted (sports commentary) - When and where the text was created - When and where might the text be heard or read

palatalisation

Two nearby sounds with difference places of articulation merge in their place of articulation e.g. Did you Choos-day Tuna -> choona

- cultural context

Values, attitudes and beliefs held by the participants and community at the time in which the discourse occurs Made up of traditions and expectations that shape our view of the world

Onomatopoeia

Word formed by the imitation of a sound, as well as describing the formation of such words. Captures the natural sound of something e.g bang

hyponymy

Words that are conceptual subdivisions of general categorisation (superordinate or hypernym) - Belong to the same semantic field or domain

- Basic functions in clause structure

clause or sentence must at a minimum contain a subject and a verb Predicate: contains at least one verb and all of the required modifiers of that verb Perdicator: verb

subject

clause or sentence must at a minimum contain a subject and a verb Predicate: contains at least one verb and all of the required modifiers of that verb Predicator: verb e.g. [Nikki] likes pecan pie

common nouns

- Concrete (touchable, can be known through senses) - Abstract (ideas, concepts, emotions) - Count: can be counted and therefore can be made plural Non count: cannot be counted and have no plural form Table, giraffe, kangaroo (concrete) Truth, bravery, justice (abstract) Coin, book (count) Traffic, information (non-count)

Phonological features of AuE

- Non-rhotic: 'car' 'mother' 'darn' is not produced /upsidedownr/ - Variation in 'yod dropping': tend not to drop their yods in 'news' and 'tune'- the palatal /j/ (yod) is still produced- [njuz] not /nuz/(nooz) - Flap their intervocalic /t/ like a /d/ 'thirty' (thirdy) and 'written' (wridden) - /l/ is vocalised- pronounce /l/ further back in the mouth than other speakers of english, so that it becomes vowel-like 'milk' (miwk)

- Broad AuE

3 major dialect subgroups: - Standard Australian English (SAE: the predominant dialect) - Aboriginal English (a term that covers the varieties of English spoken by indigenous Australians) - Ethnocultural Australian English varieties (migrant ethnolects)

- Factors that contribute to a text's coherence

A coherent text is one that can be understood Makes sense and is logical, ideas presented are related: statements lead to examples, questions lead to answers, greetings follow greetings and problems have solutions - Cohesion - Inference - Logical ordering - Formatting - Consistency and conventions Both apply to written and spoken modes of communication

-phrases

A collectionof words that have a grammatical relationship with each other Can't exist as a complete grammatical sentence, as they lack both a subject and a predicate (point made about the subject)- thye may contain one of these or none of these, but cannot contain both

insertion

Addition of sounds where they don't strictly belong. Both consonants and vowels can be added to the pronunciation of words in connected speech. It is quite common e.g. Souvlaki -> souv-e-laki Humbling -> humb-e-ling Going -> gowing

adjacency pairs

Adjacent turns in spoken discourse that relate to each other, such as questions and answers, or greetings and responses. Openings and closings often demonstrate adjacency pairs at work Form part of conversational routines and are the patterns we rely on in structuring speech - Question and answer - Complaint and excuse - Compliment and acknowledgement - Apologies and acceptance - Thank you and response - Phatic comments and response Responses are predictable - generally rely on these patterns to facilitate conversation and keep social harmony e.g. Opening A: Hi Julie, how are you? B: Great thanks, yourself? Phatic talkA: how hot is this weather? B: I know, unbearable isn't it? Apology I'm really sorry, but I can't help you out this time Nah, that's fine, no drama Compliment What a gorgeous dress that is, looks lovely Oh thanks, yes I just bought it last week Thank you Thanks so much for your help today My pleasure, I loved it

passive voice

Agent moves out of the subject position and is replaced by the patient of the sentence, making the patient the topic of the sentence Requires very specific changes to the verb of an active sentence - Patient of the sentence is moved to the front - Auxiliary verb 'to be' is added before the verb ○ Its tense matches the original tense of the verb - The verb is changed to past particple form ○ It loses its original tense - The agent of the sentence is moved to a less prominent position in the sentence ○ It is often moved to the end ○ It is preceded by the preposition 'by' e.g. The pie was eaten by Carey Patient: pie- now the subject Agent: Carey- moved out of the subject position The girl was bitten by the dog Patient: girl- now the subject and topic. The dog has moved out of the subject position

active voice

Agnet: who or what is referred to Patient: what has been changed or affected by that agent Change in verb tense can reflect whether the agent is the subject or whether it is the direct or indirect object Active voice: agent is the subject of the sentence Noun phrase that casues the verb is the topic of the setnence and mentioned first Default voice used by speakers and writers- provides a clear indication of the initiator and the target of an action, as the agent and patient are matched with the subject and object respectively e.g. [Carey] ate the pie Carey- subject and agent The dog bit the girl Subject: dog Patient: the girl

end focus

Allows for prominence to be placed on a particular phrasal element in a sentence by moving it to the end Most sentences follow end focus naturally - Useful when elements of sentence are quite lengthy or complex - In spoken conversation, placing a highly complex clauses at the beginning of utterance can cause confusion and reduce coherence Purposefully use end focus: - Move a constituent that normally appears elsewhere to the end of a sentence - Enables us to delay the mention of new information and it creates suspense and drama e.g. Unmarked sentence: my cat dropped a dead mouse on the doorstep this morning End focus: my cat dropped a mouse on the doorstep this morning, [dead]! The movement of the adjective 'dead' to the sentence-final position adds strong emotion, giving the sentence an exclamative force

- Lexical choice and semantic patterning in texts:

Although figurative language often associated with formal literary texts Non-literal language patterns are used frequently in all types including the news, advertisements, political domains and everyday conversation

cataphoric reference

Another type of substitution - Cataphora uses substitution before the referent has actually been mentioned (points forward) - Anaphora requires the referent to already be introduced (points backwards) When an element has been introduced in a text, it is possible to relay the introduction until after the substitution has occurred - Referent: delayed full phrase - Cataphor: replacement word Cataphora references help to reduce unnecessary repetition - Also act of delaying the referent can create suspense and interest - Element of mystery introduced and curiosity means we seek to find the referent further along in the text - Can be effective feature when used in literature, advertising and news reporting e.g. As [she] felt a little cold, May put on her coat [This] is disgusting, look at all the mess

antithesis

Application of parallelism where the elements in parallel are in direct contrast with each other - Antonyms Present options to the listener, where it is clear that the significant diference bewteen those options is the time it would take to tell the story e.g. There's a [long] version and a [short] version; which one do you want? Parallel of noun phrases with antonym long and short as adjectives

flapping

Assimilation of voicing occurs (voiceless consonants become voiced) /t/ which is voiceless becomes /d/ which is voiced e.g. Kitten -> kidden

- sociolect

Associated with specific social roles or groups - emerge because of social class, interests, occupation, age, gender and aspirations of social groups- e.g. teen speak - Concept of covert norms within particular groups becomes particularly important when examining various sociolects

vocal effect (cough, laughter, breath)

Can reflect our mood or attitude Breathy/creaky voice: induce awe or fear Coughing: nervousness or anxiety Laughter: enjoyment and solidarity Intake of breath/exhalation: surprise or relief Can be referred to as paralinguistic features- includes facial expressions, eye gaze, body stance and gestures - Contribute to the way our messages are given and received- visual and oral cues that are particular to speech and not writing

bound morpheme

Cannot stand independently, they must be attached (bound) to a free morpheme e.g. '-s' marks possession Affixes '-ly' 'in-' 'dis-' '-ful'

content word (lexical words- refer to ideas and concepts)

Carry real-world meanings- provide content of a sentence Type of content words: - Nouns - Adjectives - Verbs - Adverbs Can understand with right content words even if wrong function words are used

derivation (change of word class)

Change meaning of words, create new words and can sometimes change their word class (whether the word is a nouns, adjective, verb). They can be either prefixes (un-, im-) or suffixes (-er or -al). e.g. Swim, swimmer Kind, unkind Same word class, change meaning

inflection

Change meaning or word class; they simply provide additional grammatical information such as plurality, possession, or tense. Inflectional morphemes are always suffixes e.g. -s plurality -ed tense -'s possession suffixes

consistency and conventions

Coherent text adheres to conventions of the text type Consistency and conventions go hand in hand with formatting, as the formatting and layout of the text contribute to its understandability Consider the text both structurally and lexically Consistency can be achieved by - Using lexical choices from the same semantic field - Using dominant sentence types e.g. Recipe: requires a list of ingredients and method as well as number of suggested servings - Lexis from the semantic field of cooking e.g slice, dice, bake, saute, julienne - Dominant sentence type would be imperatives e.g. dice onions

listing

Collections of usually three or more related elements placed together, separated by punctuation such as comma or bullet points Increase coherence of text- clearly understood Acts as a cohesive device- listing reduces unnecessary repetition Semi-colons can separate phrases or clauses Sentence fragments, very long phrases and clauses are separated by bullet points- makes their elements more accessible - Can aid calirty as it reduces the elements to their key components - Visually east to find within the text- efficient way of directing the eye of the raeder to most important parts More coherent- it's faster to access as it contaisn only the important information that needs to be accessed. Lists elemetns in the order in which they need to be completed, which reduces the amount of processing required to determine what to do next Listing is frequently used in spoekn texts for efficiency. It can be difficult to remember large chunks of spoekn information if it is enveloped in complex structures, in particular if it is unnecessarily repetitious. Completing entire lists can also be superfluous to the context as after first few elemetns, the list has served its purpose e.g. I like tropical fruits such as mango, papayas and lychee - List has served its purpose of giving emxaples of tropical fruit. Listing any more would be superfluous Listing in spoken form creates rhythmic utterances, and this sense of rhythm can serve as persuasive device as it makes the element listed memorable - Aim of listing in speeches to persuade - Can become catchphrases or slogans- politics and advertising e.g. I like pie, cake, cat, sports, and reading, but not necessarily all at one time I like pie, especially sweet ones; cake, but only the ones with cream; cats in all shapes and sizes; sports that don't involve contact with others; and reading, in particular science fiction novels

collocation

Collocations are words within phrases so closely associated with one another that when we hear one we almost automatically provide the other Come in forms of clichés or colloquial expressions They also occur in the way we pair some words together e.g. Safe and sound Whole kit and caboodle Rancid butter

Suffixation in AuE (not strictly diminutives)

Colloquial words created by shortening and adding suffixes Most common ones are -y/-ie and -o Add flavour to our language, highlights the word play that many Australians revel in Marks our national identity and also hints at traits that many consider part of our national pscyhe: playfulness, irrevence and even an anti-authorian streak Helps mark a text's level of formality (register) Can be connected to context (cultural and situational) Can reflect the beliefs and values of the user but can also be connected to situational contextual factors such as audience, participants, social purpose e.g. Politicians: pollies (authority) - Placing them on the same level (morphologically) Carpenters: chippies Electricians: sparkies General tradespeople: tradies

idiom

Commonly used in fixed phrases with non-literal meaning - Meaning cannot be understood by separating and individually defining the words that make up the phrase - Idiom will not retain its meaning if changes are made to individual words or the order in which they appear - Can incorporate metaphors and similes - Become idiomatic because of how commonly they are used, generally in colloquial language Out of the blue (unexpected) A sandwich short of a picnic (behaves erratically or is lacking in intelligence)

verb phrase

Comprises a main verb in a sentence plus any related words Related words in a verb prase are auxiliaries, complements and other modifiers Verb phrase can also be the whole predicate of a sentence e.g. She [was tickling] the cat's tummy The son [was loudly played to the audience]

inference

Conclusion that has been reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning, linked with setting, context, field, register, function and mode of communication, as well as the relationship between the participants in the exchange - Making inference requires knowing and understanding what is left out - Isn't said but understood given situations, cultural, regional or historical knowledge - Can be difficult for non-native English speakers to understand what they are meant to infer from the statements made by a speaker or writer When a speaker implies something, they require that a listener infers what they mean Inference allows for the construction of logically connected texts, where utterances make sense to participants involved in the conversational exchange e.g. Could you give me a ride home? Sorry, I need to visit mum this afternoon That's the phone I'm up to my elbows cooking dinner Okay Aren't directly relevant to what was stated, rely on the inferences to create meaning

- morphological patterning

Connected to word formation processes such as conversion and other creative word formations Involves repeated presence of words made by one or more of these word formation processes e.g. Greeny-blueish in colour Mishy-mashy mix of fauvism, cubism and surrealism *new words are being made by affixation and hyphenation The use of three -isms in the phrase

prepositional phrase

Consists of a preposition and the object of the prepositino, and any other modifiers Prepostion + object Generally begin with the preposition and end with a noun phrase Prepositional phrases act in place of adjectives or adverbs The number of prepostional phrases within a sentence can theoretically be infinite e.g. [After school] I have soccer practice I will see you [in the morning]

adverb phrase

Consists of an adverb or words acting as adverbs within a sentence Adverbs phrases modify a verb, adjective or another adverb Perpositional phrases can also act as adverb phrases (adverbial phrases) e.g. The dog ran [quickly] The time passed [so slowly] [In the morning] we went to school (preposition)

complex sentence

Contain a single main clause and one or more subordinate clause Main clause is dominant in the meaning of the sentence, and subordinate clauses add extra meaning to the main cluase. In some cases, a clause can be embedded within a main cluase, giving furhter information about an element of that clause. Particularly in relative clauses (used to provide additional information about a noun), and consequently they are also considered subordinate e.g. I bought three potato cakes (main) because I was hungry (subordinate) The man who works at the fish and chips shop (relative clause describing the man) made the potato cakes for me

compound sentence

Contain at least two main clasues, joined together by a coordinate conjunction. All clauses have equal prominence and meaning within the sentence e.g. I bought three potato cakes and Theo bought a burger with the lot

noun phrase

Contains a noun and other related words that help describe the noun Typically modifiers or determiners e.g. The [dancing goat] looked silly I ate a [shiny red apple]

sentences

Contains at least one main clause It may also contain one or many other clauses. It make sense as a whole and can stand on its own to create meaning e.g. I tried. Panda bears are a little bit scary but they are quite adorable

repetition

Create cohesion as it helps reinforce or maintain a topic - Same lexical choices repeated - might also include near-synonym or substitution in relation to original phrase or lexeme e.g. Repetition of lexical choices This little pig went to the market This little pig stayed home This little pig had roast beef Repetition via synonym and substitution Tony Abbot was on leadership ... Mr. Abbot.... The PM... why Abbot is...

context

Cultural context Situational context (function, field, mode, setting, relationship)

- ethnolects

Cultural varieties associated with specific ethnic groups - Individuals use of English influenced by another language - Indigenous and migrants

cultivated

Declined in use over the last 30 to 40 years, but a small percentage (6% in 1980s) of Australian population does still use it Style patterned on British Perceived Pronunciation- prestigious regionally neutral accent in British English Traditionally associated with high social class or education These days seen as pretentious and it no longer carries the same social prestige As Australia has become more confident in its own national identity and its own brand of English, the Cultivated accent has fallen from favour. Someone whose accent falls at this end of the spectrum is actor Geoffrey Rush

adjectives

Define or modify nouns. They can refer to - Qualities (red, round) - Size (tiny, huge) - Judgements (wicked, attractive) - Degree of comparison (faster) Commonly located in front of nouns (sleepy puppy) or after certain verbs (seems tired) Usually gradable and can have the morpheme -er (narrower) and -est (narrowest) or achieve these meanings by adding 'most' or more' in front Pre-modification: Pink pen (attributive position) Post-modification: pen is pink (predicative position)

- taboo language

Deliberately offensive, controversial and insensitive Shouldn't be used in public contexts - Profanities: language that is obscene or offensive (particularly religious) - Obscenities: offends the morality of the time - Expletives: swear word - Slurs: insulting remark or innuendo - Epithets: describe qualities or attributes of a person (negative connotation) Social meaning of strong expletives such as **** and **** have over time shifted from their offensive nature to having a rapport-building function in certain informal contexts - In typical workplace, those who use obscene language (tradie) are viewed as uncouth, uncultured and uneducated - Less formal workplace: swearing can be a tool used for building and maintaining positive affiliations between members of this sub-group- marker of in group solidarity

verbs

Denote actions (run), processes (think) and states (be) Vary according to person (first, second, third), number (singular and plural) and tense (present, past, past participle) Types of verbs: - Regular: form their past tense by adding the suffix -ed (jumped) - Irregular: change the stem of the word (ran) Finite verbs: conjugate - By person (he eats, I eat) - By number (I am, they are) - Time (I jump, I jumped) Non- finite verbs: - Participles ○ Progressive (-ing) ○ Perfect participles (-ed) primary verb before it - Infinitives ○ To ...

ellipses

Ellipses involve removing words or phrases from an uterance (unit of speech beginning)and ending with a clear pause), clause or sentence, and in particular if they have implied or uncessary given the context Servet to reduce uncessary repeition and increases cohesion, thus coherence An ellipses shouldn't be confused with the non-linguistic definition of ellipses- '...' it is not the series of full stops that signifies the deletion, but the process of deletion itself Ellipses can create setence fragements in written text, but do not necessarily always do so, often the sentences will remain in standard grammatical form Noun phrases can be ommitted when the phrase has been stated already and remiains the same Verb phrases can be ommitted when it does not change over successive clauses Other elements can also be omitted, as long as the information is alreadu known to the intended audience Casual and informal texts often contains ellpsis to efficiently reduce the amount of information provided, in particular when that information is already known Spoken text- the most frequent instnace of ellipsis occurs in the second pair part of an adjacency pair, in particular within question-answer adjacency pair sequences Large amounts of ellipsis can reduce the formality of a written of spoken text Those with close social relatinship may converse with highly elided discourse in order to communicate efficiently, as prior knowledge adnunderstand through inference often fills in the information that has been deleted e.g. Styla took the first slice of cake while stella took the second (slice of cake) Skyla took he first slice of cake and Stella (took) the second Skyla and Stella went to the park and then (they went) to the beach

logical ordering

Ensures that text is structured both visually and textually in a way that makes sense for that text type e.g. TEEL Spoken texts also follow logical order- often linked with societal context e.g. speech begins with acknowledgement of the audience and continues with an introduction Chronology plays important role in both written and spoken texts - Unless otherwise stated, we assume events occur in the order they are presented (instruction manual and recipes)

- cohesion

Establishing connections within a text at different structural levels Coherence: rely on making sense of a text as a whole at a cognitive level Cohesion: relies more on the mechanical construction of the text to aid that understanding Holds together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph Cohesive device: - transitional words and phrases - collocations and lexical choices from similar semantic fields that clarify for readers the relationship between ideas - Repetition of key words - Use of reference words - Structuring and information flow - Substitutions and ellipses avoid unnecessary repetition

euphemism

Euphemism: masks an unpleasant meaning by using mild, vague or indirect alternative - Allow speakers to avoid causing embarrassment or giving offence when referring to taboo topics (bodily function, sexual acts or death) - Avoid direct conversation about confronting truth in areas of public language such as politics or business - Enhance prestige - Serve a manipulative function - Common ingredient in double speak e.g. Death: pass on, pass away Firing: career change opportunity, downsizing, force reduction, negotiated departure, personnel surplus reduction, redeployment, transitioned, vocational relocation, work force adjustment

similie

Explicitly connects one thing to another in order to make a comparison - Preposition such as 'like' 'as' are used to draw attention to the connection e.g. As limp as a fresh-killed rabbit

metaphor

Figure of speech in which one thing is said to be another Creates a comparison between two things - Comparison is implicit and relies on the readers or listeners to use their imagination or knowledge of cultural context to find an interpretation beyond literal meaning - Use copula 'is'- verb 'to be'

discourse particle

Fillers we insert into our speech for a purpose - Packaging information - Orienting topics - Structuring turn-taking - Expressing attitudes/opinions and social relationships - Express a degree of uncertainty, unwillingness to be too dogmatic (hedge) - Assume common knowledge - Make the request less strident - Hedge-to reduce the force of an utterance - Introduce reported speech or express a thought/feeling/opinion - Introduce a new topic or announcement - Emphasise a sentiment or statement Can also act oopposite way to hedges- boosters, emphatic markers, intensifiers 'that's sucha lovely dress', it was awesome, that was like super crazy- effect of enhancing or emphasising the words that follow e.g. Well, yeah-no, okay, like, anyhow, OMG, guess what, I mean, I guess, like, kind of, I think, a bit, just I went to Chadstone to, like, buy my dress- assumes Could we, like, have a hit of tennis this afternoon?- hedge And I'm like 'well, you should have told me that before'- introduces reported speech- the following words were actual words used And I'm like, ugh gross- introduces what the speaker was feeling at the time, not what speaker actually said Like, I got this new app- force marker-introductory particle and introduces a new topic or point of interest He is like crazzzzyyy about her!- emphasises the speaker's sentiments

turn taking

For a conversation to run smoothly, the participants need to respect the implicit cultural rules and norms of that particular social context Formal situations: strict rules about turn taking and there are explicit signals to indicate whose turn it is to speak (debate) Informal: aim for less rigid structure and more cooperative approach - Conversations can and do meander, people interrupt and talk over one another and some hog the floor - Why opening and closings, discourse particles, interrogatives and interrogative tags are used to give our discourse shape and meaning Taking the floor: - Discourse particle to signal the wish to take the floor: well, right, now - Explicit phrases: sorry to bother you... - Might also interrupt if we are not being given the space or cues to take our turn- uncooperative overlaps, unwelcome, violation of the rules - Latch onto the end of someone's turn before anyone else has the chance to speak - try catch someone's eye (eye gaze), lean forward (posture), inhale deeply (audible intake of breath) Hold the floor: - Continuing intonation: signals that we haven't finished our sentence - Rising intonation: signal some type of list, or that the turn is not over - Conjunctions or connecting words such as 'and' 'but' 'so' - Filled pauses 'um' 'ah' while they find words - Formal: signposting how long they intend to hold the floor by using temporal markers such as 'firstly... secondly...' - As participants in a conversation, they might allow someone to hold the floor by not interrupting, or by offering feedback in the way of minimal response Passing the floor - Formal: formulaic phrase: do you swear by Almighty God to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth?, I rest my case. - Interviews: floor sharing generally takes a question and answer structure, turns are dictated by the roles of the speakers - Sports commentators: have particular roles and share the floor accordingly- one might commentate the play, and pass the floor to another commentator to make an evaluation or give expert knowledge - Spontaneous everyday conversation: pass the floor directly by inviting someone to speak using vocatives and or an interrogative 'Amina, what do you think?' - Falling intonation could indicate the end of turn - As could discourse particle followed by silence 'so...' with the drawn out vowel emphasising that the person has said all there is to say on the matter

opening and closings

Forma patter. Greeting- some phatic talk to open, before moving on to the purpose End of conversation- winding down comments before verbally signing off Formulaic utterances - Typical oft-repeated phrases that form part of our conversational rituals and help give framework or structure Open with Salutation: hi, hey good morning Vocative: sally, Ladies and gentlemen to greet people and often some kind of phatic question or comment (how are you) Closings also contain phatic elements too- generally signal that the interaction has been productive or enjoyable- often promise of future contact e.g. OPENINGS a. Telephone conversation A: Hi, it's me B: Hi Suze, how's it going? A: yeah good, good, and you? b. Radio program: good morning and welcome to the program, lovely to have your company. Today... c. Lecture: good evening everyone, and thank you, john, for that kind introduction. I'm delighted to... d. Television interview A: Minister Evans, thanks for joining us on the program B: my pleasure, Lisa, good to be here C: now, today's figures on the toll... e. Face-to-face communication A: Jane! Hey there, lovely to see you! Come in! B: Greta! How are you? Thanks for inviting me! I've been looking forward to it for ages

Synonymy and Antonymy

Forms of substitution that vary the language within the text Synonymy: - Cohesion: process where lexemes with similar meanings are used to vary the language included in a text or utterance- avoids unnecessary repetition of ideas and keeps a text interesting Antonymy - Cohesion: employed to provide contrasting ideas in ways that are cognitively simpler for the brain to process: person who knows the initial lexeme is just as likely to know its opposite- produces a text that is more efficient in delivering its message, thereby supporting its function or social purpose

preposition

Function words that show the relationship between nouns (or pronouns) and other words in a sentence - Position things in space (where they are) - In time (when something takes place) - Describe the manner in which an action is performed e.g. Where is the dog? Under the desk, behind the couch, in its kennel When will we walk the dog? Before dinner, after breakfast How did you create the picture? With Photoshop, by manipulating an image

declarative

Function: to provide information, observations or statements (most common type of sentence) e.g. It is raining outside I like pies and cakes

imperative

Give direct order or instruction - Omit the subject of the sentence, especially if the subject is already known or is the person being addressed - Go away, henry: subject of go away is you - clarified as part of an end-focus construction as being directed at Henry - This type of information flow frequently occurs with imperative setnence ypes when it may not be clear who is being addressed Forceful imperatives include an exclamation mark, which has the effect of reducing the level of politeness of a request, as well as creating a sense of urgency or intensity e.g. Go away, Henry Pick up this mess, please Tick all relevant boxes when completing Watch out! Leave me alone! Stop doing that!

formatting

Heading and subheadings: - Indicate the topic of paragraph that follow, making it easier for readers to quickly find the information they need - BE SPECIFIC Typography: - Typefaces, colours and sizes can draw attention to particular components of a text - Why subheadings and headings appear in bold or larger font sizes- reduces the time taken to find that information - Bold fonts: to mark headings and subheadings - Italics indicate emphasis - All capital letters: appear in headings but also commonly found in informal texts as a way to mimic shouting - Underlined words: hyperlinks to other websites or pages (often different colour- blue unvisited, purple visited) Bullet point lists, borders and tables - Allows information to be condensed into core components - Borders and tables act as signposts to relevant information that can be quickly accessed ○ Table separated into more readable portions ○ Borders give prominence to important information Images, graphics and charts - Visual representation that complements accompanying text - Infographics: pie charts, line graphs, scatter plots, summarise the content of text - Images and graphics used to help reader understand a text and its surrounding context- used to reinforce the contents as well as to strengthen the rhetoric force of a text

pitch

Height of a sound in auditory terms, from low to high. Vocal chords vibrate faster, pitch is higher. We modulate our pitch depending on the meaning we wish to express or the emotion we wish to convey. Typically, pitch rises when we become excited, whereas we might speak with a lower-pitched voice if we wish to sound serious or authoritative

auxiliary verbs

Helping verbs including modal verbs Modify and change some aspect of a main verb - Used to create the range of tenses (was dancing, has been wailing) - Form negatives (I do not like pumpkin, do you like pumpkin) - Create constructions such as passive voice (was congratulated) e.g. have, was, do

- situational context

Immediate circumstances function, field, mode, setting, relationship

Collective nouns

Include the names for groups of animals, people and things Swarm (bees), murder (crow) people (human), parliament (owl), family (related members), police (group of police officers)

-morphological overgeneralisation

Incorrectly apply patterns we already know to new words, and is particularly common among young children and people learning English as a second language - Foots instead of feet

- slang

Informal speech that is not standard in the specific language or dialect - Typically transient: does not tend to stick around Associated with particular groups, according to factors such as region, personal interest or age Created through repurposing pre-existing words and phrases through morphological patterning Exclusive in nature - Connotative or conceptual link between meaning - Cannot be figured out by those who are not part of the in-group - Can be idiomatic - Relies firmly on cultural knowledge Exclusion rather than efficiency - Signal in-group solidarity

conjunctions and advverbials

Joining words or phrases that provide links within sentence or within the larger context of discourse - Used to create sentence structures that link relevant information together by coordinating or subordinating words, phrases and clauses - Paragraphs: adverbials in particular are used to tie ideas together in structured and meaningful ways Use of adverbials and conjunctions have 4 main purposes: - To provide additional information - To contrast ideas or statements - To provide link between causes and effects - Place information in appropriate sequences (time) Additives: include the coordinate conjunction 'and' as well as adverbials such as 'furthermore', 'also', 'as well as' 'in addition' and 'by the way' Contrastives: but, while, nevertheless, yet, contrary to this - Allow for comparison - Demonstrate opposition, alternatives, exclusions, contrasts, comparison Cause and effect: for, because, therefore, thus, so, consequently, as a result - Show that one clause is a direct result of another Sequencing and timing: after, meanwhile, previously - Signposting the delivery of information to audience - Provide contextual timing, sequence of event Promote cohesions as they create meaningful structural relationships between phrases, clauses and sentences to aid the delivery of information - Supports coherence as it contributes to the logical element

- jargon

Language variety that is particular to any trade, occupation, hobby or group - Highly specific to its context, may not be understood by those outside of the field - Efficiency: complex ideas can be communicated more precisely and much faster than if they had to be explained in full each time - Side effect: obfuscation- the obscuring of intended meaning in communication ○ Relies on knowledge and expertise of all participants in a particular field ○ Marker of in-group solidarity and group membership ○ Promotes authority and expertise of its members, simultaneously excluding those who do not belong to the group

- register

Legalese a. Archaisms: herewith, aforesaid, whereto b. Formulaic utterances: members of the jury c. Pre and post modification: the highest bidder, the settlement period of 30 days d. French and Latin loan words: caveat emptor, adjourn, actus reus Informal a. Idiomatic expression: aerial ping pong (Australian Rules Football) to put the mozz on 'to jinx' b. Suffixation: journo, mozzie c. Non-standard spelling: wassup, wanna d. Discourse particles: like, so

conventions for transcript

Legend (transcript key), symbols and line numbers should be present

- lexical choice including

Lexical items from the same lexical sets In order to avoid repetition, writers often employ synonym, antonymy, hyponymy and collocations to reinforce a topic or idea

denotation

Literal meaning as it is defined in the dictionary

volume

Loud: angry, adamant Soft: soothe

initialism

Made up of the beginning letters in a sequence of words, but continue to be said as a serious of letters e.g. RSPCA RSVP

general

Majority accent in Australia today- centre of broadness continuum Since 1970s, gradual shift towards the general accent due to the stigmas attached to the latter accents- 'bogan-ness' and low socioeconomic status at one end of the spectrum and associations of snobbery and delusions of grandeur at the other Receives wide approval from all sectors of society and is the accent most commonly heard in the media which once used to be dominated by British-Sounding accents

- colloquial language/colloquialism

Markers of informal register that demonstrates a relaxed and casual tone Different from slang- more permanent and tend to be widely understood (often included in the dictionary) Can consist of - Diminutives - Contractions - Shortenings - Assimilated and blended lexemes 'gonna' 'wanna' - Connotative words 'reckon' (to establish by calculation- I believe) Reduces register - Reduce social distance

clauses

Minimally consists of a subject and a verb (locked in together) Noun phrase + verb Main/independent clauses: can stand alone as a sentence (the cat meowed) Subordinate/dependent clause: cannot stand alone as a sentence - She yelled because she was angry (subordinating conjunction) Main clause: she yelled Subordinate clause: because she was angry

overlapping speech

Most conversations- people overlap each other at some time unlike in most film or stage performances where dialogue is scripted and audiences need to understand and hear every word Sometimes overlap inadvertently - Think the other person has finished speaking - Excited or encouraging the other person to continue - Agreeing with them - Echoing their thoughts Deliberately - Attempt to contradict - Interject - Take the floor Very common in spontaneous discourse, and is indicated in transcripts with square bracket

clefting

Movement of a phrase to another position within a sentence - Mark the sentence in relation to what the audience focuses on It-cleft: phrase moved near to the front of the sentence - Third person singular neutral pronoun 'it' and the appropriate grammatical tense of the copular verb 'to be' are used to construct a predicate complement - Predicate complement is then attached to a relative clause that contains the rest of the information about the modified complement Pseudo-cleft (wh-cleft): results in marked sentences where prominence is created through the use of a relative pronoun - Prominence: at the end Provides control in highlighting any particular element from a sentence in order to topicalise or emphasise - However this may have an impact on understandability e.g. Unmarked sentence: I washed the cat last night It-cleft: [it was] the cat [that] I washed last night Unmarked sentence: the cat stole the fish from the fridge It-cleft: [it was] the fish [that] the cat stole from the fridge Pseudo-cleft: [what] was stole from the fridge by the cat [was] the fish

front focus

Moving phrasal elements out of its usual position to the front of a sentence, thereby giving it prominence - The information moved to the front is already known content of the utterance or sentence - If new, it acts as a contrast or comparison to what has already been said Phrasal element 'all of us' has been moved to the front appearing before the subject 'he' The referent of 'us' is already known, as the first person plural pronoun was introduced as the subject of the prior sentence Front focus of 'to all of us' in front focus gives prominence and the implication that the man may not seem to be acting suspiciously to everyone who saw him, but from the perspective of the group of people mentioned, he did e.g. We were watching the man down the street. [To all of us], he seemed to be acting suspiciously

compound-complex setence

Must have at least three clauses in total, with at least two main clauses and at least one subordinate clause e.g. I bought three potato cakes and Theo bought a burger with the lot because we were both hungy

nouns

Name people, place, things, qualities or actions - Common (general) - Proper (specific) - Collective (group) Content words (open class- can easily change(coin))- provides meaning

proper noun

Names a specific person, place, thing, or idea capitalised Melbourne, Imogene

nasal assimilation

Nasals assimilate to the place of articulation of the consonants around them e.g. Handbag Pancake- the nasal /n/ can sometimes sound more like pangcake

neologism

Newly coined word, expression or usage Some neologisms are true coinage: they are not the result of any specific process and are simply newly created words, with no reference to pre-existing words Domain of social media and teen-speak are particularly prone to spawning neologisms

standard and non-standard english

Non-standard English ties in closely with informality- does not fit the expected norms defined by the standards - Covert norms may require use of non-standard English Standard variety used as part of Australia's overt norms

cohesion and coherence

Normally associated with written texts, but they do apply to spoken discourse as well - Planned or scripted speech e.g. lectures, political speeches or eulogies - Spontaneous: ○ ordered thoughts ○ try to stay on the topic ○ conventions such as openings and closings give structure to the discourse ○ rely on inferences to make sense of words or phrases ○ avoiding repetition by ellipses, substitution and anaphoric references/synonyms ○ Conjunctions and adverbials to make cohesive links - May not be the most important feature- focus on the most significant

- overt and covert norms

Over norms: linguistic practices that are widely accepted as prestigious within society - Adhering to overt norms (inc. those codified as Standard English) allows the speaker or writer to create an identity that is associated with high socioeconomic status - allows them to create an identity that is associated with high socioeconomic status - Language allows them to present themselves as well educated, belonging to the upper class and/or employed in a respected occupation - Might reflect their actual status, or the status they aspire to achieve Covert norms: linguistic practices that are not given prestige by the wider community - However within certain social groups they are more valuable than overt norms because of their ability to include and exclude - Associated with non-standard English and are rarely codified - Construct local identities and reinforce group solidarity, either consciously or subconsciously - Individuals who understand and can successfully use the covert norms are identified as belonging to the group and can thus gain acceptance - Those who cannot or do not wish to adopt these covert linguistic practices are immediately identified as outsiders and are excluded

spoken discourse

Paralinguistic features: facial expressions, body gestures and eye gaze- very important in conveying meaning and emotion - Concerns the non-vocal signals beyond the basic speech - When we speak with someone face-to-face, much of our attitude and meaning is conveyed in our body language and facial expressions - Complemented by our use of prosody and vocal effects Play an important role in our spoken discourse, but in writing we don't have these features - Use punctuations - Font choice - Emoticons and emoji - Acronyms - Numerical codes e.g. Smile from interlocutor is a welcome sign Frown most likely indicates displeasure or disagreement Shrug of the shoulders- doesn't know the answer or doesn't care

intonation

Pattern of pitch changes in speech- patterns made by rising and falling pitch. Not only is our rhythm evident when we speak, so are our pitch changes. Intonation phrases Intonation contours Purpose: signal grammatical structure, communicate speaker's attitude or emotion. Grammatically, it can signal clauses or sentences (you can hear the commas and full stops) personal attributes such as uncertainty, agreement or anger can also be expressed with intonation incombination with other prosodic features High rising terminal (HRT high rising intonation)- very common and distinctive speech pattern in AU and NZ that is prevalent particularly among young people. Think about the different ways you could say 'aha'. Signal polite listening, puzzlement or excitement does your intonation change?

- positive and negative face needs

Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson 1987 established positive and negative face - Underpin systems of politeness (any strategy used to address another person's positive or negative face needs) - maintain social harmony Positive face needs: need to be liked, respected and treated as a member of a group - Language that builds rapport, signals approval or encourages solidarity, intimacy, equality or inclusiveness address positive face needs- therefore classified as positive politeness strategy - Expressing affection through nicknames - Offering compliments or praise - Asking questions to demonstrate interest - Listening attentively or responding with encouragement to others' talk - Can express solidarity by offering invitations or reminiscing past shared experiences - Taboo language can address positive face needs because it suggests that the interlocutors are comfortable with one another and have common attitudes towards taboo topics Negative face needs: the need to be autonomous and act without imposition from others - Language or behaviour that demonstrates respect or minimises imposition addresses negative face needs- negative politeness strategy - Avoidance of face-threatening acts ○ Any behaviour or language that challenges an individual's need for freedom and respect ○ Lateness ○ Giving orders ○ Making demands ○ Providing criticism or advice - Individuals use negative politeness strategy to minimise their harmful impact ○ Indirectness ○ Hedges to soften the force of threatening or demanding statements ○ Using politeness marker 'please' and 'thank you' ○ Offer apologies for imposition ○ Framing requests as questions rather than a demand § Allows respondents to decline ○ Use of preferred honorifics or names that acknowledge authority ○ Euphemisms - Generally used in addressing superiors or strangers

- idiolect

Person's linguistic fingerprint- reflected in their own set of specific speech habits - Product of our own identity and is influenced by various personal, cultural and social factors such as personality, nationality, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, gender and aspirations

complement

Phrase or clause that gives extra information about an element, such as a subject or object, which has already been mentioned within a sentence or clause Common type of complement is the use of an adjective phrase to describe a subject or object The adjective phrase could be moved to be inside the noun phrase 'the ware to create a more descriptive noun phrase: 'the quite warm water' but sentence becomes a fragment as it no longer contains a predicate This makes a complement obligatory as deleting it would remove critical information to maintain the intended meaning and grammatical structure Noun phrases, pronouns, proper names and numbers can be complements In the case where a whole clause acts as a complement, the clause describes a subject or object that has already been mentioned; they have the same referent Look for them directly after particular types of verbs called copular verbs Copular verb: to be Semi-copular: seem, become, consider, appear, feel, grow, look, prove - Consider the phrase or clause that follow and decide if the phrase is obligatory, where removing it fundamentally changes the sentence - Semi-copular verbs can also be used as regular verbs e.g. Phrase or clause that gives extra information about an element, such as a subject or object, which has already been mentioned within a sentence or clause Common type of complement is the use of an adjective phrase to describe a subject or object The adjective phrase could be moved to be inside the noun phrase 'the ware to create a more descriptive noun phrase: 'the quite warm water' but sentence becomes a fragment as it no longer contains a predicate This makes a complement obligatory as deleting it would remove critical information to maintain the intended meaning and grammatical structure Noun phrases, pronouns, proper names and numbers can be complements In the case where a whole clause acts as a complement, the clause describes a subject or object that has already been mentioned; they have the same referent Look for them directly after particular types of verbs called copular verbs Copular verb: to be Semi-copular: seem, become, consider, appear, feel, grow, look, prove - Consider the phrase or clause that follow and decide if the phrase is obligatory, where removing it fundamentally changes the sentence - Semi-copular verbs can also be used as regular verbs e.g. The water is [quite warm] (adjective phrase describing the water) Hamish considered the ticked price [a ripoff] All of these books are [mine] My dog is [ten] She took the pencil [that I was using] She [proved] herself worthy semi-copular: proved Adjectival complement: worthy Object: herself  She [proved] a theorem Describes the action of proof, does not add a further description of 'she'

puns

Play on the different meaning of words - Exploit lexical ambiguity for comedic effect - May involve using ○ homonyms (words that sound and spell the same but mean different) ○ Homophones (words that sound the same but have different spelling and meaning - Innuendo- does not have to be taboo (negative) ○ Double entendre (sexual e.g. Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man' Relies on the double meaning of grave - Serious - Where dead body is buried

cohesion

Plays a significant role in constructing coherent texts Glue

function

Reason the speech or writing exists - Expressing ideas - Attitudes/emotions - Completing a transaction or ritual - Recording facts and decisions - Providing information or instructions - Persuading - Entertaining - Developing relationships - Build rapport

elision

Refers to the omission (deletion) of a sound in connected speech- this sound may be a vowel, a consonant or even a whole syllable. (apostrophe) we often Elide (omit) sounds in rapid everyday speech purely for ease of pronunciation e.g. Fish 'n' chips Wanna

- lexical choice and patterning

Repeated presence of a word and its various forms Stotesbury (1993) describes 4 kinds, but we deal the two most straight forward ones: simples and complex Simple lexical patterning: involves the repetition of a word in its identical form or with very simple changes: 'sing' (first person) 'sings' (third person) or horse (singular) horses (plural) Complex lexical patterning: involves words and any forms of them created through affixation, so the presence of 'category', 'categorise' and 'categorical' within a text is also lexical patterning

alliteration

Repetition of an initial consonant sound, either in consecutive words or words near each other - Literary stylistic device used in poetry, advertising and news headlines - Help make a text more memorable and is testament to our instinct to play creatively with language and enjoy its sonorous qualities e.g. Peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers Frank phoned for fish

consonance

Repetition of consonant sounds in words e.g. Pitter patter, home time, I was running to find my funny sunglasses

assonance

Repetition of identical vowel sounds within words e.g. Get better (e sound) Hot dog We need cream to clean

rhyme

Repetition of word endings that have the same (or similar) vowel and consonant sounds. Rhyme is used in songs, poetry and verse and can help young children to read and gain pleasure from language. Nursery rhymes consistently make use of this literary device. Useful in capturing people's attention and is also a powerful mnemonic device, helping people to remember. Australian English capitalises on rhyme in its 'rhyming slang'- many Australians like a bit of 'dead horse' (sauce) oh their pies, and at the end of the night the hit the 'frog and toad' (road) Advertisers also love to use rhyme in their jingles and slogans

root morpheme

Semantic base or centre of a word; a root word is the smallest unit around which we build new words. May either be a free morpheme or bound

field

Semantic field or domain - Main topic of discussion/theme - How can the lexemes within this discourse be grouped or categorised

- Lexical meaning, especially sense relations:

Sense relation: different ways in which words can relate or connect to one another in a lexicon or in a given discourse Signify connection of similarity, contrast, specificity, reliance and value/emotion

antonym

Sense relationship between lexemes that have contrasting or opposite meanings Contradictories: only one word in the pair of antonyms can be true at once Gradable antonyms: Not necessarily true opposite, but are sufficiently different to be considered antonyms (on a spectrum) Relational opposite: one cannot exist without its relationship with the other Also known as converse terms Prefixes Common for adjectives and abstract noun (happy/sad and joy/sorrow) e.g. Dead and alive, awake and asleep Hungry, peckish, full Student/teacher, shorter/taller Likely/unlikely

synonyms

Sense relationship between lexemes that have similar meanings e.g. Sandwich and sanger (australian slang)

pronouns

Short words that can replace nouns (and noun phrases) in a sentence - Subject pronoun: I, we they, you, he, she, it - Object pronoun: me, us, them, you, her, him, it - Possessive pronouns: mine, ours, theirs, yours, hers, his its - Relative pronouns: that, who whoever, whom, whomever, which, whichever - Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these those § This- proximal (this is red- [the book] is red) § That- distal ○ Personal pronouns (only pronouns that are not determiner) § He, she it, I, you ○ Interrogative pronoun: who, what, where ○ Reflexive pronouns: himself, herself... ○ Indefinite : any, some.. § Would you like some

minimal response

Signals that we are listening to and following an interlocutor - Show our encouragement and support for the other speaker - That we are listening and following their narrative - Often indicate that we are happy for the other interlocutor to keep speaking - Laughter, echoing (repeating) someone's words- indicate validation and support - Facial expressions, smiles and body language (nodding) offer feedback and encouragement in face-to-face encounters e.g. Mmm Uhah Hmmm Right Oh okay

morpheme

Smallest written unit that still has meaning as a whole. There are two types: bound and free

Verbal irony

Speaker states one thing but actually intends the audience to understand and opposing or contradictory meaning - Used for humour or satire (combination of humour and criticism) - To build solidarity between interlocutors by developing implicit understanding Verbal irony: saying what you don't mean (I'm looking forward to read this 500 page) [main reference in study design] Not as relevant: Dramatic irony: audience is aware of something that the characters are not Situational irony: outcome of an event is the opposite of what was expected e.g. Nice day for a picnic (for stormy weather)

personification

Specific type of metaphor that gives non-humans (animals, ideas, objects) a human quality or ability such as emotion, desires, expressions or language e.g. The wind speaks to me

hyponym

Specific words whose sense can be included in another One hypernym will have many hyponyms Hypernym: vehicle(co-) hyponyms: car, bicycle, scooter, truck Netball is hyponym of sport

broad

Stereotypically attached to the Australia people, as it is most distinctive and is the one which non-Australian are most familiar with - Exported to the world through television and film characters in 1980s - Attitude towards these have changed over time, but typically associated with the characters or larrikinism, mateship, friendliness - Associated with working-class males ('ocker' or 'bogan') Broad vowel sounds are longer and drawn out Tongue is lower in the mouth for the onset of the diphthong - Today sounds like to die - Elision and assimilation in its constants- 'Australian' 'strayan' 'give us' 'gissa'

topic management

Strategies used for controlling the topic of conversation Use their turns to initiate, change or develop topics Initiating a topic - Discourse particles are useful way of introducing new topics (now, well, guess what, by the way) - Phrases such as 'did you hear about...' Discourse particles play huge role in topic management and turn taking Changing topic by - asking questions unrelated to the current topic - Using discourse particles (anyways, so, so anyway) Develop or maintain the topic being discussed - Minimal response to indicate they are following and interested - Use words from the same semantic field - Echo the words used by their fellow interlocutors Topic loop: If a topic goes off-track, people might return to it using phrases such as 'Getting back to...' 'anyway, to get back to...'

- political correctness

Style of language that is designed to reduce or avoid potential offence or exclusion - Prevent bullying and offensive behaviour by using impartial language in places of words or expressions loaded with offensive undertone - Attempts to meet the needs of all participants by reducing the likelihood of causing offence - Allow the saving of face in relation to politeness, where neither positive nor negative face needs are threatened Social rules in relation to being PC - Being careful to address individuals and groups in ways that include all of them rather than a particular demographic: e.g. using term other than 'guys' for mixed-gender groups, using correct pronouns for individuals (including gender neutral) - Avoiding gender-exclusion in titles and professions such as fireman, policeman, actress - Avoiding derogatory expressions- particularly in relation to ethnicity and physical or mental disabilities - Avoiding discriminatory language of any kind- racist, ageist, sexist

interrogative tag

Tags put at the end of a statement to turn it into a question Signal a speaker relinquishing the floor to another person To check that the other person is following, understanding or agreeing - Person still intends to hold the floor, but seeks some kind of affirmation or empathy from listener (minimal response) e.g. Will he Aren't you So you'll be back on Friday, will you? She can't do that, can she?

- Syntactic patterning in texts

Texts, in particular well-planned texts, foten contain patterns created through repeated syntactic structures. These can be for efficiency reasons such as reducing unnecessary repetiion in the creation of a list, ot they can be for empahsis and literary effect. Prepared speeches can utilise syntactic patters in very effective ways in order to strengthen the rhetoric force of a statement or utterance Can create tempo, rhythem that make a statement stand out, making it more memorable and often highly evocative

stress

The degree of strength used to produce a syllable. Variation in the use of stress gives our speech rhythm. In English, syllables are not the same length. Stress is marked by a movement or sustention of pitch when uttering the stressed syllable. This is accompanied by greater amplitude (loudness) and greater duration (length) in the stressed syllable than is to be found in the adjoining syllables. Stress typically falls on the vowel in a syllable Stress on certain syllables or words can alter meaning or give focus to particular elements Nouns tend to have first syllable stressed, verbs often have second- typical AuE

object

The noun or noun phrase that has not taken the action indicated by the verb Frequently be the person or thing that has been acted upon 'what did the subject X' where X is the predicator What does Nikki like? Direct object: person or object that is involved in the action [what did the subject X] Indirect object: affected by the action (can only exist if direct object exists) [to what/whom was it Xed] He gave his teacher a gift He gave a gift to his teacher Direct object: gift- the object that is transitioning from one person to another Indirect object: person receiving the gift is affected by the giving e.g. Nikki likes [pecan pie]

rhythm

The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech. Common stylistic device in poetry and song. e.g. A sailor went to sea, sea, sea To see what he could see, see, see

code switching

The practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects in conversation or single text Marker of group membership and solidarity - Reaffirms the social or cultural background of the speaker and audience - Inclusion has side effect of exclusion, at those who don't belong to the social or cultural group often don't understand what is being said - Multilingual speakers code switch: affinity with both cultures Strong marker of identity and cultural belonging Speakers are indicating not just that they belong to a particular group, but that they belong simultaneously to two

tempo

The speed at which we speak and can serve variety of functions - Fast speech: excitement or nervousness - Slow speech: deliberation or reflection on the part of the speaker Tempo not only reflects the emotional state of the speaker, it can also indicate grammatical features such as a parenthetical aside Pauses can contribute to its tempo- long pauses can be used to deliberately slow down speech, either for dramatic effect or to elicit some sort of emotional response from the listener. e.g. 'his behaviour- not that I should be telling you this- was atrocious'

word loss

There can be a variety of reasons why word loss occurs - When an object or concept disappears from society e.g. gramophone - Taboo Some words don't disappear entirely but some of their meanings do, dur to either elevation or deterioration

- rhetoric

Type of language used when the intent is to be strongly persuasive 1. Appeal to the audience's sense of ethical responsibility: ethos 2. Appeal to the audience's empathetic nature: pathos 3. Appeal to the audience's logic and reasoning: logos - Inference is required - Language patterns such as syntactic patterning used to highlight and reinforce aspects to strengthen the message - Rhetorical questions act as persuasive device to imply a foregone conclusion as an 'answer' to the question posed - Figurative language, repetition and antithesis are popular techniques - Speech-makers and politicians use

deictics

Type of substitution that relies on contextual information to determine the referent of the substitution - Deixis or deictic reference: the referent is not explicit in the text - Deixis relies on knowledge of people involved as well as the time and place in which the text occurs as part of situational context of the text - Common in spoken Contextual information would be required to achieve coherence - Both pronouns 'me' and 'you' are deictic in relation to person: relies on knowing the speaker and who they are addressing in the situational context - Eye gaze and direction of speech would be strong indicators of the referent of the second personal pronoun - Demonstrative pronoun 'that' in reference to the book that was borrowed and the adverbial 'last week' are also example of deixis, as knowledge of which book would have required speaker B to recall both the time and place that the book was borrowed - Paralinguistic feature of pointing is deictic: requires the contextual knowledge of place to know that speaker B is pointing to a particular shelf Spoken in particular- deixis acts to support efficient and concise communication - Expected that everyone within the situational context is familiar with the referent of deictic substitution, reducing the need for unnecessary explanations e.g. Hey, where did you put that book you borrowed from me last week? Over there (points towards a shelf)

- social purpose

Underlying goals of a particular discourse within its situational and cultural contexts Function: immediately obvious goals of a discourse (entertain, commemorate, inform) Social purpose: broader implications of a discourse e.g. Terms and conditions of airline website Function: inform passengers of their legal rights and obligation Social purpose: legally protecting the airline as well as building confidence in the brand by assuring customers that their needs are met Informal: - Encourage intimacy, solidarity, equality - Maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs - Promoting linguistic innovation - Supporting in-group membership Formal: - Maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs - Reinforcing social distance and authority - Establishing expertise - Promoting social harmony, negotiating social taboos and building rapport - Clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating

- strategies of spoken discourse

Use conversational strategies to ensure the interaction is successful and cooperative- take turns, initiate topics, offer feedback, try to achieve a coherent conversation

- double speak

Use of euphemistic, ambiguous and indirect language to deliberately mislead, confuse or obscure meaning. - Primarily used to make unpleasant or unpalatable truths sound more acceptable by making them incomprehensible or using intentional ambiguity - 'peacekeeping': military presence in a country, bring along with it acts of violence typically associated with war - Fields of politics and advertising, deceiving an audience is of benefit - Unethical and at times illegal to lie to the public, but the use of double-speak allow for truths to be told in such a way that the audience wouldn't necessarily be aware of it used in - Performance reviews in jobs - Report cards at school ○ Author doesn't wish to offend or make false statements ○ Acknowledge positive face of intended audience

exclamative

Used to make exclamations Indicate high levels of feeling or emotion and emphasise what is being said Typical emotions include: - Excitement, outrage or urgnecy Written: exclamation mark Spoken: coupled with prosodic features such as increased volume, changes in pitch (generally higher) or marked changes in stress or intonation Interjections, discourse particles and swear words are frequently used in exclamative sentences or utterances - Provide extra emphasis to the intended meaning as they intensify the lexemes e.g. What a catch! How amazing is that cake! Argh! Oh my gosh! Geez! Oh, crap!

interrogative

Used when framing questions - Designed to elicit responses and always ends with a question mark - Can be used rhetoricaly, where no answer is required beccause the expected answer is known or can be inferred Interrogative formed through the use of an intterogative tag are sometimes referred to as a tag question - Turns an imperative or declarative into an interrogative by inverting the verb of the main cluase to its negative form and attaching it to the end of the interrogative - 'was not' inverted to 'was' which is then attached to the end of the sentnece with a pronoun referring back to the subject of the main clause Lend a rhetorical force to a sentence or utterance, as they have a preferred response Rhetorical interrogatives can be deliberately used by a speaker or writer to persuade an audience to persuade an audience to agree with their arguments or statements e.g. Would you like tea or coffe? that wasn't a very smart thing to do, was it? (interrogative tag) You will go out tonight, won't you?

agentless passives

Used when the speaker or writer does not want to include a reference to an aent Some of the reasons: - Agent is unknown to the speaker or writer - The agent is irrelevant to the topci being discussed - The speaker or writer does not want you to know who the agent is or was Can also be used deliberately to manipulate an audience - Frequently used in double speak - Political rehotic As a device to obfuscate, mislead, confuse or remove personal responsibility for actions e.g. The cathedral was build 200 years ago The decision was made to increase taxes

coordination

Uses coordinating conjunctios to combine cluases into sentences Clause can stand on its own, playing a key role in providing information

subordination

Uses subordinating conjunctions to change main cluases into cubordinating clauses - Beacause - While - After - Although - Than - Whether - Since - Who - Which that Gives extra information or clarifiction of another clause- relises on another clause to make sense therefore subordinates te main clause Combination of main and subordinate clauses cerate a different sentence strucutre which provide variation in sentences withina whole text - Helps create tempo and rhythm keeping audience interested - Change the empahsis of a sentence, in particular if the subordinate clause is placed in front focus e.g. Because you were naughty, you can't watch television The reason for punishment is given first to highlight the naughty act being the cause of the punishment

contractions

Very common process in English and most words formed in this way are quite standard and have been part of English for a long time Used in spoken and informal written language, generally avoided in formal writing e.g. I'll, they're, can't

nominalisation

When a noun is created from a word from any other word class, particularly verbs Create more abstract prose- by eliminating verbs, subjects and objects can also be eliminated Concepts rather than action becomes the focus and nominalisation is therefore useful in cases where it is not necessary or desireable to know who the actor is Commonly used in 'politician speak' Abstract concepts typicaly asosoicaited with formal register- therefore nominalisaion frequently results in a more formal text- nominalised version is more impersonal - Allows for reduction of clauses in text, reducing repetiion by removing unecessary information If a noun can revert back to verb, it is likely to be nominalisaiton - Common suffixes of nominal (noun) forms include -ment -tion and for verbs -ity and -ness for adjectives - Zero-derivational nominalisations: nominal is created without the addition of a suffix (e.g. change) - Gerunds: type of nominalisations, noun created through the suffixation of -ing on a verb such as 'studying' e.g. Participation is encouraged Participate (v) becomes participation (n) making action an abstract concept and the topic of the sentence Studying hard will enable you to succed

lexical ambiguity

When it is not possible to determine the intended meaning of a particular lexeme Many words have more than one meaning e.g. The punch made him unsteady on his feet Punch: blow with a fist, or a beverage containing fruit juice, alcohol

parallelism

When two or more phrases, clauses or sentences are structurally similar and appear near each other- repetition of syntactic structure Acts to make the text easier to process, as the contructios are predictable and expected Acts as a powerful persuasive device in the field of rhetoric, it can reinforce a point or agument in memorable ways - Repetition of parallel structures create sense of rhythm and tempo in speeches, debates and orations- effective in these contexts Parallel structures can also be used in conjunction with lexical repetition, where the first portion of the structure also contains repeated lexis (vocabulary of language, consisting of its stock of lexeme) e.g. Review of a restaurant: the meal was beautifully prepared, expertly cooked and tantalisingly aromaticthe adjectival phrases are in parallel Motto for a sports teamwe want to win by: being fair, playing hard and supporting our teammatesgerund phrases are in parallel announcing a quick victory I came. I saw. I conquered. Verbs are in parallel expressive complaint I hate sport. Everything I hear about it. I hate running; I hate jumping; I hate sweating; and I hate competitions 'I hate' is repeated and noun phrases are in parallel

dysphemism

Word or phrase that magnifies an unpleasant meaning - Humour - Cause offence - Abuse e.g. Siphon the python take a piss do the no-pants dance (sex) worm food (die)

collocation

Words associated within phrases that are statistically more likely to appear near each other than other combinations of words - Often well known- quite predictable and this aids cohesion, hence coherence - Faster for the brain to process than creative or surprising combinations of words e.g. We drove into the [car park] I'm going to [wash up], can you [wipe down] the table? Let's go get a [bite to eat]

interjections

Words or phrases that express sudden or strong emotion or feeling They can stand alone or be placed before or after a sentence Not grammatically related to the rest of the sentence Include - Swear words: damn - Greetings: hello - Other signalling words: yes, no, okay e.g. Ouch! Oh no! sorry!

blends

Words produced by using parts of two words to create a new one e.g. Bromance Babyccino

conjunctions

Words that connect other words (or larger elements of a sentence) Two types: Coordinating: can link words, phrases and clauses together - equal in value- FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) Subordinating: can only join clauses together - Introduce subordinate clauses and link the subordinate clause to a main clause - Include not limited to ○ Causational: because, since ○ Conditional: if... then, unless ○ Comparative: while, whereas e.g. The smoothie was cold and refreshing (coordinating) Jackson loved double physics because Ms Davies was his favourite teacher (subordinating)

acronym

Words that evolve as a result of using the first letter of a series of words and pronouncing this new word as a word in its own e.g. LOL SCUBA

Modal verbs (modal auxiliaries)

a type of helping verb that adds additional meaning to the main verb Sometimes called modal auxiliary- special category of auxiliary verb Made up of 9 words Carry information to do with notions such as - Ability - Permission - Likelihood - Obligation Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must

relationship between participants

a. Social distance: how well do the participants know each other b. Solidarity: do the participants have shared goals, experiences and value c. Power: are the participants equally powerful or does one have a greater ability to influence the circumstances or behaviour of the others

plural noun

names more than one person, place, thing, or idea Most salient feature of nouns is their plural form regular: addition of -s or -es (elephants, atlases) Irregular: not common -en suffix (children) - Other irregular plurals are formed by the stem of a word changing as with 'geese' and 'feet' Some nouns do not change at all 'sheep' 'moose'

non-fluency features

natural part of speech, spontaneous Discourse particles: shape conversations or express social relationships and feelings Non-fluency features: occur mostly when we're trying to formulate our words or ideas, and often at grammatical boundaries in our speech Try to reduce in more formal, scripted situations Pauses: breating, reach grammatical boundary in speech, - Deliberate: dramatic effect, - Signal hesitation or word search Filled pauses/voiced hesitations: um, ah, er, - Indicators of hesitation or thinking False starts: I ah, don't know Repetition: I I I don't know Repair: she (...) I don't know Stumbling/stuttering is also common

Affixes

prefix infixes suffix

adverbial

single word, phrases or clauses that provide extra information about an element ,typically in relation to time, place or manner - If a portion of the sentence can be used to answer questions such as how? When? Where? Which one? What time? How often? Come in form of : Adverb phrases 'really quickly' Single adverbs: quickly Prepositional phrases: in the morning Noun and noun phrases: today, this morning Subordinate clauses: when I fell over Different from complements as their descriptions are not obligatory in the sentence - Act to prove clarification - Removing them does not fundamentally change the meaning of the sentence Heavy use of subject and object complements and adverbials- contribute to descriptive narratives by providing a denser description that are more closely tied together e.g. I read three books [last night] Not obligatory Nick looked [angry] Complement to the subject, but if not stated the sentence has a different meaning