Environmental Science Final Exam

surface mining

(close to the surface of the ground by simply digging down to expose it) a form of mining that involves removing soil and rock that overlays a mineral deposit close to the surface in order to access that deposit

strip mining

(method of choice) a surface mining method that accesses coal from deposits close to the surface on level ground, one section at a time

potency, persistence, solubility

3 key factors that determine how dangerous a toxic substance is

carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ground-level ozone, particulate matter, lead

6 criteria air pollutants

minerals

A naturally occurring chemical compound that exists as a solid with a predictable, three-dimensional, repeating structure.

Clean Air Act

CAA

Environmental Protection Agency

EPA

energy return on energy investment

EROEI

volatile organic compounds

VOC

dose-response curve

a graph that shows the strength of an effect of a substance at different doses of that substance

persistence

a measure of how resistant a chemical is to degradation (how easily it breaks down)

proven reserves

a measure of the amount of a fossil fuel that is economically feasible to extract from a known deposit using current technology

eutrophication

a process in which excess nutrients in aquatic ecosystems feed biological productivity, ultimately lowering the oxygen content in the water

clean coal

a process that chemically removes some of coal's contaminants before burning it. In most common clean coal technology, coal is converted to a gaseous fuel that burns more efficiently and releases fewer air pollutants

ground-level ozone

a secondary pollutant that forms when some of the pollutants released during fossil fuel combustion react with atmospheric oxygen in the presence of sunlight

mountaintop removal (MTR)

a surface mining technique that involves using explosives to blast away the top of a mountain to expose the coal seam underneath; the waste rock and rubble is deposited in a nearby valley

fossil fuels

a variety of hydrocarbons formed from the remains of dead organisms (oil, natural gas, coal) and are considered nonrenewable

lead

additive to gasoline, paint, and other solvents (source: lead-based paint in older homes and from other countries; leaded gasoline; soil erosion and volcanoes)

widely distributed and fairly abundant supply, low geopolitical conflict, energy-rich fuel, safe to transport and store, affordable

advantages of coal

energy-rich fuel, versatile fuel: generate electricity, heating and cooking, vehicle fuel, lowest air pollution, no ash produced when burned, raw material for a wide variety of industrial products

advantages of natural gas

energy-rich fuel, provides variety of liquid fuels that meet needs for vehicles, no ash produced when burned, can transport via pipeline or vehicle, raw materials for a wide variety of industrial products

advantages of oil

lower impact per person due to smaller homes and less traveling, higher energy efficiency in stacked housing than in freestanding buildings, more transportation options which lessens the need for personal vehicles, closer proximity to destinations, which makes walking viable options, more job opportunities, more services for citizens

advantages of urbanization

chronic effect

adverse reaction that happens only after repeated long-term exposure to low doses of a toxic substance

acute effect

adverse reaction that occurs very rapidly after exposure to a toxic substance has occurred

secondary air pollutant

air pollutants formed when primary air pollutants react with one another or with other chemicals in the air

primary air pollutant

air pollutants released directly from both mobile sources and stationary sources

air pollution

any material added to the atmosphere that harms living organisms, affects the climate, or impacts structures

toxic substances

chemicals that can harm living organisms

Environmental impacts: atmospheric ozone depletion, climate change, plants: tissue damage, impaired growth, animals: impaired health, reduced reproductive strategies, eutrophication of waterbodies, reduced visibility, damage to structures health impacts: eye, nose, throat irritation, respiratory infections, wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, headache, cardiovascular and respiratory disease, neurological disorders, premature births and low birth weight, impaired lung development, cancer, diabetes, premature death societal impacts: low income and minority communities most likely to be affected, lost income from missed work, health costs to community

consequences of air pollution

green building

construction and operational designs that promote resource and energy efficiency and provide a better environment for occupants

conventional reserves

deposits of crude oil or natural gas that can extracted by vertical drilling and pumping

unconventional reserves

deposits of oil or natural gas that cannot be recovered with traditional oil/gas wells but may be recoverable using alternative techniques

carbon (as CO2) is released by producers and consumers during cellular respiration and is returned to the atmosphere --> carbon is removed from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and is incorporated into plants, which use or store it --> carbon compounds enter the soil --> both producers and consumers (including decomposers) release carbon (as CO2) during cellular respiration, and it finds its way back to the atmosphere

describe the carbon cycle

nonrenewable, finite resource, hazardous air pollution, most carbon-intensive fossil fuel to burn, water pollution from mining and burning coal, habitat and property destruction from mining, biodiversity loss from mining, flooding risk increased due to loss of vegetation from surface mining, health issues in miners and community members living near mines.

disadvantages of coal

nonrenewable, methane is a potent greenhouse gas, produces CO2 emissions, water pollution, habitat destruction, biodiversity loss, hazardous chemical, difficult to ship.

disadvantages of natural gas

nonrenewable, geopolitical tensions from unequal distribution of reserves, air pollution, water pollution, habitat destruction (extraction and spills), biodiversity loss, dangerous to ship. occupational and community hazard

disadvantages of oil

dependence on food and resource inputs from outside the city, concentrated wastes that have to be transported away, urban heat island effect, traffic congestion and its associated air pollution, possibly higher disease and violence, higher cost of living, less green space

disadvantages of urbanization

sanitary landfills

disposal sites that seal in trash at the top and bottom to prevent its release into the atmosphere; the sites are lined on the bottom, and trash is dumped in and covered with soil daily

causes cancer by causing mutations in DNA (ex: components in tobacco smoke, paints)

effects and examples of carcinogen

interferes with the hormones of the body (ex: many chemicals in plastics such as bisphenol A, some pesticides, glycol ethers)

effects and examples of endocrine disruptors

causes localized damage to tissue such as skin or eyes (ex: household cleaners, chlorine, fabric softeners)

effects and examples of irritant

causes direct damage upon exposure at a high enough dose (ex: pesticides, cleaning solutions, drain cleaner, pharmaceuticals, antifreeze)

effects and examples of poison

can cause an allergic reaction to develop (ex: formaldehyde, latex)

effects and examples of sensitizer

causes birth defects (ex: alcohol, components in tobacco smoke, some pharmaceuticals, heavy metals)

effects and examples of teratogen

1. coal is sent to a furnace, where it is burned to produce heat. 2. water is heated in pipes that pass through the boiler 3. steam is produced and funneled to a turbine 4. as the turbine spins, magnets spin alongside copper wire, generating electricity 5. transformer: voltage is ramped up before being sent out onto the grid. Transformers on power poles step voltage down before it enters your home

electricity production from coal

nuclear energy

energy in an atom; can be released when an atom is split (fission) or combines with another atom (fusion)

dead zones

eutrophication can lead to this

open mines, industrial air pollution from smokestacks, cropland and animal pasture, construction sites

examples of non-point source

sewage treatment plant, animal feedlot and waste lagoon, industrial waste or heated water discharge

examples of point source pollution

synergistic effects

exposure to two or more chemicals that has a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects would predict

antagonistic effects

exposure to two or more chemicals that has a lesser effect than the sum of their individual effects would predict

additive effects

exposure to two or more chemicals that has an effect equivalent to the sum of their individual effects

ground-level ozone

formed from reactions between NO and VOCs in the presence of sunlight (source: vehicles, manufactured products and industry)

carbon monoxide

from incomplete combustion of any carbon-based fuel (source: vehicles, forest fires, and volcanoes)

sulfur dioxide

from natural sources and fossil fuel combustion (source: industry, volcanoes, and dust)

nitrogen oxides

from the reaction of nitrogen in fuel or air with oxygen at high temps. (source: vehicles, industry, and nitrification by soil and aquatic bacteria)

energy security

having access to enough reliable and affordable energy sources to meet one's needs

smog

hazy air pollution that contains a variety of pollutants

NOAEL (no observed adverse effect level)

highest dose where no effect is seen

coal is formed over long periods of time as plant matter is buried in an oxygen-poor environment and subjected to high heat and pressure. Places with substantial coal deposits that are retrievable with current technology are called coal reserves

how is coal formed

anything that increases infiltration can help avoid stormwater problems

how to minimize stormwater runoff

tight oil

light (low-density) oil in shale rock deposits of very low permeability; extracted by fracking

poison, irritant, sensitizer, carcinogen, teratogen, endocrine disruptor

list some types of toxic substances

LOAEL (lowest observed adverse effect level)

lowest dose where an unacceptable effect is first seen

EROEI

measure of the net energy from an energy source (the energy in the source minus the energy required to get it, process it, ship it, and then use it)

energy independence

meeting all of one's energy needs without importing any energy

carbon cycle

movement of carbon through biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem. Carbon cycles via photosynthesis and cellular respiration as well as in and out of other reservoirs, such as oceans, soil, rock, and atmosphere. It is also released by human actions such as the burning of fossil fuels.

fossil fuels

nonrenewable carbon-based resources (ex: coal, oil, natural gas)

long ago, some marine organisms died and were buried in sediment. This burial excluded oxygen, and decomposition was greatly slowed down. As sediments accumulated, the partially decomposed buried biomass was subjected to high heat and pressure. Over the course of millions of years, it was chemically converted to oil or natural gas. Since oil and natural gas are lighter than water, they flow upward in porous reservoir rock until stopped by a layer of dense cap rock. We tap these deposits by drilling into the porous rock reservoirs.

oil and natural gas fuel formation

non-point source pollution

origin of pollution is not easily identifiable; runoff that enters the water from overland flow

particulate matter (PM)

particles or droplets small enough to remain aloft in the air for long periods of time

transboundary pollution

pollution that is produced in one area but falls in a different state or nation

cap-and-trade program

regulations that set an upper limit for pollution emissions, issue permits to producers for a portion of that amount, and allow producers that release less than their allotment to sell permits to those who exceeded their allotment

tar sands

sand or clay formations that contain a heavy-density crude oil; extracted by surface mining

subsurface mining

sites where tunnels are dug underground to access mineral resources

smart growth

strategies that help create walkable communities with lower environmental impacts

solubility

the ability of a substance to dissolve in a water or fat-based liquid or gas

water pollution

the addition of any substance to a body of water that might degrade its quality

carbon footprint

the amount of carbon released to the atmosphere by a person, company, nation, or activity

bioaccumulation

the build-up of a substance in the tissues of an organism over the course of its lifetime

energy

the capacity to do work

LD50 (lethal dose 50%)

the dose of a substance that would kill 50% of the test population

potency

the dose size required for a chemical to cause harm

fracking

the extraction of oil or natural gas from dense rock formations by creating fractures in the rock and then flushing out the oil/gas with pressurized fluid

biomagnification

the increased concentration of substances in the tissue of animals at successively higher levels of the food chain (the fact that animals higher on the food chain bioaccumulate more chemicals than the organisms they eat)

urban heat island effect

the phenomenon in which urban areas are warmer than the surrounding countryside due to pavement, dark surfaces, closed-in spaces, and high energy use

carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)

the process of removing carbon from fuel combustion emissions or other sources and storing it to prevent its release into the atmosphere;

mine reclamation

the process of restoring a damaged natural area to a less damaged state. US federal law requires that after a surface coal mine ceases operations, the land must be restored to close to its original state (however, mountaintop removal mining sites can never return to their original state)

particulate matter

tiny airborne particles or droplets, smaller than 44 micrometers. The smaller the particle, the more dangerous it is for living things (source: combustion of any fuel or activity that produces dust)

stationary source: electricity/heat

use of coal

stationary source: electricity/heat; also used in vehicles

use of natural gas

stationary source: electricity; also used in nuclear submarines and ships

use of nuclear gas

mobile: vehicles; also used for electricity or heat

use of oil/petroleum

placer mining

used when sediments contain heavy minerals or heavy metals like gold. Sediments can be dredged from rivers or mixed with water and then sent through a sluice, the heavier material will fall and be trapped

open-pit mining

used when the top of a fairly deep vertical or irregularly shaped ore deposit is found close to the surface

effluent

wastewater discharged into the environment

storm runoff

water from precipitation that flows over the surface of the land

point source pollution

water pollution whose discharge source can be clearly identified

leachate

water that carries dissolved substances (often contaminated) that can percolate the soil

trees, rain barrel captures runoff from roof, redirected downspout, curb cutouts reduce street runoff by diverting it to the ground, storm drain, rain gardens capture gutter and lawn runoff, green roof

ways to increase infiltration of stormwater