Ethics Exam 2 Study Guide

Describe the general process of how to determine what is virtuous and what makes something virtuous. Then describe the role of natural inclinations in the process and how this leads to the first precept of natural law.

- use reason to reflect upon our nature as human beings - Reflect on our natural inclinations - all creatures are given natural inclinations - such as do good, avoid evil - natural inclinations lead to three categories of goods, which lead to corresponding precepts

Explain O'Neill's summary of Kant's Formula of Humanity. Overall, how does she apply this to famine and extreme poverty (compared to utilitarianism)?

-Always act as to treat humanity as an end, never merely as a means - using someone merely as a means often involves lack of consent -requires justice and beneficence

Be able to give an example of applying Ross's ethical pluralism (such as the child labor examples used in class).

-Child labor should not be permitted or supported -we should provide for the good future of children -children should not be forced into slavery and prostitution - Which is self evident? should engineers avoid components that have child labor in their supply chain?

What are O'Neill's objections to the utilitarian approach?

-Indeterminate: we can't ever fully know the consequences of our actions - will require sacrificing others for the sake of utility - sometimes will require using others merely as a means

Describe W. D. Ross's theory of Ethical Pluralism. Explain prima facie norms and self-evident norms while doing so. What are some examples of prima facie norms? Explain.

-Moral duties are based on Prima Facie Norms (permanent but non-absolutist reasons to act a certain way) -We should always take prima facie norms into consideration, but when they conflict, we must weigh the different norms to determine which one is the self evident norm in that situation -Self-evident norm: the action we should take, the one that overrules other prima facie norms after taking everything into consideration Examples: - Norms concerning faithfullness: freely given promises should be kept - Concerning reciprocity: things like the golden rule in a positive or negative sense -solidarity: help people

Do moral principles derived from natural law have exceptions? Explain. Explore using Aquinas's example of theft.

- We should be open to exceptions to these principles, follow the spirit of the law rather than the letter of the law - Theft : in cases of need all things are common property, whatever people have in superabundance is due for the purpose of aiding the poor

Explain one objection to O'Neill, covered in class.

-positive duties are too ambiguous -does not help us to determine how much we should help those in extreme poverty -Kantian should sacrifice bugatti in bob's bugatti example

Name and describe the three groups of natural inclinations. Give some examples of moral precepts derived from these.

1) Goods of self preservation (protecting and sustaining life) 2) Biological goods (reproduction, educating offspring) 3) Reason (knowing the truth, avoiding offense, seeking friendship, shunning ignorance) - humans are good, but they are corrupt with ignorance

Name and explain the four objections to virtue ethics covered in class.

1) Inadequate moral guidance - does not give us sufficient advice on how to live or act (lacks specifics) 2) Too demanding - moral exemplars set impossible goals, our actions are almost always wrong 3) Conflict and Contradiction - Virtuous people often disagree whether to perform certain actions - who do you follow? 4) How do we properly identify moral exemplars? - some hold Hitler as a moral exemplar, some greed and arrogance as virtues

Describe three of the four objections to earn to give, that were outlined in class. How does MacAskill's organization, 80,000 hours, respond to these objections?

1) People won't stick with it - influenced by peers - many people do, so it is possible 2) Many high earning jobs are harmful - find one that isnt 3) high paying jobs aren't motivating to most people - find one that is 4) you can have a higher impact on the world in other ways, rather than simply giving money (time)

Describe the four examples of the Universality Principle

1) Suicide is always wrong - "because you care about your life you want to end it" contradicts itself (destroying life for sake of life) 2) False promises are immoral - not universal - borrowing $ and not paying back, no one would lend $ 3) Neglect of natural talent in favor of self-indulgence - could be universal law w/out contradiction - could NOT will it to be universal, it is rational to want to be developed 4) Do not harm anyone, but also do not help them - could be universal law w/out contradiction -could NOT be universal - everyone wants help and love

Name and define the Four Categories of Human Characteristics.

1) Vicious - does not know what the virtuous thing is, and emotions are either excessive or deficient, and acts accordingly 2) Incontinent - knows what the virtuous thing is, but due to excessive or deficient emotion, does not do it 3) Continent - Knows what is virtuous, does what is virtuous, but doesn't have right feeling/state of mind 4) Virtuous - knows what is virtuous, does the virtuous thing, and feels the right way while doing it

Next, explain the three-part test of the formula of humanity.

1) identify maxim 2) does it treat any member merely as means? -if so: unjust -if not: 3) ask does it treat all members of moral community fully as ends? if not: unjust if yes: permissible

Explain the three part test of the universal law formula.

1- Identify A's maxim 2- Ask, "could it be a universal law without logical contradiction? (if not - A is immoral, if yes -> 3) 3- Ask, "could I rationally will it to be a universal law?" (if not: A is immoral, if yes: A is permissable)

Describe the universal law formula (aka universality principle).

Act as if everyone were going to act according to your maxim (universally) If everyone acted according to your maxim, would it lead to logical contradictions? (not about consequences)

Describe the role of training in becoming virtuous.

Although we all have a natural aptitude for virtue, perfection of virtue requires help, practice, and training - learn from others, might require fear of punishment and discipline

For Virtue Theory, what makes an action right? Why is it not enough to simply do what looks like the right action? Explain.

An act is morally right if it exercises, exhibits, or develops a morally virtuous character (if it is something a virtuous person would do) - it is not enough to know what is virtuous, or to do what is virtuous, you must also do so in the proper state of mind

Explain O'Neill's concept of Beneficence. How does O'Neill apply this to famine and extreme poverty? What is our general duty concerning? Explain using one of her examples.

Beneficence: requires we act on some maxims that foster others ends - seek others happiness -Helping to put someone in a position to pursue whatever ehnds they may have has a stronger claim on us than at sharing ends with those who are already in a position to pursue ends -it is better to help people in extreme poverty than those who can support themselves -we have a duty to help those in extreme poverty

Explain in detail the Bob's Bugatti example. Explain how Singer applies this to world poverty.

Bob has a trolley problem, on one track is a human and on the other is his uninsured bugatti. He could save one life or save his retirement money. Poverty: We are all in Bob's situation. Every time we choose to spend money on luxuries instead of giving to charity, we are letting people die or suffer from hunger and curable diseases that could have been prevented

What is Singer's central claim concerning world poverty? Explain his core argument in support of this claim. Is his theory all or nothing? Explain.

Central claim: you should give away almost all money to effective charities that you normally spend on luxuries Core argument: 1. if we are able to prevent something bad from happening without sacraficing anything of comparable moral significance, we ought to do it 2. It takes little money to save/improve lives of those in extreme poverty 3. Therefore, we ought to donate our extra money to save or dramatically improve lives of those in extreme poverty -something is better than nothing (start with giving a little, work up to more) NOT all or nothing

Describe the difference between deontology and consequentialism. Explain what makes Kant a deontologist.

Consequentialism - an action is right if it produces good consequences Deontology - an action is right if it is made with good intentions or motives

What is the golden mean (include an example)? In describing the Golden Mean, make sure to note the role of emotion.

Golden mean - virtues are often the reasonable mean between extremes - extremes of courage are cowardice and recklessness - aims at hitting the mean of emotions and actions

What is the grounding problem for virtue theory? Explain Aquinas's solution to it. What is an essential component to this? Explain.

Grounding Problem: How do we determine the correct virtues? What makes virtues good? - Aquinas says that virtues are based on natural law, which comes from eternal law, which comes from God - What we are, our form/nature, determines what we ought to do - Reason is an essential part of this - we must use reason to determine proper virtues based on natural law

What is human law? Explain the goals of human law and what it is based upon. What does Aquinas say about laws that do not follow natural law? Explain.

Human law should be composed of rules which lead people to be virtuous, which means it should promote the common good - human law is only a law if it is directed towards the common good - may result in general rules, that should be broken when following them goes against the natural law or common welfare - if they are tyrannical they are not true laws, for they are unjust

How does Kant define humanity

Humanity: any being that is rational and autonomous

Describe the difference of hypothetical or categorical imperatives.

Hypothetical: If you are in circumstance C, then do A Categorical: Do A Categorical imperative is something you have to do all the time (applies to all people regardless of personal desires

Explain O'Neill's concept of Justice. How does O'Neill apply this to famine and extreme poverty? What restrictions does this put on individuals? Does your job or title change this?

Justice: should not act on any maxim that uses another as a mere means - when supplies are rationed, do not seek more than your share -do not cheat or take advantage of others in desperate situations -do not hoard goods -duty to try to provide for your dependents

Describe in detail the problem of autonomy. Explain the argument against autonomy.

Kant assumes we are genuinely autonomous, but that assumption might be false - determinists deny free will, that our choices are ultimately an illusion, they are necessitated without an other options

Describe in detail the objection that Kant's moral community is too narrow. Explain the Argument Against Animals.

Moral community excludes the most vulnerable among us (infants, senile, those with limited cognitive abilities and animals) - Kant claims harming these people/animals is wrong because it can lead to harming rational people (consequentialist!!)

Explain what moral virtues are. While answering this, explain Aristotle's concept of Eudamonia. How do we obtain moral virtues?

Moral virtue: an acquired good disposition of mind and action, ideal character traits (an achievement that requires training, experience and practice) Aristotle vies virtues as necessary to achieve Eudaimonia: human excellence, happiness

Describe both natural law and eternal law. What is the relationship between the two? Describe the role of reason.

Natural law: the participation in the eternal law in the rational creature Eternal law: law established by God, and governs the entire universe (imprinted upon everything) - Rational creatures are given the ability to discern good from evil - Have to use reason to reflect upon our nature as human beings

Describe the formula of humanity (aka principle of humanity). While doing so, make sure to describe treating something as a means and as an end

POH: So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never only as a means Means: dealing with someone so as to achieve your goals/interests (using someone) End: treating a member of humanity with the respect he or she deserves

Describe the relationship of reason and morality for Kant.

Right acts are rational, wrong acts are irrational. (why be moral? It is the rational thing to do)

Name and describe the potential problems of vagueness, specificity, and fanaticism. What are some ways Kantian could respond to these problems?

Vagueness: treating someone fully as an end is vague, and so the principle is difficult to apply (what counts as treating someone with respect?) Specificity: you could potentially make any maxim very specific to only apply it to your own situation (still universal, it just would not happen again) - how specific should our maxims be? Fanaticism: some maxims that seem wrong could possibly be a universal law (do whatever it takes to preserve the beauty of your lawn)

How does virtue ethics have a different starting point from most ethical theories? Explain.

Virtue ethics starts with "what kind of person should I be?" - theory of ideal personal traits - moral duty -focus on the character traits that make a good person

Describe in detail the problem of identifying moral exemplars and virtues

When we argue for particular virtues and moral exemplars, we rely either on consequential or deontological reasoning (which one?)

Describe in detail the problems associated with Kant's moral absolutism.

cases such as "murder at the door" indicate that most moral rules should not be considered absolute - we should be open to exceptions Kant in response would say that the absolute rules are against maxims rather than actions

What is a common mischaracterization of the universal law formula ? How would Kant respond to this mischaracterization?

it is NOT like rule utilitarianism (what if everyone did that, would it have bad consequences?) Kant says to shift focus to maxims instead, will this maxim lead to CONTRADICTION

What is a maxim?

rule/principle reflecting agents motives and intentions

Practical Wisdom (aristotle)

the ability to draw the right distinctions and tell right from wrong, allows us to find the mean