Ethics Week 1,2,3

The Super-ego = The Punisher (most closely resembles the conscience is the super ego)

"The Super-ego can be thought of as a type of conscience that punishes misbehavior with feelings of guilt" (Freud, 1962). The super-ego aims for perfection and comprises the mostly unconscious, organized part of the personality structure that includes an individual's ego ideals, spiritual goals, and conscience that criticizes and prohibits one's drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.

External Frustration

"[E]xternal frustration-so greatly enhances the power of the conscience in the super-ego. As long as things go well with a man, his conscience is lenient and lets the ego do all sorts of things; but when misfortune befalls him, he searches his soul, acknowledges his sinfulness, heightens the demands of his conscience, imposes abstinences on himself and punishes himself with penances

The Historical Notion of Conscience or Moral Sense

*Deciding What We Value*: When we value something, we put it on a pedestal apart from things that we either do not appreciate or value less. When do we first begin to value something? As babies, we develop likes and dislikes. Eventually, we learn to divide the world into binaries of approval and disapproval, and then we add justification for our preferences or aversions. These are what constitute our moral values. *Values and Our Moral Code*: Our values make up the moral code that we try to live by. They also influence our conception of how we would like society to be ordered. We use values to make sense of what is and what ought to be. They help us understand what we ought to do (Dimmock & Fisher, 2017). *Values and Decision-making*: Our values are our inventory of what we consider to be the most important in life. We all have values, but unless we take the time to think about those values, we can easily overlook them when we are making important decisions. Thus, our conscience offers a valuable source of moral knowledge (Dimmock & Fisher, 2017). *Turning to Philosophy*: We use philosophy to question our values because it forces us to provide reasons, and preferably good reasons, for approving or disapproving certain types of behavior. Our conscience can provide us with conscious moral direction or motivation to interfere when we see wrongdoing or experience indignation at injustice.

Facets of the Super-ego

- The super ego wworks in contraindiction to the id, whereas the former acts in a socially appropriate manner, the latter just wants instant self- gratification ( woman eating popcorn and other foods representing ID versus the woman punching the stack of cupcakes, representing the super-ego) - it controls out sense of right and wrong and guilt and helps humans fit into society by getting us to act in socially acceptable ways ( young girl helping a young boy stand up representing a good moral choice, whereas the man pushing a woman from behind is representing a bad moral choice) - the demands of the super-ego often oppose the id's demands, so the ego sometimes has a hardtime in reconciling the two ( the judge, representing the ego, stuck in between the id and the super-ego ) - the super ego is produced by the tensions between the individual ego and the disciplinary mechanisms of the society with which it must interact (judge saying "that makes sense" when shown a societal standard such as "don't be mean")

Example: Making a false promise on a loan application and universality

- you go for a loan and don't have a job and say yes you have a job - "we'll give it to you and you have to pay interest.' - you get the money & kan would say you made a false promise to repay a loan that you have no way of repaying. universality: do we want people doing this all the time? - no kant does not care about consequences does not believe in consequences from immoral acts More based on the intention - maxim - the principle you'd be acting on if you did something. He wants to know whether or not the world would make sense if we all lived that way. - if everyone is always lying then lying wouldn't work because everyone would know you're lying. Reciprocity: not allowing yourself to do things that you would not allow or let others do Considering homelessness and reciprocity: imagine a guy walking down the street and he has alot of money, he sees all these people living in tents in the side of the street, freezing, have no blankets. He thinks he should buy them blankets, then he says he doesn't want to because of the time it takes and has to go wherever he has to go, buy the blankets and come all the way back. He wants to have fun. "says its not my fault they are there, there life wont be worse, i didnt put them there, im blame free" Kan would say - you lose all your money tomorrow and in a month you're in a tent. Would you want someone to walk by with money and get you a blanket?" If yes then you are making it okay for people help you but not helping others. Contraindication of will. Kan is adamant of doing our duty *because it is the right thing to do* - big on respect dignity - rational being has the ability to act freely and autonomously because of that reason - reason is the tool for acting morally

Facets of the Ego

-It helps us to organize our thoughts and make sense of them and the world around us. - Its task is to find a balance between primitive drives and reality while satisfying the id and super-ego. - Its main concern is with the individual's safety and allows some of the id's desires to be expressed, but only when consequences of these actions are marginal. - It's prone to anxiety concerning reality and the external world, moral anxiety regarding the super-ego, and neurotic anxiety regarding the strength of the passions in the id.

Aristotelian Virtue Ethics

-the goal of morality is to achieve eudaimonia, meaning "flourishing" or "success" -focuses on what sort of person you ought to be to achieve a flourishing life -requires an account of what a virtuous person is.

How Does Care Motivate Us?

1 ) We see "the direct possibilities for becoming better...when we struggle toward the reality of the other" 2 ) The feeling is aroused that "I must do something."

Psychoanalysis Freud founded the discipline of psychoanalysis and developed theories about:

1 - the unconscious mind, 2 - the mechanism of repression, 3 - the existence of libido, 4 - free association, 5 transference; and 6 dreams.

Agent-Centred Moral Theories

Aristotelian Virtue Ethics is an agent-centred theory in virtue of a primary focus on people and their characters rather than singular actions. For Aristotle, morality has more to do with the question "how should I be?" rather than "what should I do?" Aristotelian Virtue Ethics you must keep in mind this focus on character rather than specific comments on the morality of actions. Aristotle refers to virtues as character traits or psychological dispositions.

The Impact of Society

As beings that are both free and embedded in society, we live under the constant tension of balancing our conscience. We cannot, nor would we want to, deny the role the society plays in shaping our conscience. However, nor do we want our identity and our conscience to be absorbed by society. On the other hand, we are not simply passive computers receiving direct instructions from our conscience. The exercise of the conscience involves willpower or action on our part. Since conscience is much more than gut feelings or a list of instructions about how to behave, we must also develop our powers of rational discernment to cultivate our moral sentiments.

Judging Good from Bad

Bad action = "whatever causes one to be threatened with loss of love" (Freud, 1962, p. 71). Freud believes that humans have no innate capacity for distinguishing good from bad actions or intentions (i.e., no moral sense). He believes that one derives judgments of good or bad from our "helplessness and his dependence on other people, and it can best be designated as fear of loss of love" (Freud, 1962, p. 71).

cats

Cat 1: Freud portrays a pessimistic point of view concerning human nature and society. Cat 2: Freud transfers the intra-psychic conflict (i.e., id vs. ego vs. super-ego) over to the domain of human civilization. Cat 3: Civilization itself comes to be defined as an extension of the tensions that stigmatize the individual psyche. Cat 4: There is a primary tension between an individual's quest for instinctual freedom and civilization's demand for conformity and instinctual repression. Cat 5: Humans are guided by the pleasure principle and seek to satisfy primitive, immutable instincts (e.g., the desire for sex, and the predisposition to violent aggression to authority figuresand sexual competitors). Cat 6: Satisfying such instincts is sometimes harmful to the group's well-being. Cat 7: Civilization creates laws that prohibit acts that harm the group's well-being, as well as implement severe punishments if they are broken. Cat 8: Creating and enforcing such laws instills perpetual feelings of discontent in its citizens.

Hume: Sentimentalism

David Hume was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Epistemology: The Study of Knowledge - Hume held that knowledge must either be directly traceable to objects perceived in experience, or result from abstract reasoning about relations between ideas which are derived from experience. - Hume believed there is no actual conception of the self, and that humans experience only a bundle of sensations, and the self is nothing more than this bundle of causally-connected perceptions.

Right Action theory

Doing ethics means taking the right action, and this involves considering the rules that define our duty and the rights of others. ... Rules define what is right and wrong. Stories illustrate what it means to be a good person. We obey rules or break the rules, but we don't obey or break stories.

Moral Sentimentalism

Emotion vs Reason: Hume believed that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle, famously proclaiming that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions." He believes reason alone is unable to "move us" in the way that emotion does.

Empathy

Empathy, the ability to enter into and understand the experiences and emotions of others, can also alert us to oppression, as well as enhance our relationships by making us better listeners and communicators (Katz, 1963).

Ethics and science

Ethics can be subjective. Widespread and persistent disagreement in ethics . No objective truth in ethics.

External vs Internal Authority

External authority: is limited to actions. Bad conscience = Social anxiety = Fear of loss of love Social anxiety causes humans to only worry about being caught, and does not provide any stronger reason to avoid behaving badly. External authority is linked to actions, and not intentions to act, therefore an external authority cannot punish unless we confess our intentions. ___ Internal Authority: Conscience reaches a higher stage and only at this stage can we truly speak of a sense of guilt or conscience. A great change occurs when authority is internalized via the super-ego. "At this point, ... the fear of being found out comes to an end; the distinction ... between doing something bad and wishing to do it disappears entirely, since nothing can be hidden from the super-ego, not even thoughts"

Origins & Emergence of Guilt

Fear of external authority (society) Fear of external authority causes us to renounce our instincts. ____ Fear of internal authority (super-ego) Fear of internal authority causes us to renounce our instincts and a sense of guilt emerges because the wish to act on our instincts persists and cannot be hidden from our super-ego.

Freud's Pessimism

Freud's View of Human Nature & Society Freud portrays a pessimistic POV concerning human nature and society Transfers the intra-psychic conflict (i.e id vs. ego. vs super-ego) over to the domain of human civilization Civilization itself comes to be defined as an extension of the tensions that stigmatize the indivudal psyche There is a primary tension between an individuals quest for instinctual freedom and civilizations demand for conformity and instinctual repression Humans are guided by the pleasure principle and seek to satisfy primitive, immutable instincts, (e.g the desire for sex, and the predisposition to violent aggression to authority figures and sexual competitors) Satisfying such instincts is sometimes harmful to the groups well-being Civilization creates laws that prohibit acts that harm the groups well being as well as implement severe punishments if they are broken Creating and enforcing such laws instills perpetual feelings of discontent in its citizens

Both utilitarianism and kantian ethics

Insist thatt we always act impartially

Empathy & Personal Choices

Many of us have difficulty identifying and expressing our feelings. Sometimes this inability to communicate our emotions can negatively affect our behavior and decisions. Until we can tap into our emotions of moral indignation and empathy for victims-including our own victimization-we are unlikely to be motivated by reason alone to use our reason to generate plans for acting toward stopping these types of mistreatment.

Legality and morality

Moral concerns are distinct from legal concerns. Morality is universal ad objective

Indignation & Resentment

Moral indignation is the morally appropriate response in the face of abuse and oppression suffered by others, just as resentment appropriate in the face of one's own abuse and oppression. *By sending a message to the abuser that we will not tolerate such treatment of ourselves or others*, both serve to affirm our moral worth and to protect against future abuse (Strawson, 2008). Thus, these emotions serve as powerful conscience motivators. In the absence of moral indignation, an attitude of moral indifference to another person's distress could develop. If it were not for moral indignation and resentment, consider what society would be like today.

A Foundation of Moral Sense

Moral sense = "that which renders morality an active principle and constitutes virtue our happiness, and vice our misery...depends on some internal sense or feeling, which nature has made universal in the whole species". Number 1, moral sense- a profile of a face with a compass above Relative to moral sense, reason plays a secondary role as corrective - to argue against "false relish" (like for chocolate over museums) and make useful distinctions (like between social reputation and moral worth). Number 2 - a profile of a face with a compass above

Moral Sentiments - Sentiment & Indignation

Moral sentiments are emotions that move us to feel moral disapproval or approval and can include sympathy, indignation, and guilt. Moral indignation is the anger we feel at the sight of others being harmed. Moral indignation appears in humans as our sense of moral community expands to include others besides ourselves. Moral resentment is the anger we experience when we are harmed or privy to moral wrongdoing

Nature vs nurture

Nature biological factors: confusion philosopher mencius thinks that human nature is good. - human would rush out to save a child because of innate feeling of benevolence that is essential to humans. Altruism gene that genetically predisposes us to care about eachother. Aristotle calls this aspect of our conscience as natural virtue Robert katz: sympathy is inborn seen as early as 10 months Frontal lobe cortex plays key role in decision making Damage to the prefrontal cortex causes lack of conscience, guilt and concern for others. *nurture based environmental factors* Conscience is based from our early experiences and out environment culture: helps establish the boundaries and guidelines within our moral sentiments and principles express themselves Moral behavior is imitation our consciences are manufactured from past experiences and conditioning Conscience or superego is a product of our environment he and other like him say morality is a product of learning and our environment What extent can we hold people morally responsible for their actions.

Can we care only for self?

Not in the ethical sense: "This caring for self, for the ethical self, can emerge only from a caring for others." When we say that someone only cares for themselves, we just mean that they only have a concern for their physical selves, their pains and pleasures. "A caring relation requires the engrossment and motivational displacement of the one-caring, and it requires the recognition and spontaneous response of the cared-for. When caring is not felt in the cared-for, but its absence is felt, the cared-for may still, by an act of ethical heroism, respond and thus contribute to the caring relation. The possibility, as we will see, gives weight to our hope that one can learn to care and learn to be cared for."

The Source of Guilt

One feels guilty when one has done something that one knows is bad. Bad answer... Are there instances where you feel guilty even though you have done nothing that you consider bad? "[E]ven when a person has not actually done the bad thing but has only recognized in himself an intention to do it, he may regard himself as guilty; and the question arises of why the intention is regarded as equal to the deed" (Freud, 1962, p. 71).

Jeremy Bentham

Pleasure is pleasure; the source does not matter

The Pleasure Principle & Guilt

Positive Manifestation The egoistic drive for the satisfaction of all our demands, which are directed toward attaining pleasure. We quickly realize that the external world and the demands of others interfere and prevent the satisfaction of many of our desires. Negative Manifestation The attempt to avoid displeasure as much as possible, which causes us to renounce desires that cannot be met, since this causes us less displeasure than giving in to the desire and having it left unsatisfied (i.e., adaptive preference formation).

Who is Sigmund Freud?

Sigmund Freud, (1856 - 1939) Freud was a neurologist, psychoanalyst, and essayist.

Rational vs. Emotional

Some people think that morality is simply a matter of thought. We should be able to work out rationally the right thing to do and then go from there. Other people emphasize emotional development and suggest the feelings can alert us to something of moral importance. Thus, it is important to look at the emotions that influence the inner workings of the conscience.

Freud's Terms

Super ego - an agency or institution in the mind whose existence we have inferred Conscience - a function we ascribe.. to the superego; it consists of watching over and judging the actions and intentions of the ego, exercising the functions of a censor. Sense of guilt - the egos appreciation of the tension between its strivings and the standards of the super-ego; and the anxiety that lies behind all these relations, the dread of that critical institution Remorse: a general term denoting the egos reaction under a special form of the sense of guilt; it includes the most unaltered sensory material belonging to the anxiety that is at work behind the sense of guilt; it is itsself a punishment; it too therefor, may occur before conscience has developed Need for punishment "an instinctual manifestation on the part of the ego, which has become masochistic under the influence of the sadistic super-ego

The pleasure principle can help us understand the drives of which part of our psyche?

The ID

Facets of the Id

The ID is responsible for our passional emotional nature it doesnt issue judgments of "good" or "bad" i.e moral evaluations It's the instinctive drive to create (via sexual desire) and destroy (via aggression) The Ego: conscious organization: The ego is the conscious, organized part of the personality structure (i.e., reason and common sense) that includes judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory. The ego acts according to the reality principle as it seeks to compel humans to defer instant gratification when doing so might yield greater pleasure in the long run.

The Id: Unconscious Disorganization

The id is the unconscious, unorganized part of the personality structure that is responsible for our basic drives and acts according to the pleasure principle, seeking to avoid pain or displeasure aroused by increases in instinctual tension.

John Stewart Mill

The quality and source of the pleasure matter; there are higher and lower pleasures.

Vocab 1.1

Value A person's principles or standards of behaviors according to what one judges to be important in life. Morals The principles and rules on which judgments of right and wrong are based. Ethics/Morality Interchangeable; the systematic study of the principles and rules on which judgments of right and wrong are based (i.e., morals). Principle An affirmation of one's values; addressed in the negative that states what one will not do; can also be addressed in the positive that states what one must do (see Kant's discussion between perfect (negative) and imperfect (positive) duties). Argument A set of claims; one of which is supported by the others. Premise A claim providing support for a conclusion. Conclusion The claim that the arguer is trying to prove. Judgment A conclusion or opinion toward a moral act coupled with sentiments of rightness or wrongness. Intuition Self-evident knowledge; gut held feelings toward moral acts. Thought experiment A hypothetical scenario designed to test the strength of a theory or set of theories. Thought experiments are often fantastical and unlikely to be replicated in real life. The point of thought experiments is to test theories and not to test the way people actually act. Reflective equilibrium A method of analysis that uses scenarios to uncover moral intuitions so that they can compared to a moral theory being evaluated. Often times, moral theories need to be modified to best accord with moral intuitions. Other times, moral intuitions should be ignored if the moral theory being evaluated is found to be strong. Obligation ("morally obligated") What one should do based on one's moral values or objective moral laws. Permissible ("morally permissible") Acts that do not violate moral norms and cannot incur claims of moral wrongdoing. Moral agent A self-determining person who acts according to their own voluntary moral decisions. Moral dilemma A situation where there is a conflict between moral values. Moral reasoning Systematically processing a moral problem by considering one's own values and beliefs in relation to others' values and beliefs. Culpability or Accountability Taking personal responsibility for one's conduct. Ethical theory A framework for explaining moral experience. Normative ethics Studies, conduct, and reasoning processes that people ought to follow. Prescribes and evaluates conduct. Sentiment A feeling about a situation or event. Descriptive ethics Studies, conduct, and reasoning processes that people do follow. Describes and explains conduct. Moral opinion A conclusion or judgment toward a moral act coupled with sentiments of rightness or wrongness. Subjective belief and opinions vary from individual to individual. Opinions are different from facts. Just because a person holds an opinion about something or believes that something is true does not make it necessarily true since humans are fallible. Fact An observation that has been repeatedly confirmed and is accepted as true. Truth A belief that accurately corresponds to reality. Theory A well-substantiated explanation that can incorporate facts, laws, and inferences.

Summary of the Emergence of Guilt

We renounce our instincts due to the fear of aggression by external authority that we experience as a fear of loss of love. There is an erection of internal authority and we renounce our instincts due to the fear of one's conscience. Bad intentions are equated with bad actions and because of this, a sense of guilt emerges and a need for punishment.

Care & Sympathy

What is Care? "When i look at and think about how i am when i care, i realize that there is invariably this displacement of interest from my own reality to the reality of the other" A hand holding another with text that reads, "when I look at and think about how I am when I care, I realize that there is invariably this displacement of interest from my own reality to the reality of the other."

Week 3 beginning Conscience

What is conscience? Conscience is essentially the faculty by which we discover moral truth. As our source of moral truth, we use it to judge ourselves and make us adhere to certain moral principles. Conscience provides us with knowledge about what is right and wrong. However, it is more than just a passive source of knowledge. Conscience involves reason and critical thinking; it also involves feelings. Conscience not only motivates us; it demands that we act following it (Dimmock & Fisher, 2017).

Moral Motivators

While most traditional Western scholars favor reason as our primary moral motivator, many Eastern philosophers as well as, British philosopher David Hume, maintain that moral sentiments are also sources of moral knowledge for our conscience. Hume says that ethical judgments involve our emotions and not our reason. Reason gives us the relevant facts and data, but in Hume's famous words, "reason is, and ought to be, the slave of the passions." Above all, Hume believes moral evaluation requires using sympathy, which could be said to generate within the conscience, to determine the best course of action (Abramson, 2008).

Conscious moral direction

i am capable of autonomous moral reasoning. Non moral values such as popularity and competitiveness conflict with ones conscience because conscience is subjective. Confusion - in moral development - aristotle - ppl should act virtuoulsy - aquinas the conscience is a morally neutral and acts more as a theological guide than a source of moral knowledge. Synderesis: helps ppl decide the divine laws that we should live by. Innate principle in the moral conscioussness of every person

virtue theory/ethics

morality that involves producing excellent persons who act from spontaneous goodness

Kantian Ethics

the belief that people should be treated as ends and never as means to the ends of others - Deontology - duty based Multi- faced, complex - morality is black and white - we just have to do it - Acting free is when we use reason to do what our duty demands of us. - Individuals would not want to do something but they did it anyway because they thought it was the right thing to do. Universality: An attempt to see if one's maxim can be made into a universal law without contraindication (i.e if i act on this particular intention here, could everyone else also act on this intention universally?) Reciprocity - not allowing yourself to do things that you would not allow others to do Respect: Treating others and ourselves as rational human beings who can use reason to act morally Impartiality: Treating all individuals interests equally to one another (i.e your own interests are not superior or inferior to the interests of anyone else) First formulation: the first formulation of the categorical imperative reads as follows: "Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it would become a universal law [without contradication] - Only act on intentions that could be acted on by all other rational beings ____ Second formulation The second formulation of the categorical imperative reads as follows: "So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end and never as merely a means only" Always treat rational beings with respect according to their ability to make autonomous choices.

Utilitarian Ethics

the moral worth of actions or practices is determined by their consequences Impartiality, consequentialism, welfarism, sum-ranking Impartiality: don't treat people better or worse based on arbitrary reasons. Utilitarians are strident on their theories ability to be impartial as possible. *They DONT care about intentions just what happens after you do it.* Consequentialism: *only care about the consequences* Could you blend utilitarian and kantian ethics? its tough Impartiality in utilitarian ethics means treating individuals interests equally Why is it challenging to maintain impartiality? no one is allowed to have their interests waid higher or lower than anyone else. Consequentialism: whether an act is morally right depends only on its consequences Impartiality: we must treat all individuals interests equal to one another Welfarism: morally significant consequences are those that affect the welfare of all sentient creatures Sum-ranking: one ought to perform the action that provides the highest total net gain of pleasure for all stakeholders Welfarism: weigh the consequences - meta ethical theory what a good life is hedonism. Hedonism focus on how to live a food life. hedonists believe that pleasure is the only intrinsically valuable thing. money is the ultimate instrumental goal, is sought to attain pleasure. sum ranking - pleasure and displeasure being caused by an act Hedonistic calculus: tool created by bentham to evaluate consequences based on how much pleasure/displeasure is caused. The *one duty is to maximize pleasure for al the best you can*. The *source of the pleasure matters* Mill insisted that *the quality of pleasure* also be considered with quantity. Bentham was famous for saying pushpin is as good as poetry. *mills sources to higher pleasure #1 our rational capacities #2 if it involved our moral sentiments #3 our aesthetic imagination* Better to be a miserable human being than a happy pig. More important to feel higher pleasure than be a happy pig. even if lower pleasure occurs. Utilitarians are only concerned with the overall net sum of utility (i.e., happiness) versus the overall net sum of disutility (i.e., suffering) caused by every act available to perform. Since distributing the organs would lead to the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number, it would be the only moral act in this case.