Ethics

According to Rawls, what is a "well ordered society?"

(1) A society that is designed to advance the good of its memebers, (2)effectively regulated by a public conception of justice that the basic institutions of society satisfy and are know to satisfy, (3) in which everyone accepts and know that other accept the same prinicple and (4) that is stable.

what are the 2 prinicples that Rawls believes people in the original position will choose?

(1) each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others, and (2) social and economical inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) resonably expected to be to everyone's advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all.

What are the two questions that need to be asked of utilitarianism?

1. How can we realistically be expected to predict the consquences of our acts for all people, all acts in a given situation?\n2. What can we do about the cases in which other kinds of considerations besides the value of consequences seem morally relevant?

What are the "laws of thought?"

A belief cannot be both true and false at the same time, if a belief is true, the it is true; and that a belief must be either true or false.

What is cognitivism?

A term that stands for a family of theories which typically consist of a blend of linguistic, epistemological and metaphysical elements.

A theory that holds that the right act is the one that creates more happiness than any other act available to the agent.

Act Altruism

An act is right if and only if it produces at least as great a blance of good over bad in its consequences for all people affected as any other act available to the agent

Act Utilitariamisn (AU)

Theories that focus primarily on the ethical value of kinds of action.

Act cebtered normative theories(conduct-based ethics or ethics of doing)

an action is morally obligatory if it produces the most amt. of good for all people.

Act utilitarianism

The implementation of positive measures to end a person's life.

Active Euthanasia

The rule utilitarian that appeals to the actual rules that exist in society at that time.

Actual Rule Uitilitarianism (ARU)

What we ethically ought to do in a particular situation.

Actual duty

An eighteenth-century philosopher and one of the greatest proponents and exponents of capitalism.

Adam Smith

A legal document that a patient fills out when he or she is competent that constitutes clear evidence of the patient's wishes.

Advance Directive

Programs designed to create provisions that make it easier for members of minority groups to gain employment, advancement, or admission.

Affirmative Action or Reverse racism

Callahan's proposal saying that we should guarantee aggressive health care to people below a certain age and only try to make people comfortable after that age.

Age based rationing

Contemporary philosopher that argues ethical value is bound to a great extent to the ways of established communities

Alisdair Macntyre

Unselfish regard for, or devotion to, the welfare of others.

Altruism

Court case that ruled that pornography was protected by free speech and said that it is illegal to ban speech based on content alone.

American Booksellers vs. Hudnut

An ethical view in which human beings are regarded as central; a thoroughly people-oriented view according to which something's value is determined entirely by how it affects the welfare of human beings.

Anthropocentrism

normative ethics

Any system of ethics that ultimately relies on rules

Subset of normative ethics that focuses on particular ethical problem areas.

Applied Ethics

Ethical theory that says that the vast differences between different people's ethical judgments are best explained by taking ethical beliefs to be functions of how people are socialized and not of their response to any real objective features of the world.

Arguement from Relitivity

Ethical theory that says that people attribute to ethical values such queer properties that it is highly implausible that such values can actually exist.

Argument from queerness

The morality of the strong and powerful; the chief virtues of this morality are pride, self-assertion, etc.

Aristocratic (noble) morality

...promoted virtue ethics.\nargued that happiness is the Ultimate good.

Aristotle

Developed the most important and influential character-centered or virtue-based ethical theory.

Aristotle

A right that cannot be overridden by any other consideration.

Asolute Right

De Beauvoir's term for a person who does not try to deny his or her freedom by adopting the decision procedures of others; a person who creates his or her own values, independent of what others may have done.

Authentic Person

An act is right and only right if actualizes at least as great a balance of good over bad.

Axiological

What are the 3 components of distributive justice?

Benefits & burdens to be distributed, people among whom the distributions are to be made, and process by which the distributions are to be made.

A very large and diverse area within the field of applied ethics that determines which specific or applied actions are right and which actions are wrong.

Biomedical ethics (Bioethics)

A system in which there is private ownership and a free marketplace, and in which profit is the main motivating factor of economic behavior.

Capitalism

Prominent feminist psychologist who advocates a shift to a care-based perspective, or an ethics of caring.

Carol Gilligan

Feminist philosopher who is one of the most prominent advocates for banning pornography.

Catherine MacKinnon

1942 court ruling that established that freedom of speech does not cover extremely hostile words.

Chaplinsky vs New Hampshire

Theories that focus primarily on the ethical value of having a certain kind of character.

Character centered normative theories

1964 law that made illegal any preferential treatment based on race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin; intended to guarantee each individual's right not to suffer discrimination.

Civil Rights Act

The belief that ethical judgment involves an attempt to gain knowledge about the world.

Cognitivism

The belief that an ethical system is justified if it is the most coherent thing to believe of all the available options.

Coherentism

ethical theory that determines good or bad,right or wrong based on outcomes

Consequentialism

Moral rightness is determined solely by the consequences of action.

Consequentialist

A theory about actionable rightness. It contends that you cannot always know what is actually right, so you must make the best judgments that you can.

Contextualism

The belief that moral norms derive their normative force from the idea of contract or mutual agreement

Contractarianism

What are the 3 kinds of justice?

Corrective, Procedural & Distributive

Resulted in a court ruling stating that you could withdrawal life-sustaining treatment from a patient if there was extremely clear evidence that the patient would have done so him- or herself.

Cruzan case

American bioethicist who proposed a health care-rationing plan based on age.

Daniel Callahan

An influential ethical sentimentalist.

David Hume

Who, argued that rarion is slave to the passions.\n(as such-morality is not based on reason,but how we FEEL on certain issues

David Hume

Sometimes referred to as analytical naturalism, ethical terms are property-referring by birtue of being definable by non-ethical words that are property-referring.

Definitional naturalism

(1) Theory of rightness; and\n(2) Theory of obligaton

Deontic theory

approach that focuses on duties, not consequences in determining right conduct

Deontological

Philosophers that accept a nonutilitarian account of principles or moral obligation.

Deontologists

Asserts that morality is determine by, or conditional on, the nature of human beings and/or the world they live in.

Dependency Thesis.

Factual description and explanation of moral behavor and beliefs.

Descriptive Ethics

4 ways of studying moral beliefs and moral philosophy.

Descriptive Ethics, Metaethics, General Normative Ethics, Practical Normative Ethics

Hhich type of justice prescribes how benefits and burdensare to be apportioned.

Distributive Justice

a).If God commands you not to do something, then its wrong to do it\nb)if God commands nothing about action<then its morally permissable\nc)if God commands a specific action,then its morally obligatory.

Divine Command

Ethical theory that says that what is right is what God commands.

Divine Command theory

Ronald Dworkin

Dworkin has argued that morality is based on rights and that some rights are so fundamental that they should rarely be interfered with

theory of punishment that states an"eye for an eye"

Egalitarian (retributivism)

How does Equalitarian differ from egalitariam?

Egualitarian distrubes benefits and burdens to all in equal amounts without regard to need, want, desert, merit, worth etc... Eequalitariansim requires that we assess the effects of distribution of people to ensure distributions constitute equal treatment.

Sexual harassment court case that ruled that sexual harassment had to be defined from the woman's perspective; established the reasonable woman standard.

Ellison vs. Brady

(1) Theory of justice; and \n(2) Theory of rights

Entitlement theory

whatever maximizes one's own personal good is right.

Ethical Egoism

A theory in meta-ethics which states that: (1)\nEthical sentences express propositions, (2) The meanings of ethical sentences can be expressed without the use of ethical terms (e.g., "good" and "right"), and (3)\nThese non-ethical terms refer to natural properties.

Ethical Naturalism

A theory in meta-ethics which states that: (1)Ethical sentences express propositions, (2) The meanings of ethical sentences can be expressed without the use of ethical terms (e.g., "good" and "right"), and (3)\nThese non-ethical terms refer to natural properties.

Ethical Naturalists

theory that people should act out of self interests

Ethical egoism

A meta-ethical theory that embraces the following theses: (1) Moral realism, the view that there are objective facts of morality, \n(2) Ethical non-naturalism, the view that these evaluative facts cannot be reduced to natural fact, and (3) The thesis that we sometimes have intuitive awareness of value, or intuitive knowledge of evaluative facts, which forms the foundation of our ethical knowledge.

Ethical intuitionism

philisophical reasons for or against the morality that is stipulated by society of by some social group.

Ethical theory

is based on a belief that life is no more or no less then simply existing.\nb) attempts to live each moment by making conscious choices.

Existentialism

Value that depends solely on the relationship of what possesses it to other things.

Extrinsic Value

Nineteenth-century philosopher who believed that God did not exist and that there were no objective ethical values built into the fabric of the universe.

Fredrick Nietzsche

philosophical attempt to formulate and defend basic moral principles and standards of virtue.

General normative eithics

What is procedural (or communitive) justice?

Governs agreements, contracts, and processes, distinguishing those that are legitimate or fair from those that are not.

Plato's story about a shepherd that makes himself invisible in order to do self-serving acts.

Gyges's Ring

Mill's principle that says government or society is justified in interfering with another person's liberty only if that other person is acting in a way that will harm others.

Harm to Others Principle

The philosophy that pleasure is the most important pursuit of mankind.

Hedonism

Theory htat what is good & right is what promotes pleasure

Hedonism

Name two consequentialist ethical doctrines

Hedonism & Utilitarianism

Those who appeal the ideal rules.

Ideal Rule Utilitariamism (IRU)

Name philospher identified with deontological ethics

Immanuel Kent

This specifies, in advance, what the fair or just outcome or a process should be, we have a standardto appeal to that is independent of the procedure.

Imperfect procedural justice

What are the 3 kinds of procedural justice?

Imperfect, perfect and pure.

Value that depends solely on the natural characteristics or properties of what possesses it. (i.e. size, color, shape, weight)

Intrinsic Value

Either; that certain moral principals cannot be proved Or that thay are self evident.

Intuitionism

A twentieth-century American philosopher who developed an influential argument for the claim that there is no important ethical difference between active and passive euthanasia.

James Rachels

Philosopher who argues that children should not do things for their parents because they think they have some debt they have to repay, but rather out of love and respect.

Jane English

Twentieth-century French existentialist.

Jean-paul Sartre

Name two famous defenders of consequentialism

Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill

Argued that the law should be used to prevent certain cases of offensive behavior

Joel Feinberg

One of the most prominent error theorists; developed the argument from relativity and the argument from queerness.

John Mackie

A twentieth-century American philosopher who developed one of the most influential theories of distributive justice.

John Rawls

Nineteenth-century philosopher and advocate of utilitarianism; defends free speech by saying it is better to let the speech out into the open than to silence it. Developed the Harm-to-Others Principle.

John Stewart Mill

...is a strong supporter of Utility.

John Stuart Mill

American philosopher who developed a very influential argument for the acceptability of abortion due to rape.

Judith Jarvis Thompson

Rawls's theory that social institution possesses the virtue of justice when it is set up in a manner that is fair.

Justice as Fairness

...argues that happiness is Not the ultimate good,& motive is the only way to measure moral actions.

Kant

Rightness is determined by the value of consequences for the relevant collectivity or superentity.

Macro Ethics

All things anyone does in reponse to an act, as well as all those things done independently but that are necessary for the resultant state of affairs to come about.

Mediated consequences

literal meaning " above ethics". Involves analysis of the meanings of central terms in ethics such as right, obligation, good, virtue.

Metaethics

Philosophers that believe that the natural order can be studied by science is al there is.

Metaphysical naturalists

Rightness is determined by the vlue of consequences for individual persons.

Micro Ethics

The view in philosophy that there are objective moral values

Moral Realism

objectivism

Moral objectivism or moderate moral realism is the position that certain acts are objectively right or wrong, independent of human opinion. According to Richard Boyd, moral realism means that:\n\nMoral statements are the sorts of statements which are (or which express propositions which are) true or false (or approximately true, largely false, etc.); \nThe truth or falsity (approximate truth...) of moral statements is largely independent of our moral opinions, theories, etc.; \nOrdinary canons of moral reasoning—together with ordinary canons of scientific and everyday factual reasoning—constitute, under many circumstances at least, a reliable method for obtaining and improving (approximate) moral knowledge.

Define ethical universalism.

Moral right and wrong are fundamentally the same for all people.

Define ethical relativism.

Moral right and wrong may vary fundamentally from person to person (extreme relativism) or culture to culture (cultural relativism).

what a person ought to do in order to conform to society's norms of behavior

Morality

Define ethical conditionalism.

Morality depends on human nature, the human condition, and/or the natural order.

Define ethical abolutism.

Morality is eternal and unchanging and holds for all rational beings at all times and places.

Natural law

Morals are based on nature. They are not invented by men

Morals are based on Nature.\nThey are Not invented by men>

Natural Law

theory that states the highest standard for judging right & wrong are the universal laws of human nature

Natural Law

Whenever a philosopher attempts to prove a claim about ethics by appealing to a definition of the term "good" in terms of one or more natural properties.

Naturalistic fallacy

... Did not feel that humans had a will to happiness , but they had a will to power.Argued that ppl desired power more then anything else did(but only strong can attain it)

Nietzche

slave ethics

Nietzsche belief , most people are weak; they cannot achieve nobile ethics They include love, compassion, sympathy, obedience, altruism, self-sacrifice, and humility

noble ethics

Nietzsche belief people exhibited the virtues of pride, self-assertion, power, cruelty, honor, rank, and nobility, then they were acting with noble ethics (or master ethics, they were the overman, or they were the superman

What 2 approaches describe and analyze morality without taking moral positions.

Nonnormative approaches: descriptive ethics and metaethics.

What 2 approaches describe and analyze morality involving moral positions.

Normative approach: general normative and practical normative ethics

Belief that morality is based on some universal,eternal,& unchanging fact ex. murder is always wrong

Objectivism

Tells us that when behavior is offensive enough and innocent passersby cannot avoid seeing it, government or society is justified in imposing penalties on the person perpetrating it.

Offense Principle

Contention that any effort to define the good must fail, since it always remains possible to ask significantly whether or not the proposed definition is actually good.

Open question Argument

Health care rationing proposal in which the legislature of Oregon uses a prioritized list of services to decide which health care services will be covered and which will not.

Oregon Plan

Developed the idea of legal moralism.

Patrick Devlin

Which procedural justice says we can specify, in advance of implementing a distributive procedure, what the fair or just distribution should be?

Perfect procedural justice

You have 2 children and 1 piece of cake. To distribute evenly, prior to cutting the cake you state, 1 child will cut, the other will choose first. Which procedural justice is described in this example?

Perfect procedural justice

What is Formal Principle of Justce (FJ)?

Persons or groups should be treated similarly unless there are morally relevant dissimilarities among them.

Philosopher who holds an animal liberation theory in which animals are given equal ethical consideration.

Peter Singer

claims that all people are motivated by their own self-interest. *this type of egoismis result of what supporters consider a biological fact.

Phychological egoism

The use of moral action-guides. A discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply 'theoretical' ethics, such as utilitarianism, social contract theory, and deontology, to real world dilemmas.

Practical or applied ethics.

Artistotle's intellectual virtues.

Practical wisdom and theoretical wisdom

What virtures make up Nietzche's master morality.

Pride, self-assertion, power,cruelty, honor, rank, nobility.

What prinicple admits different formulations and says, "Actions should be judged similarly unless there are morally relevant dissimilarities between them?

Princile of Universalizability (U)

Ethical principle that holds that actions are right to the extent that they produce happiness.

Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle)

An action is morally right if, and only if, it produces at least as great a balance of value over disvalue as any available alternative action.

Prinicple of Utility

The view that "we are all egoistically motivated in everything we do."

Psychological Egoism

Theory that people do act out of self interest

Psychological egoism

A process of adjusting those conditions and adjusting or initial judgments about justtice until a kind of stability and coherence (balance) is achieved.

Reflective equilibrium

1977 Supreme Court decision that ruled that quotas used in affirmative action programs violated the rights of the majority because they treated them as a member of a group rather than as an individual.

Regents of University of California v. Bakke

Belief that morality is relative to each individual culture-we can't make universal moral claims

Relativism

Philosopher who developed an influential theory on the immorality of adultery.

Richard Wasserstrom

......has argued that morality is based on Rights& that some are so fundamental they shouldnt be interfered with *prima facie.

Ronald Dworkin

is a set of rules that produces the greatest amount of good for all people.

Rule Utilitarianism

An act is right if it accords with a rule the general following of which produces as great a balance of good over bad for all people affected as any alternative rule.

Rule Utilitarianism (RU)

.....formulated the correlativity of rights & duties(obligations)

Samual Pufendorf

.... is the most famous existentialist.

Sartre

Twentieth-century French existentialist.

Simone De Beauvoir

First great moral philosopher in Western tradition, believed that philosophical reflection is a necessary part of the good life, it is always wrong to harm another person, and that people always act in the way that they think is best.

Socrates

Theory that states moral judgements are nothing more than expressions of personal preferences

Subjectivism

An act is right if and only if it produces at least as great a balance of good over bad in its consequences as an other act available to the agent.

Teleological

Whatever God permits, prohibits, or commands is right, wrong or obligatory respectively.

The Divine Command Theory (DCT)

Rawls believes rational people will choose in accordance to what?

The Maximum Rule

Mill's book that argues that inequality between the sexes is unjust, supported by no natural foundation at all.

The Subjection of Women

What is the mechancial principle of egalitarian?

The principle that states: "Distribute benefits and burdens equally; to each an identical amount."

Autonomy

The right of self-determination is the right to choose one's own actions or course of life, so long as doing so does not interfere unduly with the lives and actions of others.

Helped develop the social contract theory, which is the view that morality is founded solely on uniform social agreements that serve the best interests of those who make the agreement.

Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

What is the "original position" by Rawls?

Those of a particular society that are assembled for the purpose of choosing priniciples to govern them in a well ordered society.

What is the general formula for Selective priniciples?

To each (in benefits & burdens) according to ______.

.....is a way of evaluating moral decisions based on the amt of pleasure it provides.\ngood=pleasure : bad=pain

Utilitarianism

Maximizes goodness for all people

Utilitarianism

Moral theory that treats pleasure or happiness as the only absolute moral good

Utilitarianism

(1) Theory of goodness; and (2) Virtue ethics

Value theory

Court ruling that allowed the NSPA to march in Skokie because their demonstration was an expression of political speech.

Village of Skokie v. National Socialist Party of America

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics are based on the character (virtues) of humans

Twentieth-century English philosopher who developed a prominent non-consequentialist ethical theory.

W.D. Ross

Moral reasoning false dilemma

When someone presents only two options as the solutions to a problem

...argued that in a given situation,theres a # of prima-facie obligations that must be satisfied

William David Ross

What is pure procedural justice?

You implement a fair procedure for making distributions, then you look to see what outcome it produces; and that outcome is fair.

Beneficence

a moral obligation to act to benefit others, that is, to act in the interest of others

Moral agency

a person's capacity for making moral judgments and taking actions that comport with morality.

assumption

a portion of argument that is either not stated (it is assumed) or is assumed to be true in the context of the argument

absolute right

a right that can never be violated. For example, some people believe that everyone has a right to life. Many also believe that people can justifiably kill someone in self-defense. If you believe that even self-defense is not a good enough reason to kill then you believe in an absolute right to life.

hypothetical imperative

a rule that you formulate to reach an end. For example, if you want to be physically fit, then you will exercise. Hypothetical imperatives are not necessarily absolute or universal

argument

a statement of belief along with its supporting evidence

Deontological

a. Actions are wrong or right are not based on the outcome of the action. Actions are right or wrong in themselves. So, according to deontology, lying is wrong even if it would save someone's life.\nb. Sometimes called nonconsequentialist. \nc. Morality is based on duty.

Divine command

a. If God commands you not to do something, then it is wrong to do it.\nb. If God commands nothing about an action, then it morally permissible.\nc. If God commands you to do a specific action, then it is morally obligatory.

Cognitivism

a. Moral language describes real events,\nb. Moral claims are either true or false, and\nc. We can and do have moral knowledge.

Feminism

a. One definition speaks to the political and/or moral beliefs that women should be considered equal to men.\nb. Another definition revolves around the concept that women are fundamentally different from men and that most moral philosophy has only been investigated from the man's point of view. Since women are different, they may face different moral problems or different solutions to classic moral problems

Social contract

a. The social contract is the imaginary obligations and method of enforcement that people allegedly subscribe to in a civil society. Some moral philosophers think that man is naturally aggressive and selfish to such an extent that the social contract is completely unnatural (and therefore requires strong enforcement). Other philosophers think that the social contract is much more natural and requires less force.

a right that can never be violated \nex.the right to life..if u belive that even killing in self defense is not a good reason to kill then u believe in this

absolute right

natural law ethics

act in accordance with nature

ethics of love

act lovingly

ethics non-violence

act non-violently

Kantianism

act on maxims that can be universalized

the duty or obligatin that is determined to be the most important obligation at the time.

actual duty

What is the maximum rule?

alternatives should be ranked in order of preference according to the superiority of their worst outcomes.

ethical egoism

always maximize own personal good

Prima facie rights

are rights that must be met unless something more important overrides them. (Usually another prima facie right.) For example, you have a right to avoid harm, but someone else may have the right to harm you if you are actively trying to kill them. Your right to avoid harm was overridden by their right to life

Derivative rights

are rights that you have because you have other rights. If you have a right to eat food, then you should probably have the right to possess food.

Fundamental rights

are rights that you must have to enjoy other rights. For example, you must be alive and eating to enjoy your right to speech and religion.

Positive rights

are things that I have a right to have. For example, if I have a right to fair trial, then I must be given that trial.

William David Ross

argued that in a given situation there are a number of prima-facie obligations that must be satisfied. The moral dilemma is to find the most important obligation at the time.

David Hume

argued that ration is slave to the passions. As such, morality is not based on reason, but on how we feel about certain actions.

Moral reasoning slippery slope

argument attempts to show that something is bad because it might eventually lead to something else that is obviously bad. For example, someone might say, "If we pass a law prohibiting assault rifles, then eventually we will pass laws banning all types of guns." We consider this argument logically false. To be a valid argument, it is necessary to demonstrate how one action inevitably leads to the final consequence.

Moral reasoning straw man

argument is another logically false argument. If you distort someone else's position and then attack that position, then you are attacking the straw man. For example, some people that supported the war in Iraq accused people who opposed the war of supporting Saddam Hussein

Theories that hold that value terms are the most basic elements of ethics.

axiological theories

Existentialism

based on a belief that the human experience is no more and no less than simply existing; many people find existentialism synonymous with depression. Abstract moral questions are somewhat absurd in existentialism. The existentialist attempts to exist in each moment by making conscious choices. Moral dilemmas are only possible when someone is faced with a choice that could cause them to break a commitment.

the state of being kind and helping others. Root*BENEFIT)often used to discuss if a moral system instructs people to help others.

beneficence

Communitariansism

builds on Hume's theories and puts forth that there are things of value that cannot be understood from only the point of view of the individual. Things such as solidarity and reciprocity only make sense at the group level. As such, there needs of the community must be weighed against the needs of the individual.

Kant

by far the most powerful proponent of duty. He argues that happiness is not the ultimate good, and that motive is the only way to measure moral actions. If you are motivated to perform an action out of duty, then it is a moral action. All other motives lack moral significance.

Nietzsche

c. Nietzsche did not feel that humans had a will to happiness, but that they had a will to power. He argued that all people desired power more than anything else did. However, only the strong could attain any type of real power

Ethical dictate that applies to every person unavoidably, regardless of what that person wants or desires.

categorical imperative

is an absolute and univeral moral rule \n(Kant stated this 3 ways)

categorical imperative

Intuitionism

certain moral principles cannot be proved or that they are self-evident.

Plato, Aristotle

character is most important

Psychological egoism

claims that all people are motivated only by their own self-interest. This type of egoism is a result of what supporters consider a biological fact.

when someone threatens harm in prder to get what they want.

coercion

The ethical theory that states that ethical judgment is common to those within a human community.

communitarianism

A branch of ethics that compares the different ethical beliefs of different groups of people.

comparative ethics

Theory of sexual relations that is based on the idea that communication and sharing would facilitate a more positive sexual experience.

comunication model of sexual relations

Theory of sexual relations that is based on the idea of a contractual obligation.

consent model of sexual relations

nonconsequentialist

consequences are irrelevant

Ethical theory that holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action does depend entirely on the consequences it produces.

consequentialism (telelogical theory)

The belief that an ethical principle is justified if all free and equal rational people would accept it.

contractarianism

A relationship in which the shareholders agree to take a financial risk in return for the company doing everything it can to make a profit for the shareholders.

contractual relationship

Rights given only to members of a particular society that are guaranteed by laws that are made only in that particular society.

conventional or legal rights

Ethical theory that holds that the institution of morality can only develop within societies rather than existing in some eternal and immutable mind-independent realm.

conventionalism

Occurs when what is in the interests of one group of stakeholders is also in the interests of the other groups of stakeholders.

convergance

To start from very different origins but finish in the same place.

converge

explores how adn when to compensate for a loss.

corrective justice

An ethical duty to provide something that someone else has a right to.

correlated obligation

Holds that someone's right to something entails a correlated obligation in others to provide that thing.

correlativity thesis

The freedom possessed by someone who creates his or her own life plan and values.

creative freedom

Belief that ethical value is relative to culture or society.

cultural relativism

Terms used to direct conduct, such as "right" and "wrong."

deontic terms

Theories that hold that deontic terms are not entirely dependent on value terms.

deontilogical theories

actions are right or wrong based on the outcome of the action.///actions are right or wrong in themselves.

deontological

sometimes known as nonconsentuentialist.\n\nMorality is based on duty.

deontological

rights that you have because you have other rights. (if you gave a right to eat food, you should have the right to possess food)

derivative rights

The study of the ethical beliefs that have been held by different groups of people in different places and times.

descriptive ethics or non-normative ethics

What a person deserves.

desert

Moral standing

determines the extent to which its well-being must be ethically considered for its own sake

The situation in which no one person knows all the aspects of a corporation's decisions since different aspects are decided in different sectors.

diffusion of knowledge

When a decision is made without any one person being responsible for all aspects of the decision.

diffusion of responsibility

Obligations we have to entities that have moral standing to perform certain actions for the sake of those entities in and of themselves.

direct obligations

Concerns the distribution of goods and burdens.

distributive justice

talks about who shoud get what benefits and which burdens.

distributive justice

Said to happen when a specific ethical prescription is incompatible with another.

divergence

Moral rights

do not carry the weight of law, but people can still try to influence people to respect moral rights by using criticism, encouragement, etc.

A theory that states that a character trait should stand between a kind of excess and a kind of deficiency.

doctrine of the mean\n(Golden Mean)

The stubborn refusal to consider challenges to your own ethical point of view

dogmatism

actual duty

duty or obligation that is determined to be the most important at the time

Ethical view that is opposed to anthropocentrism and that places ecology at the center of its system of value.

ecocentric view

View of justice that holds that distribution of a resource is just when it gives each person an equal amount.

egalitarianism

The belief that an ethical judgment is simply the expression of an emotion and does not describe the world at all.

emotivism

Legal rights

enforced through laws and penalties

The field that tries to determine what kinds of obligations we have not only to animals, but also to land, water, and ecosystems.

enviromental ethics

axiological theory

equates moral judgments with value judgments. For example, if you say that something is morally correct because it does something good, then you are promoting an axiological view. To contrast, deontological theories are not axiological. They do not make any type of value judgment.

The belief that the entire activity of ethical judgment is built upon the erroneous belief that ethical value exists in the world.

error theory

Belief that the study of ethics tries to describe necessary features of reality and that principles of ethics apply and have always applied to everyone.

ethical absolutism

The belief that ethical value does not exist so, consequently, ethical judgments do not make true claims.

ethical anti-realism

the moral system that claims that ppl should act only in their own self-interest.supporters of this believe that were not necessarily motivated by biology< but should act this way regtardless.

ethical egoism

Believe that one always ought to do what is in one's own self-interest.

ethical egoist

The belief that ethical principles depend upon features that can vary at different times and in different places.

ethical relitivism

Subset of normative ethics that focuses on ethical principles that apply throughout all situations.

ethical theory

The belief that ethical judgments apply to all humans equally, that there are universal ethical truths, and that these truths are the same for everyone.

ethical universalism

A justification of morality based on what promotes the "good life."

eudaemonism

The policy of trying to produce people with good genes or the right kind of genetic endowment.

eugenics

Type of euthanasia for those who are conscious and rational and can decide for themselves that they do not want to continue treatment.

euthanasia for competent patients

Type of euthanasia for those who are unconscious or in a coma and thus cannot decide for themselves whether or not they want to continue treatment.

euthanasia for incompetent patients

Ethical theory that denies that God exists; says that the individual is ultimately responsible for his own acts, without any real knowledge of right or wrong.

existintialism

David Hume

explained that the naturalistic fallacy is when we confuse what is with what ought to be. Just because certain events or actions exist does not mean that they are morally correct.

Value that is not inherent due to the nature of the thing or object in question

extrinsic value

Discrimination

failure to treat people fairly because of a bias against (or for) some because of a characteristic such as race, religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, physical appearance, or disability that is irrelevant to the decision at hand (e.g., job skills or qualifications for public housing)

a)speaks of the morakl belief that women should be equal to men.\nb)revolves around concept that women are fundamentlly diff from men and that most moral philosophywas only invest. by a male pt of view.

feminisim

The ethical theory that holds that human beings should be viewed as members of a community with many interpersonal connections and attachments; also called care-based ethics or an ethics of caring.

feminism

From the Latin word for trust; a company has been entrusted with the financial interests of the shareholders.

fiduciary relationship

Theory that states that like cases ought to be treated alike and different cases ought to be treated differently.

formal principle of justice

Samual Pufendorf

formulated the correlativity of rights and duties (or obligations) If I have a right to speech, then others have the duty to refrain from stopping my speech. If I have a right to health care, then others have the obligation to provide that health care.

Justification based on beneficial future consequences or long-term social utility.

forward-looking justification

The belief that the first principles of morality must be self-evident, obviously true, or impossible to deny.

foundationalism

Mill's hypothetical situation in which individuals are free to offer for public consumption whatever they choose.

free marketplace of ideas

Moral relations

friendship, loyalty, fidelity, etc

rights that you must have to enjoy other rights. (ex. you need to be alive and eating to enjoy speech and religion)

fundamental rights

Genetic alteration that is designed to improve a person's talents or capabilities.

gene enhancement

Genetic alteration designed to treat a genetic disease.

gene therapy

Nietzsche's theory that established that morality is a human invention, one that may be accepted as is, altered, or rejected in favor of something else.

geneology of morals

Occurs when a person is prevented from acquiring some good or is actively harmed as a result of his or her particular genetic makeup or genotype.

genetic discrimination

Genetic alteration that affects a person's genotype in a way that will be passed on to the person's descendants.

germ line alteration

value terms

good, bad, desirable, worthy

weak deontological

goodness relevant but not decisive

The expression of racist ideas that denigrate a group of people because of their race or ethnic origin.

hate speech

Practice of determining which elements of health care we should guarantee and which elements we should not.

healthcare rationing

A theory that holds that all pleasures have to be given equal ethical weight.

hedonistic utilitarianism

Perspective in which one takes unified wholes as primary and perhaps believes that these unified wholes are greater than the sum of their parts.

hollistic perspective

doctrine of double effect

how to deal with the side effects of actions. In general, we consider it ok for a good action to have some bad side effects, but we rarely consider it ok for a bad action to have a good side effect. For example, we consider it acceptable for a doctor to prescribe painkillers to a terminal patient that is tremendous pain even though it sometimes kills them. We also do not consider it ok to intentional torture and kill an innocent person even if it leads to good things.

Second formulation of the categorical imperative; tells us to treat humanity always as an end, never simply as a means.

humanity as an end to itself

A command or prescription that tells you to perform a certain action because you want something.

hypothetical imperative

a rule that you can formulate to reach an end./ \nex-to get fit;exercise\n*not abslute or universal

hypothetical imperative

Rights that a person always possesses; an entitlement that can never be taken or given away or a claim that can never be made invalid.

inalienable rights

A law prohibiting libel, slander, and provoking an unruly crowd to violence.

incitement to riot

Obligations we have to things that have no moral standing to treat those things in certain ways, not for their own sake but simply because it will affect the welfare of some other entity.

indirect obligations

Belief that the ethical value of an action is relative not to the culture as a whole, but to the individual him- or herself.

individual relitivism

A product of the shared life of people within actual communities.

intersubjective

Worth, regard, or value that is inherent due to the nature of the thing or object in question.

intrinsic value

The belief that ethical properties cannot be reduced to any other type of property, and that ethical properties have a unique kind of existence that cannot be grasped through the five senses and explained by science.

intuitionism

Being without foundation or force in fact, truth, or law.

invalid

Value theory

investigate how people positively and negatively value things and concepts, the reasons they use in making their evaluations, and the scope of applications of legitimate evaluations across the social world. When put into practice, these views are meant to explain our views of the good

Smith's view that while self-interest is the main motivating factor of capitalism, in the end, capitalism has a kind of utilitarian result, creating the optimum state for all individuals.

invisible hand

John Stuart Mill

is a strong proponent of utility

Affirmative action

is a system whereby minorities and women gain easier access to employment and education.

Anthropocentrism

is a term used to describe the belief that humans are the most important species on the planet and that the needs of humans supersede all other species.

Utilitarianism

is a way of evaluating moral decisions based on the amount of pleasure that it provides. Good is defined as what brings pleasure to people. Bad is that which brings pain.

categorical imperative

is an absolute and universal moral rule. Kant stated it 3 different ways:\n1. Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.\n2. Act as though the maxim of your action were by your will to become a universal law of nature.\n3. Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only.

altruism

is selfless concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures, and central to many religious traditions. In English, this idea was often described as the Golden rule of ethics.

Subjectivism

is the meta-ethical belief that all ethical sentences reduce to factual statements about the attitudes of individuals

Ethical egoism

is the moral system that claims that people should act only in their own self-interest. Supports of this moral system do not claim that we are necessarily motivated to this by biology, but that we should act this way regardless.

Nonmalfeasance

is the state of doing no harm to others. It means you are not trying to help other people, but you are also trying not to hurt them.

Active euthanasia

is when someone takes an active role in helping someone to die. For example, administering enough drugs to kill someone is active.

Passive euthanasia

is when we let people die to do inaction. For example, removing a feeding tube is passive

To justify something is to prove that it is just, right, or valid; gives reasons why we should care about morality.

justification of morality

An ethical theory that begins from the idea that the ethical value of an action depends not upon the action's consequences, but upon the motive of the person who performed the action.

kantianism

Third formulation of the categorical imperative; tells us that every person ought to act on ethical laws or rules that would constitute the legislation of a kingdom of purely rational agents.

kingdom of ends formulation

Ecocentric view that holds that ethical value does not reside only in human beings, but inheres in the land itself.

land ethic

Devlin's theory that states that the majority is justified in passing laws preventing activity it deems immoral, even if that activity does not directly harm anyone else.

legal moralism

.. are enforced through laws and penalties

legal rights

Condition in which a minority's chance of doing well is the same as the chance of a member of the majority.

level the playing field

View of justice that holds that a distribution is just when it gives people liberty to choose whatever they want.

libertarianism

To be free of the legal responsibility to provide full compensation for any damages a business is implicated in.

limited liability

Bioethical principle that states that health care providers should not cause harm to patients.

maleficence

Concrete principles of justice or specific accounts of what desert and likeness amount to.

material principles of justice

A statement of an action and its intention.

maxim

utilitarianism

maximize the general good

What are the 3 categories that substantive principles are grouped?

mechanical, selective and procedural.

The existence of this mental process refutes the claim that viewing pornography causes the viewer to be violent toward women.

mental intermediation

Branch of ethics that studies general ethical concepts and attempts to explain the meaning of terms such as right, wrong, good, and bad.

metaethics

Ideology characteristic of the world of business; involves proportional benefit in return for services.

model of reciprocity and contractual obligation

Holds that abortion is ethically wrong under certain conditions but ethically acceptable under other conditions.

moderate position

Term used to describe a theory that has one single foundation.

monistic

nature of persons,moral character,etc.

moral agency

A view that holds that ethical value is bound to a great extent to the ways of established communities.

moral conservatism

An ethical theory that focuses chiefly on general rules.

moral legalism

Belief that there is no such thing as ethical value at all.

moral nihilism

A theory that holds that general rules are not the most important part of ethics, rather each action must be evaluated on its own terms in the specific situation.

moral particularism

friendship,loyalty,fidelity, etc.

moral relations

carry no weight of the law,but can be influenced by respecting these rights by using critisism,encouragement,etc.

moral rights

Belief that doubts that ethical values exists.

moral skepticism

scope of moral community,moral status,moral considerability,etc.

moral standing

Standing of the fetus in regard to duties owed to it.

moral status of the fetus

Traits that are morally valued.

moral virtues

Sartre

most famous existentialist

Ideology characteristic of the relationship between friends; motivated not by the desire to repay for past services, but out of love and affection.

mutuality model of friendship

The metaethical view that all ethical values are identical to natural properties.

naturalism

A line of thinking that says it is erroneous or fallacious to claim that an ethical property is identical to a natural property.

naturalistic fallacy

Rights that explain when it is illegitimate for government or society to interfere with personal liberties.

negative rights

things that I have a right to keep from being interfered with.\nex. religious beliefs

negative rights

deontological

no reference to right or good

when people exhibit virtues of pride,power,self-assuration,curelty,honor,rank,nobility(super or overman)

noble ethics

The belief that ethical judgment does not involve an attempt to gain knowledge about the world.

non-cognitivism

Ethical theory that holds that the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend entirely on the consequences they produce.

non-consequentialism

Traits that are valued for nonmoral reasons.

non-moral virtues

is a state of doing no harm to others.(you're not helping others,but you're not hurting them either.)

nonmalfeasance

Descriptive ethics

nonnormative ethic that simply tries to describe ethical behavior and beliefs

Consists of particular judgments about actions and people; makes prescriptive attempts to tell which things are right or wrong, good or bad.

normotive or prescriptive ethics

Belief that there is a standard external to the person making ethical judgments against which those judgments can be held.

objectivism

monnistic

one fundamental rule

principle of justice

one ought always act justly

Rights that guarantee certain things to individuals, not merely the lack of interference.

opportunity rights

Concerns the decisions made by groups of people operating within organizational roles.

organizational responsibility

A hypothetical situation in which we have no knowledge of facts about the world such as race, sex, education, etc.

original position

Activity that affects others besides oneself.

other regarding activity

Principle that tells us that if we ought to do something, then it must be possible for us to do it.

ought-implies-can

The act of letting a person die.

passive euthanism

Doing something for someone else's own good even if he or she would rather you didn't.

paternalism

The love of wisdom.

philosophy

Term used to describe a theory that has multiple foundations.

pluralistic

things that I have a right to have.\nex, the right for a fair trial .

positive rights

Aristotle's term for the truthful characteristic of acting rationally; necessary to be virtuous and obtain happiness.

practical wisdom

A theory that holds that the right action is that which maximizes the satisfaction of the desires or preferences of all the individuals involved.

preference utilitarianism

Theory that prescribes a certain kind of conduct, endorses certain actions, or tells us that we ought to do certain things.

prescriptive ethical theories

A belief that emphasizes that ethical judgments prescribe courses of actions and do not describe states of affairs in the world.

prescriptivism

Moral virtues:

pride, courage, temperance, justice, truthfulness, liberality, friendliness, etc...

On the face of things or at first sight; something that we all initially believe is an ethical duty.

prima facie duty

rights that must be met unless something more important overrides them. \nex.harm/harming/overrid by right to life

prima facie rights

Bioethical principle that tells health care providers to have the good of their patients as their goal

principle of beneficience

Ethical principle that says you are responsible for all the intended effects of your actions but not the unintended effects.

principle of double effect

A principle that states that all people in a society must be treated equally.

principle of justice

Principles used in bioethics refined from ideas of ethical theory such as consequentialism, deontology, and justification.

principles of bioethics

Position on abortion that holds that abortion is always ethically acceptable, no matter when it is performed and for whatever reason.

pro-choice (liberal) position

Position on abortion that holds that abortion is always ethically wrong, no matter when it is performed and for whatever reason.

pro-life (conservative)

Quality of libertarianism that says we must first and foremost have just procedures, which are procedures that give everyone the greatest amount of liberty possible.

procedural conception of justice

Rules of conduct that all members of a certain industry agree to follow.

professional standards

Aristotle

promoted virtue ethics. Aristotle argued that happiness is the ultimate good

Someone who makes decisions for a patient who is no longer competent; bases decision on what the patient would want, rather than the decision maker's choices.

proxy decisionmaker

The belief that all human motivation is self-interested.

psychological egoists

The belief that an element of faith must be involved in accepting morality because we cannot prove anything.

rational faith

Ethical theory that holds that true ethical understanding is a purely rational matter in which emotion and sentiment play no central role.

rationalism

Legislation that mandates that a physician must give a patient all information a reasonable person would deem relevant to treatment decisions.

reasonable person standard

axiological

references right in terms of good

A method of ethical justification whose goal is to bring into harmony both our general ethical principles and our considered ethical judgments about particular issues.

reflective equilibrium

The affirmative action argument that holds that minorities in this country are owed reparation and compensation for past evils such as slavery and discrimination.

reparation and compensation

Bioethical principle of respect for the patient's right to control his or her own life.

respect for autonomy

Concerns penalties for violations.

retributive justice

talks about what punnishments are appropriate for wrongdoing.

retributive justice

John Stuart Mill

right action does not necessarily indicate virtuous good

Court claimed in Roe v. Wade that this right protected a woman's right to have an abortion in the first trimester.

right to privacy

deontic

right, wrong, duty, obligation, ought

moral particularism

rightness depends situation not from rules

consequentialist

rightness determined by outcome

moral legalism

rightness determined by rules principles and commandments

entitlement terms

rights, claims, demands, justice

A theory that holds that the right action is that which accords with a rule that maximizes happiness.

rule utilitarianism

What is corrective justice?

seeks to restore balance in the wake of disruptive tranactions, such as theft or injury; punishment (retributive justice) and the exacting of restitution are among the means to this end.

Term used to describe cases in which a woman decides to have an abortion because she has learned that her fetus has a certain genetic characteristic.

selective abortion (genetic abortion)

Capable of having sensation and feeling; capable of experiencing suffering and enjoyment.

sentient

Hume's ethical theory that says morality must be based on sentiment, emotion, and passion and not on any rational proof.

sentimentalism

De Beauvoir's term for a conformist.

serious person

Holds that the chief or overriding obligation of a company is to make the greatest profit possible.

shareholder view

when not as strong to exhibit noble ethics virtues but still have a strong will to power-love,compassion,obedience,altruism.self-sacrifice and humility.

slave ethics

The morality of the weak and powerless; the chief virtues of this morality are humility, obedience, and the like.

slave morality

Argument that contends that we ought not to follow a particular course of action, because it will lead to a course of unacceptable consequences that we will not be able to control.

slippery slope argument

the imaginary obligation &method of enforcement that ppl subscribe to in a civil society.

social contract

Ethical theory that states that the rules that govern society originate in an agreement between free and equal individuals.

social contract theory

Genetic alteration that affects the genotype only of the person who is the subject of the procedure; these alterations will not be passed on to the person's descendants.

somatic alteration

Coercion

someone (or the state) threatens harm in order to get you to do what they want.

An unjustified prejudice, or arbitrary bias, for members of one's own species and against members of other species.

speciesism

Holds that companies have direct obligations to all of those whose interests are in some way bound to the company.

stakeholder view

Theories that hold that the rightness or wrongness of an action is wholly independent of the goodness or badness of things or states of affairs.

strong deontological theories

Theories that hold that the rightness or wrongness of an action is totally independent of the consequences of the act.

strong non-consequentialist theories

Holds that all rights entail obligations and that all obligations entail rights.

strong version of the correlativity thesis

Belief that ethical judgments are relative to the individual person, or subject, making the judgment.

subjectivism

Retributive justice

talks about what punishments are appropriate for wrongdoing

Distributive justice

talks about who should get which benefits and which burdens

Related to a particular goal or end.

teleological view

nihilism

the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated. It is often associated with extreme pessimism and a radical skepticism that condemns existence.

Metaethics

the group of problems that deal with how we study ethics. For example, instead of asking if something is good or bad, we ask what it means for something to be good or bad

The theorectical use of reason is to _______ ________. The practical use of reason is to _________ ________.

to gain knowledge\nto direct conduct

Genealogical

to imply that the evolution of our particular moral sense was the result of the recognition of facts about hypothetical agreement. Thus an early human, disposed to judge that others could reasonably object to what she was intent on doing and motivated by that judgment, enhanced reproductive fitness partly because such judgments were sometimes true.

Cultural continuity in social attitudes, customs, and institutions; one metaethical theory holds that morality only makes sense within a tradition.

tradition

pluralistic

two or equally basic rules

Rawls's principles, the first of which tells us to give citizens as much political liberty as possible, as long as political liberty is equal; the second principle tells us to allow economic inequalities only if they benefit the people who are worst off in society.

two principles of justice

Health care plan that compromises between strict egalitarian and strict libertarian positions; says that on the bottom tier, the government guarantees the poor a decent minimum of health care, and on the top tier, people are allowed to buy whatever kind of health care they want and can afford.

two-tiered system of health care

Terms used to describe a theory that is true by stipulative definition; substantively empty or meaningless.

unfalsifiable or definitionally irrefutable

First formulation of the categorical imperative; requires a person to formulate a maxim and then conceive or imagine that this maxim is something by which everyone must always live.

universal law formulation

Applies in some way to all rational beings.

universalizable

The belief that ethical rightness is identical to the maximization of pleasure.

utilitarianism (hedonistic normative ethical theory)

Terms used to evaluate things or states of affairs.

value terms

The philosophical study of the activity of evaluation

value theory

Hypothetical blindness to the world that occurs when we are in the original position.

veil of ignorance

Able to survive outside of the woman's womb.

viable

Moral Skepticism

views that deny or raise doubts about various roles of reason in morality

Theories that hold that the rightness or wrongness of an action is partly independent of the goodness or badness of things or states of affairs but also partly dependent.

weak deontological theories

Theories that hold that the rightness or wrongness of actions may sometimes be partly determined by the consequences but is also determined by some other factors that are independent of the consequences.

weak non-consequentialist theories

Holds that all rights entail obligations but not all obligations entail rights.

weak version of the correlativity thesis

Divine Command Theory

whatever God commands is right

Corrective justice

when and how to compensate someone for a loss

Occurs when an employee of a company informs the public that the company is doing something wrong.

whistle-blowing