Europe in the World Final Exam

treaty of paris 1763

The Treaty of Paris of 1763 was a significant diplomatic agreement that marked the end of the Seven Years' War, also known as the French and Indian War. involved several European powers, including Great Britain, France, and Spain. The treaty had wide-ranging implications for the colonial possessions of these nations. British and French Territories in North America: The treaty redrew the map of North America. Britain gained control of Canada from France and acquired Florida from Spain. France ceded Louisiana to Spain to compensate for the loss of Florida. Spanish Territories: Spain, in turn, ceded Florida to Britain but received Louisiana from France. The Spanish territories in the Americas underwent significant changes in ownership and control. West Indies and Africa: The treaty addressed issues beyond North America. Britain gained control of several Caribbean islands, including Grenada and Saint Vincent, from France. In Africa, Britain and France agreed to restore captured territories. India and Southeast Asia: The treaty had implications for colonial possessions in India and Southeast Asia. France ceded its establishments in India to Britain, including Madras and Quebec. Some territories in Southeast Asia were also exchanged. Fisheries:

the interesting narrative of the life of olaudah equiano or gustavus vassa, the african.

The distance of this province from the capital of Benin and the sea coast must be very considerable; for I had never heard of white men or Europeans, nor of the sea: We are almost a nation of dancers, musicians, and poets. Thus every great event, such as a triumphant return from battle, or other cause of public rejoicing is celebrated in public dances, which are accompanied with songs and music suited to the occasion We have many musical instruments, particularly drums of different kinds The dress of both sexes is nearly the same Our manner of living is entirely plain; for as yet the natives are unacquainted with those refinements in cookery which debauch the taste: bullocks, goats, and poultry, supply the greatest part of their food. by pouring out a small portion of the food, in a certain place, for the spirits of departed relations, which the natives suppose to preside over their conduct, and guard them from evil Our land is uncommonly rich and fruitful, and produces all kinds o

treaty of paris 1763 cont

The treaty addressed fishing rights off the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. It allowed the French to fish in certain areas under specific conditions, maintaining a balance between British and French interests. Return of Prisoners and Territories: The treaty included provisions for the return of prisoners of war and the restoration of territories captured during the conflict. The goal was to restore the status quo as much as possible. Acceding Parties: The original signatories of the treaty were Great Britain and France. However, the King of Spain and the King of Portugal acceded to the treaty on the same day, February 10, 1763.

declaration of independence

When the Revolutionary War began in April 1775, most colonists were fighting for increased rights from Great Britain, not for independence. As the war continued, however, sentiments began to change. This shift was prompted by several events, including King George III's order that England expand the size of its army and navy as well as the publication of Thomas Paine's Common Sense, which argued that colonists had a "natural right" to independence. By January 1776, many previously conservative individuals had lost hope of a future reconciliation with Great Britain. Jefferson split the Declaration into five sections: an introduction, a preamble, a body with two subsections, and a conclusion. In the introduction, Jefferson establishes the intent of the colonies to declare independence from Great Britain, arguing that such an action is "necessary." The preamble contains the most famous words of the document: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness." The preamble argues that governments get their power from the "consent of the governed," meaning the support of the people. If this consent is betrayed, the people have a "right" and "duty" to overthrow their government and establish a new one that will prioritize their happiness and safety. The preamble claims that the British government engaged in "repeated injuries and usurpations" and tried to establish tyranny over the colonies, giving the colonists the right to reject its rule.

95 theses martin luther

context: disputation of indulgences, written by reverend martin luther in 1517 detailed Luther's opinions about the teachings of the Christian Scripture, also known as the Bible, and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther particularly disagreed with the Church's custom of selling indulgences to pay for sins.

Marie-Olympe de Gouges, The Rights of Woman 1791

context: though feminist demands had roots in the enlightenment and early revolution, they were not addressed in the constitution. they were not given attention to legal equality in marriage, right to divorce, and property rights. napoleonic code eliminated advances in equality. this manifesto was written by a prominent revolutionary feminist writer (eventually imprisoned and executed) De Gouges asserts that women, like men, are born with natural and inalienable rights. She argues for the equality of rights between men and women, challenging the prevailing notion that women were excluded from the rights proclaimed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The declaration calls for women to have equal political and civil rights, including the right to participate in the formation of laws and the right to hold public office. De Gouges argues that women should have the same rights and duties as men in society. She asserts that women should have the right to own and inherit property. mutual consent and equality within the marital relationship. De Gouges argues against forced marriages and calls for the right to divorce in cases of incompatibility. right to vote

Nation-states as empires, empires as nation-states: two principles, one practice? Krishan Kumar

empires and nation-states are thought to oppose each other (nationalism dissolves empires, empires are old-fashioned whereas nations are modern) , but here we see many similarities -- nation-states are like mini empires, and often they are alternative political projects with different strategies empires have not superceded into nation states - empires still exist today nation states: embody a common culture; homogeneity in ethnic/racial terms; believe they are superior; celebrate themselves for who they are, rather than any cause; inward-looking empires by contrast: multi-ethnic; hierarchical; aspire to universalism; see themselves as instruments of larger purposes (moral/religious); 1991 collapse of soviet union seemed to end the battle between NS and empire - end of the classic empire there is imperial nationalism - many early NS's saw themselves as empires, like France spain was made up of multiple territories, making it an empire most NS's are the result of conquest and colonization, like empires. ex england, france just as a particular ethnic group identifies itself w the nation it creates, so a particular ppl identify itself w the empire it founds - collective identity is similar many find nationality pure and desirable, while imperalism is a perversion of nature - but many ppl argue nationalism is inherently imperialistic conclude: we must respect them for their differences and similarities - not the same thing often the two can be seen within one country

benedict anderson - imagined communities

explores the concept of nationalism and the formation of imagined communities. - Nations are invented - Nations are bounded territorial units - Nations are imagined as sovereign - Nations are imagined as one community of citizens - Nations rely on the construction of collective traditions Anderson introduces the concept of "imagined communities," emphasizing that nations are socially constructed entities imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of a shared community. Anderson highlights the role of print capitalism in shaping national consciousness. The printing press and the dissemination of printed materials played a crucial role in standardizing languages, creating a shared discourse, and fostering a sense of simultaneous belonging among diverse populations. Anderson explores the significance of language in the formation of national identity. The standardization and promotion of a common language contribute to a shared cultural heritage and a sense of belonging among individuals who speak the same language.

introduction of feral hogs

feral hogs in north america are a non-native species introduced from Europe domesticated in europe as a food source pigs were then introduced and used as a food source in the americas pigs devastaed the landscapes and ate from colonists fields, causing great damage to food resources and threatening starvation colonist farmers went on strike to protest ineffective laws protecting them from the hogs. eventually the hogs were moved onto native lands, and colonial governments decided native americans would be responsible for killed or injured hogs These decisions, along with numerous other injustices, contributed to tensions that ultimately led to King Philip's War between English settlers and Native Americans.

"A Swabian Cobbler-Farmer Survives the Thirty Years War -- Hans Heberle (1597-1677)," by Hans Heberle

heberle documented events during the thirty years war - rare for his social class as a cobbler; observed events, talked to travelers, and compiled a mix of news 1618 - god sent a comet in 1618 bc of our sinful lives. 1619 - new roman emperor begins war 1622 - money became worthless 1635 - his dad dies but there was no funeral bc there were no pastors in the countryside 1629 - sweden invades pomerania and pushes back against emperor lots of conflict between protestants and catholics protestants held a feast to thank god amidst these troubled times many ppl supported the swedish ruler instead of the emperor bc he was not demanding in religion 1635 - scarcity bc of the war and plague, w many ppl starving to death the emperor and the saxon made peace at prague - so followed the whole protestant union there was cannabalism 1638 of ppl who were dead or dying, or healthy children were eaten too

royal proclamation 1763

issued by King George III of Great Britain on October 7, 1763. The proclamation was a response to the conclusion of the French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War, and it sought to regulate the relationship between the British Crown and Indigenous peoples in North America. Territorial Boundaries: The proclamation drew a line along the Appalachian Mountains, effectively prohibiting British colonists from settling west of the line. This was an attempt to stabilize relations with Indigenous nations and avoid conflicts over westward expansion. Indigenous Land Rights: The proclamation recognized the existing land rights of Indigenous peoples in North America. It stated that no British subject could purchase or settle on Indigenous lands without the Crown's explicit permission. All land transactions were to be conducted through official Crown representatives. Reserved Lands for Indigenous Peoples: The proclamation set aside large areas of land west of the Appalachian Mountains for Indigenous peoples. These lands were designated as a "Great Indian Reserve," and they were intended to remain exclusively for the use of Indigenous nations. Trade Regulation: The proclamation aimed to regulate the fur trade by requiring licenses for traders operating in Indigenous territories. This provision sought to control economic interactions between British settlers and Indigenous communities. Colonial Governance: The proclamation established a framework for the governance of newly acquired territories. It specified that new colonies or governments would be created as needed, and it outlined how these territories would be integrated into the British colonial system.

jean calvin, on predestination (1536)

jean calvin - major theologian of the protestant reformation; from france viewed life as a perpetual struggle against sin; stressed an intimate relationship w god (more direct than catholicism) believed in saint augustine's predestination we ascribe prescience to god (all things always were and continue under his eye; there is only the present) and predestination (he determined whatever he wished to happen to every man - some are preordained to eternal life, some to eternal damnation)

sieyes: what is the third estate? 1789

keep an eye out for the con- & divergence of Enlightenment/Revolutionary ideas across the Atlantic. sieyes was a priest in 1773 paris. he was influential bc he was cautious and moderate, he helped launch napolean's political career. 1) first class: families connected w work on land (bc everyone needs land and water for survival) 2) those who improve the gifts of nature and the value of raw material 3) third class: merchants and dealers (estimating profits and delivering goods) 4) all sorts of occupations, from distinguished scientific ones to the lowest of tasks the third estate performs all these activities public services are divided into the army, the law, the church, and the bureaucracy monopolies are bad the third estate is a complete nation an ill-organized state would be one where the citizens are idly but still try to consume their products without having helped to produce it a nation is a body of associates living under common laws and represented by the same legislative assembly - third estate contains everything that pertains to the nation third estate needs to be free - the rights belong to all citizens everyone adheres to common laws - if you don't, ur not part of the third estate france was barely a monarchy, it was more so an aristocracy a nation must form a constitution 3 periods in the making of a political society: 1. individuals want to unite 2) action of the common will - satisfying public needs collectively 3) a representative common will constitution: giving the organization laws appropriate to fulfill its intended functions a) only an extraor- dinary representative body can establish or amend the constitution; b) this constituent representative body must be set up with- out regard to the distinction between orders.

charles loyseau, a treatise on orders (1610)

loyseau was a legal scholar in france who wrote on french public law in the wake of the wars of religion. his systematic account of the legal forms and moral principles underlying the traditional social order were v important. foreword: we cannot exist without order - we cannot all be equal - some command and some obey - many different ranks of ppl and obeying france has 3 orders/estates: clergy, nobility, and third estate (each further subdivided) ch1: order = dignity w aptitude for public power 3 kinds of dignity (order, office, seigneurie). they have dignity in common, but they are different due to their relationship to public power each order wears its own thing - romans wore togas, clergy wears robes order is harder to lose than office ch3: 3 estates in france: clergy... ch4: rational soul of men comes directly from god (not passed down like other characteristics) aristotle assumed that excellent ppl are born of excellent parents, but this is often untrue there is nobility that is inherited and nobility that comes from dignity ch 5: orders don't have particular powers like officers do nobilities have distinct honors gentleman are punished less than the common ppl when they commit a crime ch 8: there are several orders/degrees of the third estate in france: men of letters, the bachelor, advocate, financiers, practioners, merchants, etc.

luther and emperor charles v at the diet of worms (1521)

luther arrived in worms having been condemned by rome; the emperor and the diet declared him an outlaw, but offered him a hearing (instead of j executing him) = historical moment; luther insisted on the exclusive authority of the bible, whereas charles defended the church's ancient traditions this brought about a conflict between scripture and tradition Martin Luther: Summoned to Defend His Writings: Luther was summoned to the Diet of Worms by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to defend his views and writings, especially those outlined in his works like the 95 Theses and "Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation." Refusal to Recant: Luther was asked to recant his views, but he refused to do so unless convinced by Scripture or clear reason. He famously stated, "Here I stand, I can do no other; God help me. Amen." Excommunication and Outlawed: As a result of his refusal to recant, Charles V issued the Edict of Worms, which declared Luther an outlaw and banned his writings. This meant that anyone could capture or kill Luther without legal consequence.

The Haitian Declaration of Independence 1804

marking the official founding of the independent Republic of Haiti. It followed a successful slave rebellion and a series of military victories against French, Spanish, and British forces. The declaration begins by denouncing the institution of slavery, expressing the profound desire for freedom among the formerly enslaved people of Saint-Domingue (Haiti). The document formally declares the independence and sovereignty of the Republic of Haiti, casting off all ties to France and any other foreign authority. promises vengeance, haiti is angry

martin luther's to the christian nobility of the german nation (1520)

one of his many works justifying his position of rejection of papal authority over the church; questioned the church's claims to authority and called on the laity to reform the church there should be no distinction between spiritual and temporal estats (popes, bishops vs princes, lords, farmers) -- we are all baptized under one god no on emust put himself forward and undertake, without our consent and election (to be priest/bishop/pope ), to do what is in the power of all of us although these diff groups are engaged in diff work, they have the same faith - we are all one body of christ we are all equally christians

immanuel kant "what is enlightenment"? 1784

philosopher arguing that knowledge and the world are constructed by the autonomous workings of human reason and moral imagination (here he opposed the Lockean tradition, which tended to assign the human mind the more passive function of reflecting the rationality of the perceived world). This famous essay is a foundational document of German liberalism, in that it argues for intellectual freedom and freedom of expression as the means by which human beings attain moral and citizenly self-determination. To the extent that the Enlightened state (and Kant had Frederick II's Prussia in mind) permits free inquiry and expression, a gradual conversion of monarchical absolutism into self-government by the educated and propertied classes - the liberal, as opposed to populist democratic, ideal - becomes conceivable and desirable. Kant defines enlightenment as the emergence of humanity from self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity, in this context, refers to the inability to think for oneself without guidance from others. Kant attributes immaturity to a lack of courage and determination to use one's own reason. He identifies guardianship (relying on others for guidance) and laziness (avoiding the effort of thinking independently) as key factors that hinder enlightenment. Kant introduces the Latin phrase "Sapere Aude" (Dare to Know) as the motto of enlightenment. He encourages individuals to have the courage to use their own reason and to think independently. Kant emphasizes the importance of the public use of reason in contrast to the private use. Public use involves using reason in the public sphere to contribute to discussions and debates that aim at the improvement of society.

Common Sense by Thomas Paine (1776)

powerful pamphlet telling the colonists to break free. British were trying to destroy colonies' natural rights. Government is there to protect life liberty and property. Power came from people, not kings. Colonies don't benefit from British Empire. Context: - before declaration of independence - he is calling for independence - critiquing english constitution and monarchal system - british government organization: (house of lords and house of commons) ; monarch - king, inheritancy, single rule, meant to be checked by the power of parliament; house of lords are inherited seats like the king - language is new and revolutionary - discusses how society is good and government is bad - they are entirely different - discusses a basic government of the first peoples in which the the governed support the governors, the government is strong and the ppl are happy - though flawed, government is necessary - the ppl need to construct the government ("by and for the people") - bottom up as opposed to top down monarchy - used religion (kings being ordained by god) - simple is better - although absolute governments are bad, they have the advantage of being simple and the direct, unquestioned cause of people's suffering -- easy to blame - monarchies can be ridiciulous - kings are shut off from the world but must know it thoroughly - national pride influences common ppl to favor their government -- even if reasoning doesn't - early days of scripture -- no kings, no wars; monarchy is even a sin for jews in scripture (the lord shall rule over you -- not a king) - if all men are born equal, no family should be preferred. even if a man deserves honor, his descendents may not; if they are selected their minds are poisoned by importance - lots of blood is shed over monarchies - Just bc america did "well" under britain in the past, d

Women in the Silver Mines of Potosí: Rethinking the History of "Informality" and "Precarity"

underground mining in potosi (south america) was male-dominated, but women were actively involved in mining, the ore market, and certain stages of the technological process of refining ore. This implies that mining is a complex process with a labour and gender division that has been underrated and underestimated in 1500s, there were diverse rules ab kings having ownership of all treasures below the ground indian ppl had more access to the underground different working arrangements It is thus possible to imagine that some old and new techniques may have been mainly in the hands of women, because men were recruited as unfree and free workers in the mines. Third, that the labour process became much more complicated with women participating in it women were important in certain stages of the labor process Another task performed by women and children was sieving minerals in the refineries. Through their own labour and initiative, they effectively asserted their right to take a significant share of the revenue from ore extraction.

Many views of Simón Bolívar

venezuelan; played a big part in freeing south american countries from spanish rule - had idealistic goals for the new nations large slave pop and growing frustrated pop of free blacks and mixed descent ppl bolivar was well versed in enlightenment ideas, became one of the first creoles (elites) to struggle against the crown when napolean's armies took over spain helped forged constitutions after winning independence many of his political ideas failed (could not establish a large confederation of nations) mixed enlightenment ideals w conservative plans to continue colonial practices failed to abolish slavery and the tax that indians had to pay to the state never addressed gender issues military and political officials wanted a clean break w spanish rule and an end to colonial inequalities proposed 4 political powers each 10 citizens appoints an elector - elector just needs to be able and make an honest living (cannot be criminal, idle, or ignorant). money is not important 3 branches of legislative body to ensure harmony (2 would lead to perpetual conflict) president has permanent, supreme authority for life. modeled after president of haiti . but bolivian president has less power and influence appoints a pure vice president heredity is bad - should be chosen by merit law of all laws: equality slavery is a violation of every law no dominant religion

common sense thomas paine

"Common Sense" is a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine and published in 1776. It played a significant role in inspiring American colonists to pursue independence from British rule during the early stages of the American Revolution. Here is a summary of the key points in "Common Sense": Plain Language and Accessibility: Paine wrote "Common Sense" in a straightforward and accessible style, using plain language that could be easily understood by a wide audience. This contributed to the pamphlet's widespread popularity. Call for Independence: Paine passionately advocated for the idea of American independence from British rule. He argued that it was absurd for a vast continent to be governed by a small island and that the American colonies should chart their own course. Republicanism and Representative Government: Paine championed the idea of republicanism, arguing for a government based on the consent of the governed. He advocated for the establishment of a representative government that would better serve the interests of the American people. Critique of Monarchy: Paine sharply criticized the monarchical system, challenging the legitimacy of hereditary rule. He argued that monarchy was inherently flawed and that it was time for the American colonies to break away from the monarchical control of Britain. Common Sense Arguments: Paine presented several common-sense arguments to support the case for independence. He contended that the American colonies had outgrown their need for British protection and that they should pursue self-governance for economic, political, and social reasons.

common sense cont

- before criticizng the english governemnt, he says we live in a society - we must organize ourselves somehow; ppl have the tendency to do what makes us happy, sometimes at the cost of others - there is reason for us to create a common good - have to deal w the horrible thing of government -- necessary to protect individual rights and create a collective good - most natural or logical form of government: the ppl themselves should be creating laws (democratic system) - with a large amount of ppl, we need to elect officials (bc not everyone can participate). u r still directly involved by electing representatives - even england has admitted that they are incapable of dealing w these large lands across the ocean - simple is good -- we know who to blame for our suffering. transparency and accountability are vital - commons needing to check the king implies that the monarchy is flawed; king can also check the commons

slave revolution in the caribbean, 1789-1804 laurent dubois

1600s- enslaved africans outnumbered french caribbean colonists. the french monarchy issued a comprehensive slave code, the code noir, that many colonists still deliberately violated. but the code remained the framework for french caribbean slavery thru the early yrs of the haitian revolution. The Code Noir defined the legal status of slaves, specifying that they were considered property and could be bought, sold, and inherited. . It allowed masters to use corporal punishment, including whipping, for disciplinary purposes...it sought to limit excessive cruelty however required that enslaved individuals be baptized as Catholics The Code reinforced racial distinctions and hierarchies While the Code Noir was intended to provide a legal framework for the administration of slavery, it did not prevent the harsh treatment of enslaved individuals or the exploitation inherent in the institution.

slave revolution in the caribbean, 1789-1804 laurent dubois continued

2) prophecies of slave revolution. 1771 and 1780 In his L'An deux mille quatre cent quarante (fhe Year 2440), first published in 1771, Louis-Sebastien Mercier critiqued the society he lived in by imagining waking up from a very long nap to find the world perfected and the tyranny and oppression of the past erased. As he wanders in this new world, he comes upon a monument representing a remarkable man who had brought liberty to slaves and redemption to European he was pleasantly suprised slaves were freed and heroes no more tyranny m. In this version, which followed a description of the slave trade, Diderot appealed to the sense of justice of European monarchs, urging them to end their own participation in the slave trade and declare war against any leaders who continued participating in the traffic. Then, however, he suggested that a violent revolution among the slaves themselves might ultimately be required to overturn slavery

slave revolution in the caribbean, 1789-1804 laurent dubois continued..

3) mederic-louis-elie moreau de saint mery Description ... of the French Part of the Island of Saint-Domingue 1797 the Martinican-born lawyer Saint-Mery portrayed the different kinds of people living in Saint-Domingue at the end of the eighteenth century. he depicts the free people of color, who were culturally, physically, and legally distinct from, yet intimately connected to, the colony's white _and black populations. he, like nearly all white colonists, appears to have had a free colored mistress and perhaps a daughter with her.9 slaves were not only africans but natives too mulatos could be freed after 21, but code of noir broke this rule mulatresses were passionate and charming describes a ritual dance called "vaudoux" that was practiced by the slaves of Saint-Domingue.. would coalesce into the contemporary religion known as Haitian Vodou

Peeing on the Palace: Bodily Resistance to Bourbon Reforms in Mexico City Pamela Voekel this will be the best thing you read in college. It uses a ton of big, fancy words to describe public urination & defecation. The use of such "classy" language to describe something normally seen as "crass" makes the reading worth it (well, that, plus the actual interpretive argument about Spanish imperial fears, moral panic, & administrative policies.

: In late eighteenth-century Mexico City, the state instituted unprecedented eflforts to transform the mores of the poor. Enlightened elites and state bureaucrats energetically limned the vices of the lower classes ... article by historian Pamela Voekel that explores forms of bodily resistance to Bourbon reforms in colonial Mexico during the 18th century. The Bourbon reforms were a series of administrative and economic changes implemented by the Bourbon monarchs in the Spanish colonies, aimed at centralizing power, increasing efficiency, and boosting economic productivity. Voekel's work focuses on the ways in which ordinary people resisted these reforms through bodily actions and rituals the poor became bracketed with the now shameful functions of the lower body. bourbon bureaucracy introduced campaigns to get rid of the vices of the ppl and instill new values of hard work and sobriety ; relied on unprecedented interventions into daily life

common sense thomas paine cont

Appeal to Emotion: Paine's pamphlet skillfully appealed to the emotions of the American colonists. He evoked a sense of patriotism, portraying the pursuit of independence as a noble cause that would bring about a brighter future for the colonies. Wide Circulation and Impact: "Common Sense" had a profound impact on public opinion. It was widely circulated and read throughout the colonies, contributing to a shift in sentiment toward favoring independence. It played a crucial role in preparing the ground for the Declaration of Independence. Immediate and Long-Term Influence: The publication of "Common Sense" had an immediate impact on the ongoing debates about independence, contributing to the momentum for declaring independence. Its ideas continued to influence the development of American political thought and the framing of the new republic.. straightforward language and common-sense arguments to rally support for the revolutionary cause

charles V response in diet of worms:

Charles V: Desire for Religious Unity: Charles V, as the Holy Roman Emperor, sought to maintain religious unity within the empire. The Diet of Worms was convened to address the growing religious tensions arising from Luther's ideas. Edict of Worms: Despite Luther's refusal to recant, Charles V issued the Edict of Worms, which declared Luther an outlaw and banned his writings. Charles aimed to suppress what he perceived as a threat to the unity of the Catholic Church. Political Challenges: Charles V faced challenges in enforcing the edict due to political complexities within the Holy Roman Empire. Some German princes and cities supported Luther's ideas, leading to a divided stance on the Reformation. In summary, the Diet of Worms in 1521 was a critical moment in the early stages of the Protestant Reformation. Luther's steadfast defense of his beliefs and Charles V's response marked a turning point in European religious history, contributing to the eventual establishment of Protestantism as a separate religious movement.

Women in the Silver Mines of Potosí: Rethinking the History of "Informality" and "Precarity" cont

Conditions of precariousness in the sense of bad working conditions and insecurity were the norm in the world of mining. It is important to remember that, at the beginning of the exploitation of the mountain of Potosí, different groups had greater access to the ore and the role of indigenous people in the smelting process was crucial. Indigenous women were also actively involved as traders of ore in the local market. Between and , the technological changes and the reorganization of labour established by the Spanish Crown transformed the previous situation. The main division in the mines was established between the owners of refineries, who worked with sophisticated mills and received important contingents of workers through the mita system or unfree work. Mining appears to have been much more male. However, their families became involved as what is now called the "unpaid contributing family worker", a group whose participation in the mining economy deserves to be highlighted. This article has been an attempt to make women in mining visible, and clearly their history, delineated here, is just the tip of the iceberg. Without a careful reading of documents, women will remain as invisible as the sources about them, and the gender bias of such sources are sustained.

montesquieu: "in what manner the laws of civil slavery relate to the nature of the climate" (1748) continued

Historical Examples: Montesquieu provides historical examples to support his arguments. He discusses the slavery practices of different societies and how they align with the climatic conditions of those regions. Caution Against Determinism: While Montesquieu emphasizes the influence of climate on social and legal institutions, he also warns against deterministic thinking. He acknowledges that various factors contribute to the complexity of human societies, and climate is just one among many influences

John Locke second treatise of government "property" quick summary

In summary, Chapter 5 of Locke's "Second Treatise of Government" establishes the natural right to property based on labor, introduces the proviso for the common use of resources, discusses the role of money and trade, and emphasizes the connection between property rights and the legitimacy of political power.

kant enlightenmnet quick summary

In summary, Immanuel Kant's "What is Enlightenment?" advocates for the use of individual reason, courage, and the public dissemination of knowledge as essential components of enlightenment. He encourages individuals to challenge authority, think independently, and contribute to the ongoing process of societal progress.

royal proclamation 1763 continued

Intent to Avoid Conflict: The primary goal of the Royal Proclamation was to prevent conflict between British settlers and Indigenous peoples by imposing restrictions on westward expansion. The Crown hoped to maintain peaceful relations and avoid costly military engagements. Reaction and Impact: While the proclamation was designed to address post-war challenges, it was not uniformly enforced. British colonists were often resistant to the restrictions on westward expansion, leading to tensions and conflicts. Over time, dissatisfaction with the proclamation's limitations contributed to the growing discontent that eventually led to the American Revolutionary War.

immanuel kant "what is enlightenment"? 1784 continued

Kant sees the freedom of the press as a crucial means for the public use of reason. He argues that unrestricted freedom to publish one's thoughts is essential for enlightenment and societal progress. Kant acknowledges that freedom should have limits to prevent harm, but he argues that these limits should not hinder the public use of reason. He suggests that restrictions on freedom should only be imposed when expressions endanger the well-being of society. Kant questions the traditional authority of institutions and individuals in guiding people's thinking. He suggests that individuals should critically evaluate the guidance provided by authorities and not accept it blindly. Kant envisions enlightenment as a gradual process that leads to social progress. He believes that as more individuals embrace independent thinking, society as a whole will advance intellectually, morally, and politically. Despite acknowledging the slow pace of enlightenment, Kant expresses optimism about humanity's ability to progressively overcome immaturity and move toward a more enlightened state.

John Locke second treatise of government "property"

Locke begins by asserting that individuals have a natural right to property. This right is based on the idea that people own their bodies and, by extension, the labor they exert. Through their labor, individuals mix their personal property with the common resources of nature, thereby acquiring a right to those possessions. Locke argues that initially, the earth and its resources were held in common by all individuals. However, he introduces the notion that individuals can appropriate parts of the common resources through their labor, thereby making them their private property. Locke emphasizes the importance of labor as the foundation of property rights. According to him, when individuals mix their labor with natural resources, they transform those resources into something of value, and this value becomes an extension of their person and labor. While Locke advocates for the right to private property through labor, he introduces the proviso that there must be "enough and as good left" for others. This means that appropriation of resources should not leave others without access to similar resources or hinder their ability to meet their needs. Locke discusses the advent of money as a means of facilitating trade. Money, according to Locke, arises from the agreement of individuals to use certain commodities as a medium of exchange. This development contributes to the convenience and efficiency of property transactions. Locke asserts that the establishment of civil society and government is necessary to protect individuals' property rights. Governments are instituted to safeguard life, liberty, and property. If a government fails in this duty or becomes tyrannical, individuals have the right to resist and even overthrow it.

John Locke second treatise of government "property" cont

Locke introduces the idea that individuals have a duty to God not to waste resources. He argues that one should only appropriate as much as one can use without letting resources go to waste. Excessive accumulation without the ability to use the property is deemed contrary to the law of nature. Property and Political Legitimacy: Locke links the legitimacy of political power to the protection of property. A government that respects and safeguards property rights is considered legitimate, while one that violates these rights risks losing its authority.

montesquieu: "in what manner the laws of civil slavery relate to the nature of the climate" (1748)

Montesquieu (french political philosopher) explores how climate influences the legal and social institutions related to slavery. Climate's Influence on Labor and Slavery: Montesquieu argues that climate significantly affects the nature of labor and, consequently, the institution of slavery. He observes that in warmer climates, physical exertion tends to be more demanding, leading to a greater reliance on manual labor and, in some cases, slavery. Physical Hardship and Slavery: Warmer climates, according to Montesquieu, often necessitate more strenuous agricultural and manual labor. This physical hardship can result in the prevalence of slavery as a means of meeting the labor demands imposed by the climate. Impact on Social Structures: Montesquieu suggests that the nature of the climate contributes to the formation of specific social structures. In societies where labor-intensive activities are essential due to climatic conditions, hierarchical social structures, including the institution of slavery, may emerge as a way to organize and manage labor. Despotism and Slavery: Montesquieu explores the correlation between climate, despotism, and slavery. He argues that in climates where the physical demands of labor are high, there may be a tendency toward despotism and the use of slavery as a means of maintaining control and order. Effects of Cold Climates: Montesquieu contrasts the impact of warmer climates with that of colder climates. In colder regions, physical labor might be less demanding, potentially leading to different social and legal structures. Slavery may be less prevalent in societies where the climate allows for less strenuous forms of labor.

sieyes: what is the third estate? 1789 CONTINUED

Sieyès questioned the traditional tripartite division of French society into the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners). He focused on the overwhelming majority of the population belonging to the Third Estate. Sieyès argued that the Third Estate was the true strength and essence of the nation. He contended that it encompassed all the productive and useful members of society and bore the burden of taxes and labor. Sieyès criticized the privileges enjoyed by the First and Second Estates, particularly their exemption from many taxes. He argued that this unjust system placed an unfair economic burden on the Third Estate. He argued for a fair and representative political system. contributed to the revolutionary fervor that ultimately led to the French Revolution of 1789

declaration of independence cont

The Declaration of Independence is one of the most important founding documents of the United States. At the time of its publication, it united the colonists behind a common cause and affirmed their dedication to fighting for independence. It codified the American ideal of consent of the governed and established the idea that the purpose of a government is to secure the rights of its people. The Declaration's affirmation that "all men are created equal" has been an ideal for the country to live up to since 1776, when "all men" referred only to white, wealthy, Christian men. In the centuries since, various movements have challenged Americans to fulfill that ideal and give equal rights to marginalized groups. For instance, in 1848, early women's rights activists modeled their "Declaration of Sentiments" after the Declaration of Independence, writing, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men and women are created equal." The Declaration was also referenced often during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Many activists based their appeals for racial equality in the document's assertion that "all men are created equal."

declaration of the rights of man 1789

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen) was a foundational document of the French Revolution, adopted by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789. It sought to establish a set of universal and inherent rights for all individuals, asserting the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. rights: - men are born free and equal in rights, politics should preserve these rights, authority must only come from the nation, innocent until proven guilty , etc

Excerpts from "Disease & Medicine," Chapter 3 of "The Jesuit Relations: Natives and Missionaries of Seventeenth-Century North America," ed. by Allen Greer

The Jesuit Relations refer to a collection of reports, letters, and accounts written by Jesuit missionaries who were active in North America during the 17th century. spread of old-world diseases among native populations of north america smallpox, influenza, and measles acted as invisible agents of conquest against the. natives jesuits of new france knew nothing of diseases; used sugar as a cure-all jesuits save souls and baptize the dying rather than saving the living focused on why - not how - disease spread god worked thru nature - explanations in religion and science native ppl (hurons) also attributed illness to natural and supernatural causes native healers were skilled at setting broken bones, extracting bullets, etc jesuits were horrified by certain native practices that were non-christian and superstitious hurons did not keep their sick isolated like europeans - their rituals involved larger society jesuits disapproved with many spiritual aspects of native medicine but approved of indians funeral customs huron medical practices: gambling (foolish), ondinonc (addressing repressed desires) eventually, after hurons were devastated by european illness, they turned to the french jesuits to get to the bottom of the disease. the jesuits told them they would have to change their religious way of life, and the hurons got angry and planned to kill the jesuits (but never did) hurons were convinced that the jesuits were using sorcery to destroy them jesuits tried to heal them with lemon peel, warm water, and sugar, plus the blessing of god 1639-smallpox epidemic againsy the huron potawotamis also got sick. they drew on curing technqiues from europeans and native medical traditions - it was a contest between the native shaman and the missionary to determine how the disease would be understood

"Excerpts from the Navigation Acts" 1660 | British Parliament continued

The Navigation Act of 1660 was one of several laws passed by the British Parliament to regulate colonial trade and navigation. Here is a summary of key points from the Navigation Act of September 13, 1660: Colonial Trade Restrictions: The Navigation Act aimed to control and restrict colonial trade by stipulating that certain goods produced in the colonies could only be exported to England and its colonies. This was intended to ensure that England benefited economically from the trade activities of its colonies. Shipping Regulations: The act mandated that colonial goods could only be transported on English ships or ships from the originating colonies. This provision was designed to boost the English shipping industry and maintain dominance in colonial trade routes. Enumerated Goods: Certain goods, known as "enumerated goods," such as tobacco and sugar, could only be shipped to England or other English colonies. This restriction was aimed at securing a monopoly for English merchants in the trade of these profitable commodities. Import Duties: The act imposed duties on certain goods imported into the colonies from other European countries. This was intended to discourage the colonies from trading with nations other than England and to promote economic dependence on the mother country. Enforcement: The Navigation Act of 1660, like subsequent navigation acts, had provisions for strict enforcement. It empowered English customs officials to inspect colonial trade and ensure compliance with the regulations. Economic Mercantilism: The act reflected the economic philosophy of mercantilism, which emphasized the accumulation of wealth through a favorable balance of trade. By controlling colonial trade, England sought to maximize its economic gains and maintain control over its colonial possessions.

"Excerpts from the Navigation Acts" 1660 | British Parliament

The Navigation Acts were laws designed to support English shipbuilding and restrict trade competition from England's commercial adversaries, especially the Dutch. The acts eventually contributed to growing colonial resentment with the imposition of additional duties on sugar, tobacco, and molasses. - no importing goods from africa, asia, or america into england, These navigation acts were part of a series of laws passed during the 17th and 18th centuries to regulate colonial commerce and strengthen the economic ties between the American colonies and England. While these measures benefited England economically, they also contributed to tensions between the colonies and the mother country, ultimately playing a role in the lead-up to the American Revolution

treaty of paris 1763 quick summary

The Treaty of Paris of 1763 had a lasting impact on the geopolitical landscape, particularly in North America, as it set the stage for the redrawing of colonial boundaries and power dynamics. It played a role in shaping the course of subsequent events, including the American Revolutionary War that followed in the years to come.