Everything from government
Michel de Montaigne (date/role)*
1533-1592 France- Posed the question "what do I know?" in many essays
How many senators are there per state?
2
Which was the first nation to explore democracy?
Greece
6th amendment
Guarantees the right to a speedy, impartial public trial (trial by jury) in criminal cases with counsel and the right to cross examine. Also the right to a lawyer. Speedy, impartial PUBLIC trial, cross examination, and THE RIGHT TO A LAWYER
Marbury vs. Madison created what precedent?
Marbury v. Madison, (1803) is often cited as the case that affirmed the Supreme Court's right of JUDICIAL REVIEW. Marbury is the first case in which the US Supreme Court declared an act of Congress unconstitutional (Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789).
Our nation's first governing structure was...?
The Articles of the Confederation
federalism
The division of power among a central government and several regional governments
boycott
a refusal to buy or sell certain products or services
sample
a representative slice of the total universe
common law
a system of law based on accepted customs, traditions, and past decisions
nonpartisan election
elections in which candidates are not identified by party labels
Can the president serve more than 2 consecutive terms?
no
sound bite
short, sharply focused reports that can be aired in 30 to 45 seconds
who chooses the president of the united states?
the electoral college
what does the second article cover?
the executive branch
what is the fourth article called (not nickname)
the full faith and credit article
Cabinet
the heads of the 15 executive departments and other officers that acts as an advisory body to the President
second article
the president serves for a four year term. He/she may serve for no more than two terms consecutively. The president shall take care that the laws are faithfully executed
Thomas Hobbes*
(1588-1679) father of modern political philosophy
Greek influence
(750-550BC), started with a great council making laws. Farmers and merchants protested the uneven role of the council members and in time, the number of people involved in making decisions increased. This was a shift from a DEMOCRACY to a DIRECT DEMOCRACY (only wealthy involved in decision making process→poorer people having a say as well)
proprietary
(a colony) organized by a proprietor, a person to whom the king had made a grant of land
Virginia Plan
-Presented by Edmond Pandolph mostly written by James Madison -3 branches of gov't (leg, exec, jud) -bi-cameral body -representation based on money -from big state, first out of gate
Connecticut compromise
-presented by Roger Sherman -created a bicameral legislative body. A senate and a house of reps. the house would be based upon population, the senate would have two from each state -slavery--how slaves could be counted. all people would be counted as a person and the slaves would count as 3/5 of a person but couldn't vote -
New Jersey Plan
-presented by William Patterson -allowed the gov't to raise taxes, regulate trade, and enforce national laws -3 branches of gov't -equal representation of states -unicameral legislature -from small state
5 basic notions of democracy
1) A recognition of the fundamental worth and dignity of every person 2) A respect for the equality of all persons 3) A faith in majority rule and an insistence upon minority rights 4) An acceptance of the necessity of compromise 5) An insistence upon the widest possible degree of individual freedom
Purpose of the government
1) To establish justice (define and protect the rule of law) 2) To insure domestic tranquility (to prevent conflicts within or between the states) 3) To provide for the common defense (a united power opposing any attacks) 4) To promote the general welfare (human rights and a stable society) 5) To secure the blessings of liberty (insure that the concept of freedom endures) 6)To form a more perfect union (to join together the colonies)
two types of open primaries still around
1) private choice-a person is given 2 ballots, one for each party, and can choose which one to vote with in privacy 2) public declaration- a person has to declare which ballot they want
what ar the five ways that nominations are made in the United States?
1) self-announcement 2) caucus 3) convention 4) direct primary 5) petition
what are somethings that 6th article includes?
1) the constitution, federal laws, and the treaties of the United States are the supreme law of the land 2)all federal and state officials must take an oath of office promising to support the constitution.
which 2 major features of the proposed constitution drew the heaviest fire?
1) the greatly increased power of the central government 2) the lack of a bill of rights
what are the five basic ways that changes have been made to the constitution besides formal ammendements?
1) the passage of basic legistlation by congress 2) actions takes by the president 3) key decisions of the supreme court 4) the acticities of political parties 5) custom
after the third reading, there are many ways to get a reading to see how many people support the bill, what are these?
1) voice 2) role call 3) standing 4) teller electronic
What three types of law did this early reformer of the Catholic church articulate?
1. Divine law 2. Natural law 3. Man-made law
when was the Magna Carta signed by King John?
1215
Albany Plan of Union
1754--a plan in which Franklin proposed the formation of the annual congress of delegates (representatives) from each of the 13 colonies. That body would have the power to raise military and naval forces, make war and peace with the Native Americans, regulate trade with them, tax, and collect custom duties
when was the bill of rights signed?
1791
26th amendment
18 year-olds are given the right to vote (voting age lowered from 21)
establishment clause
1st amend- basically prohibits the government from setting up a national religion
free exercise clause
1st amend-basically congress can't control people's practicing religion: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...
Senate
1st article-Each state has two senators who serve six year terms. They are the only body who can try an impeached president.
House
1st article-Representatives in the House serve 2 year terms and the number of reps per state is determined by the population of the state. The House is the only body that can bring impeachment articles against the president. They also hold the power of the purse (bills of revenue can only come from the House). They also choose their own officers
requirements to be in the House
1st article-at least 25 years old, US citizen for at least 7 years, resident of state that is being represented
Requirements to be in the senate?
1st article-must be at least 30 years old, US citizen for at least 9 years, resident of state that's being represented.
requirements to be in the Senate
1st article-must be at least 30 years old, US citizen for at least 9 years, resident of state that's being represented.
requirements to be in the Senate (3)?
1st article-must be at least 30 years old, US citizen for at least 9 years, resident of state that's being represented.
How long are the terms served in the House?
2 years
how long are the terms served in the House
2 years
requirements to be president
35 years old, must have been a US resident for 14 years, natural-born citizen
requirements to be president (3)?
35 years old, must have been a US resident for 14 years, natural-born citizen
Requirements to be the president.
35 years old, must have been a US resident for 14 years, natural-born citizen.
How many people are in the House?
435
according to the __ amendment, how do new amendments get put into the constitution?
5, Amendments may be proposed by either: two-thirds of both houses of the United States Congress; or by a national convention assembled at the request of the legislatures of at least two-thirds of the states. To become part of the Constitution, amendments must then be ratified either by approval of: the legislatures of three-fourths of the states; or state ratifying conventions held in three-fourths of the states. Congress has discretion as to which method of ratification should be used. Any amendment so ratified becomes a valid part of the Constitution, provided that no state "shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the senate," without its consent.
how much of one body needs to approve a bill for it to go on to the next body?
50%
How long are the terms that senators serve?
6 years
How long is a senator's term?
6 years
popular sovereignty
All power resides in the people; they are the only source of any and all governmental power and the government can only govern with the consent of the governed. Popular sovereignty is woven throughout the Constitution, for example, in the preamble it says "We the people..."
Who stated the following: "If liberty and equality, as thought by some, are chiefly to be found in democracy, they will be best attained when all persons alike share in the government to the utmost"?
Aristotle
who said the quote "if liberty and equality, as is thought by some, are chiefly to be found in democracy, they will be best attained when all persons alike share in the government to the utmost"?*
Aristotle
elastic clause/ necessary and proper clause
Article 1 section 8 of the constitution. The part of the Constitution that permits Congress to make any laws "necessary and proper" to carrying out its powers; pretty much meaning that the constitution is up for interpretation
The first European nation to experiment with democracy in the form of an absolute monarch
Britain
what was the first nation to employ a democracy?*
Britain
British influence
Britain was the first nation to try a democracy, in the form of an absolute monarch
Bill of Rights
Collectively, the first ten amendments. They set out the great constitutional guarantees of freedom of belief and expression, of freedom and security of the person, and of fair and equal treatment before the law
Full Faith and Credit Clause
Constitution's requirement that each State accept the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State
What is cultural relativism?
Cultural relativism is the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his own social context. In other words, "right" and "wrong" are culture-specific; what is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society's customs. Cultural relativism is widely accepted in modern anthropology. Cultural relativists believe that all cultures are worthy in their own right and are of equal value. Diversity of cultures, even those with conflicting moral beliefs, is not to be considered in terms of right and wrong or good and bad. Today's anthropologist considers all cultures to be equally legitimate expressions of human existence, to be studied from a purely neutral perspective.
When was the constitution ratified?
December 15th 1791
English bill of rights date*
December 16th 1689
when was the english bill of rights signed?
December 16th 1689
which was the first state to ratify?
Delaware
What is direct democracy?
Direct Democracy is a form of government that is said to be by the people, but also for the people. It is a type of government that the people will make the decisions for themselves rather than to have the decisions made by representatives or only the wealthiest or most affluent members of the community
lobbying
Engaging in activities aimed at putting pressure on and influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact.
17th amendment
Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote
18th amendment
Establishes the prohibition of alcohol
step 1 (more in depth)--bill →law
First a member of congress must sponsor it. The house member submits a bill by putting a draft of it in a box by the House clerk's desk. Bills of resolutions are considered in congress. There are 2 types of bills: public and private.
20th amendment
Fixes the dates of term commencements for Congress (January 3) and the President (January 20); known as the "lame duck amendment"; reduces the amount of time between the election of the President and Congress and the beginning of their terms
How long is the presidential term?
Four years
power flow
G-d→pope→kings (Magna Carta) → parliament →people
Magna Carta
Great Charter forced upon King John of England by his barons in 1215. It established that power of the monarchy was not absolute and guaranteed trial by jury and due process of law to the nobility
Who were the authors of the Federalist papers?
Hamilton, Jay, and Madison
Regarding a Bill, the President can...
He has some options and parameters: 1) He has 10 days to sign it or it becomes a law automatically 2) He can just sign it outright 3) He can veto it-should give a reason 4) He can pocket the bill- if congress adjourns before the 10 day period
what happens when the bill gets to the president?
He has some options and parameters: 1) He has 10 days to sign it or it becomes a law automatically 2) He can just sign it outright 3) He can veto it-should give a reason 4) He can pocket the bill- if congress adjourns before the 10 day period
anti-federalists
Headed by revolutionary war figures such as Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, John Hancock, and Samuel Adams. They attacked nearly every part of the new document. Many objected to the ratification process, to the absence of any mention of God, to the denial of the States of a power to print money, and to many other feature of the Farmers' proposals.
anti-federalists
Headed by revolutionary war figures such as Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, John Hancock, and Samuel Adams. They attacked nearly every part of the new document. Many objected to the ratification process, to the absence of any mention of God, to the denial of the States of a power to print money, and to many other feature of the Farmers' proposals. They mostly attacked (1) the increased powers of the central government and (2) the lack of a bill of rights
what was the major point of disagreement between the Virginia plan and the the New Jersey plan?
How should the states be represented by Congress? Would it be on the basis of their populations or financial contributions, as in the Virginia plan? Or would it be on the basis of State equality, as in the Articles and the New Jersey plan?
runoff primary
If a candidate needs a majority to win a primary and no one does, there is a ______ election between the top two candidates and the winner becomes the nominee
11th amendment
Immunity of states from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders. Lays the foundation for sovereign immunity. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.
implied powers
Implied powers are powers not specifically spelled out in the Constitution, but which can deduced from the text. That these powers are permitted to Congress can be seen in the so-called "elastic clause," the final sentences of article 1 section 8 of the Constitution, which say that congress has the right to create laws that are "necessary and proper" to carry out the powers which are specifically stated.
Petition of Right
In 1628, spurred from Charles asking the parliament for more money in taxes. It limited the king's power in several ways: it demanded that the king no longer imprison or otherwise punish any person but by the lawful judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land. It also insisted that the king not impose material law (rule by the military) in time of peace, or require homeowners to shelter the king's troop without their consent. It also stated that no man should be: "compelled to make or yield any gift, loan, benevolence, tax, or such charge, without common consent by act of parliament." Also challenged divine right of kings
separation of powers
In a presidential system, these basic powers (legislative, executive, judicial) are distributed--separated-- among three distinct and independent banches of government
where was the constitutional convention
Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
What was the significance of the document signing in 1215 on future religious and political developments in countries?
It gave more rights to the people and less to the kings because the people had to consent before the kings could do things like raise taxes
What did the English Bill of Rights grant?
It gave the parliament more power than the king and queen. The monarchy couldn't make decisions like those to raise taxes, make or suspend laws, without the consent of the parliament. Also the law requirement for a Parliament that was freely elected, frequently held and provided for free speech within the Parliament. (see gov 2)
What is meant by the Divine Right of Kings?
It means that everyone believed that the king was chosen by G-d and therefore had complete power and was always correct in his doing and if anyone argues against his decisions they would be harshly punished
three-fifths compromise
It provided that all "free persons" should be counted, and so, too, should "three-fifths of all other persons" (slaves). For the three-fifths won by the southerners , the northerners exacted a price. That formula was to be used in fixing the amount of money to be raised in each state by any direct tax levied by Congress. In other words, the southerners could count their slaves, but they had to pay for them too.
How are the number of House reps per state determined?
It's dependent on the population of the state
How are the number of House Reps per state determined?
It's dependent on the population of the state.
who is the father of the american constitution?
James Madison
who wrote federalist paper #10
James madison
federalists
Led by many of those who had attended the Philadelphia convention. Among them were James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. They stressed the weaknesses of the the articles and argued that many of the difficulties facing the republic could be overcome by a new government based on the proposed constitution
federalists
Led by many of those who had attended the Philadelphia convention. Among them were James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. They stresses the weaknesses of the the articles and argued that many of the difficulties facing the republic could be overcome by a new government based on the proposed constitution
loose v. strict construction
Loose construction-means that the federal government can take reasonable actions that the constitution does not specifically forbid Strict construction- people who favor strict constitution think that that federal government should do only what the constitution specifically says it can do
final effect of the enlightenment
Man now becomes a player in shaping his universe. Citizens now question more deeply their relationship to the state and to the monarchy. The Enlightenment thinkers further split the power of the monarchy; individuals now believe that they have the ordained right to self-govern; governing that is, based on natural law and not the arbitrary belief in the Divine Right of Kings, accepted by monarchs as the birthright from the Diving
What are some requirements of the judicial branch?
Must be 30 years old, a natural born citizen,and do taxes and make laws. Also have to check on the congress and president to make sure no branch has more power.
federalist paper # 10
No. 10 addresses the question of how to guard against "factions", or groups of citizens, with interests contrary to the rights of others or the interests of the whole community. Madison argued that a strong, big republic would be a better guard against those dangers than smaller republics—for instance, the individual states.
what happens in the House bill→law
Once the bill is on the floor it has a second reading. Then the whole House acts as if it is a committee to speed up the necessary steps to pass the bill. There is a quorum, debate on the bill, a third reading, and then a vote.
This Greek philosopher who stated that humans are selfish by nature and needed to have some level of restraint in order to restrain the people in some capacity
Plato
27th amendment
Prevents laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until the beginning of the next session of Congress; limits the power of congress to increase its own salaries
24th amendment
Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of poll taxes; bans the poll tax as a method for qualifying people to vote in federal elections
12th amendment
Revises presidential election procedures: added the separation of the president and vice president onto two different ballots, establishes electoral college procedure
what was the last state to adopt the constitution?
Rhode Island
What was the first nation to create a republic?*
Rome
Which nation was the first to establish a republic?
Rome
THOMAS HOBBES
SEE "4" IN NOTEBOOK, PRETTY MUCH HIS PHILOSOPHY ON EVERYTHING :)
A teacher of philosophy who taught Plato and Aristotle
Socrates
opinion leaders examples
TV stars, public officials, teachers, religious leader, members of community
Order in terms of commonness of use, 5 types of mass media
TV, radio, internet, newspapers, magazines
the mass media examples
TV, radio, movies, books
In what century did the Enlightenment Movement occur?
The 18th century
what does the chief justice do?
The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system (the judicial branch of the federal government of the United States) and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States.
What are the divine rights of kings?
The Divine Right of Kings is a political and religious doctrine of royal absolutism. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving his right to rule directly from the will of God. The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm, including the church. The doctrine implies that any attempt to depose the king or to restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute treason.
1st amendment
The Free Exercise Clause prohibits the government from interfering in people's religious practices. The Establishment Clause prohibits the government from setting up a national religion. "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Signed in 1215, this document is a written guarantee on their traditional rights and privileges
The Magna Carta
new jersey plan
The New Jersey Plan was a proposal for the US Constitution. It was focused on insuring that small states got an equal share of representation in the government. In the final compromise, the New Jersey Plan served as the model for the current US Senate, every state has the same representation, regardless of size and population; it retained the unicameral Congress of the Confederation, with each of the States equally represented. To those powers Congress already had, would be added closely limited powers to tax and to regulate trade between the States. It also called for a federal executive of more than one person. This plural executive would be chosen by Congress and could be removed by it at the request of a majority of the States' governors. the federal judiciary would be composed of a single supreme Tribunal appointed by the executive
What was the 10th amendment known as?
The Reserved Power Amendment to the States
separation of powers
The basic powers are distributed among three distinct and independent branches of government. The roles and responsibilities as spelled out in the Articles of the Constitution. The power of a president to veto a bill by Congress would be an example of a power granted to the president. The ability to overturn a veto by a 2/3rd vote in each chamber of Congress would be a power given to them. Each branch is granted certain powers.
Step 2 bill →law
The bill goes to the floor (of either the house or the senate)
presiding officer
The chair-- congress would choose one of its members as its president but not as the president of the United States
What were the 13th-15th amendements knowns as?
The civil war amendments
grass roots
The common people at a local level. They may send e-mails, postcards, phone calls, etc.
what gave rise to the remarkable campaign document "The Federalist"?
The contest over whether or not to ratify in New York
stuff about new states falls under which article? what does it say?
The fourth, new states may be admitted into the Union by the Congress but no new state shall be formed within the jurisdiction of 2+ states without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the congress
what is the other name for the fourth article?
The full faith and credit (privileges/immunity) clause
limited government
The government isn't all-powerful and may only do those things that the people have given it the power to do. The people are the government's only source of any and all government's authority and the government has only that authority the people have given to it. Also constitutionalism- the government must be conducted according to the constitution, and rule of law- the government and its officers are always subject to, never above the law, are important pieces to _____.
With the English Bill of Rights, how does the relationship between the crown and the parliament change?
The parliament has much more power than they used to, and even have more power than the king and queen because the "crown" needs the parliament's approval before they can do anything unlike when they operated under the devine right of kings.
judicial review
The power of the courts to determine whether what the government does is in accord with what the Constitution provides; the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and actions of local, state, or national governments unconstitutional
checks and balances
The three branches are not entirely separated nor completely independent of one another. Rather, they are tied together by a complex system of checks and balances. This means that each branch is subject to a number of constitutional checks (restraints) by the other branches. In other words each branch has certain powers with which it can check operations of the other two.
checks and balances
The three branches aren't actually completely separated, the actual carrying out of a power exercised by one of the three branches of government. ex: a president vetos an act of Congress
An early reformer of the Catholic Church, he defined law as an order of reason for the common good
Thomas Aquinas
expressed powers
Those delegated powers of the National Government that are spelled out, in so many words, expressly, in the Constitution; also called the "enumerated powers"
delegated powers
Those powers, expressed, implied, or inherent, granted to the National Government by the Constitution
party-column ballot
a ballot that lists each party's candidates in a column under the party's name (all the democratic candidates would be under one heading)
state
a body of people, living in a defined territory, organized politically (that is, with government), and with the power to make and enforce law without the consent of any higher authority
unitary government
a centralized government. All powers held by the government belong to a single, central agency. The central (national) government can create local units for its convenience (like in England).
enabling act
a congressional act directing the people of the territory to frame a proposed State constitution as a step towards admission to the union
senatorial courtesy
a custom (an unwritten rule) that the Senate will not approve an appointment opposed by a majority part senator from the state in which the appointee would serve
propaganda
a form of communication that is aimed towards influencing the attitude of the community toward some cause or position by presenting only one side of an argument.
treaty
a formal agreement btween twoor more soverign states
autocracy
a government in which a single person holds unlimited political power
oligarchy
a government in which the power to rule is held by a small, usually self-appointed elite
limited monarchy
a government in which the rule of the king or queen is held in check by a constitution or by another part of the government
unconstitutional
a governmental action found to violate some provision in the Constitution
caucus
a group of like-minded people who meet to select the candidates they will support in an upcoming election
confederation
a joining of several groups for a common purpose
medium
a means of communication; it transmits some kind of information
executive agreement
a pact made by the President directly with the head of a foreign state
open primary
a party's nominating election in which ANY qualified voter can cast a ballot (one type of direct primary)
closed primary
a party's nominating election in which only declared party members can vote; the party's primary is closed to all but those party members (one type of direct primary).
english bill of rights
a powerful struggle between the monarchy and the parliament over the roles of government occurred. It gave the parliament more power than the king and queen. The monarchy couldn't make or suspend laws without the consent of the parliament, nor could they raise taxes and an army without consent of the Parliment
absentee voting
a process by which one can vote without actually going to their polling place on election day
representative sample
a representative slice of the total universe
delegate
a representative, a person appointed or elected to represent others
what form of government do we have?*
a republic
what does the fourth article say the US should guarantee to each state in this Union?
a republican form of government, protection against invasion, and on application of legislature or of the executive when the legislature cannot be convinced (?)--against domestic violence
quota sample
a sample deliberately constructed to reflect several of the major characteristics of a given universe (easier than random, but less reliable)
presidential government
a separation of powers between the executive and legislative braches of the government; the two branches are independent of each other and are coequal
preamble
a short, noteworthy introduction to the constitution
select committee
a special group set up for a specific purpose with a limited time frame to complete its job. It looks at major issues and problems and has the power to in INVESTIGATE. The watergate hearings are an example of this type of committee
what's a poll
a survey of information and opinions taken from a sample of people who live different lives (background, party, place, etc.)
what's a poll?
a survey of information and opinions taken from a sample of people who live different lives (background, party, place, etc.)
federalism
a system of government in which a written constitution divides the powers of government on a territorial basis between a central, or national, government and several regional governments, usually called states or provinces.
republic*
a system of government in which people elect representatives to govern them also known as a representative government
conference committee
a type of temporary joint committee. The committee needs to work out a comprehensive bill when both houses have passed different versions of the same bill. They are used when is different from the one sent from either chamber to the other. It must then send back the bill to each respective chamber for a vote.
precinct
a voting district that is the smallest geographic unit for the conduct of an election. States usually limit them to 500-1,000 registered voters
medium
a way of communicating 1) TV-98% off household have them 2) Newspapers- 50% of people get info from them 3) Radio-is making a comeback 4) Magazines
charter
a written grant of authority from the king
Magna Carta
a written guarantee of their traditional rights and privileges. Aslo stated king can't levy taxes without people's consent. Also no free man could be imprisoned without a jury trial
enlightenment effects
a. political, religious, and economic movement b. attack on the Divine Right of Kings c. attack on the dogma and behavior practices within the Catholic church d. attack on the aristocracy e. reason was its chief tool to combat ignorance, superstition and tyranny f. religion and politics became removed g. math and science provide new knowledge the question long held religious beliefs (eg. superstition, church teachings, ect.) h. critical ideas of the centrality of freedom, democracy, and reason as the linchpin that holds the values of a society together
Name three different things that Enlightenment Thinkers attacked
a.The Divine Right of Kings b. The dogma and behavior practices within the Catholic church c. The aristocracy
13th amendment
abolishes slavery in the US, this amendment freed all slaves without compensation to the slaveowners. It legally forbade slavery in the United States
interstate compact
agreements among the States and with foreign states
first article overview of power flow
all legislative powers therein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States which shall consist of a Senate and a House or Representatives
public policy
all of the things a government decides to do; covers matters like taxation, defense, education, health care, transportation, environment, etc.
16th amendment
allowed the federal government to collect income tax
judicial review
allows the supreme court to rule based off of constitutionality; , the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and actions of local, state, or national governments unconstitutional
random sample
also called a probability sample. It's a sample in which each member of the universe and each geographic area within it have a mathematically equal chance of being included; a certain number of randomly selected people who live in a certain number of randomly selected places; a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion (reliable)
what does the fifth article cover?
amending the constitution
bicameral
an adjective describing a legislative body composed of two chambers
unicameral
an adjective describing a legislative body with one chamber
commerce and slave trade compromise
an agreement during the constitutional convention protecting slave holders; denied congress the power to tax the export of good from any State, and, for 20 years, the power to act on the slave trade; Congress was forbidden the power to tax the export of goods from any State. It was also forbidden the power to act on the slave trade for a period of at least 20 years. It could not interfere with "the migration or importation of such persons as any State now existing shall think proper to admit" except for a small head tax, at least until 1808.
confederation
an alliance of independent states
second method with which an amendment may be added to the Constitution
an amendement may be proposed by Congress and then ratified by conventions, called for that purpose, in three fourths of the states only one has been adopted this way (the 21st); ratifies by 3/4 (38) of the States
fourth method with which an amendment may be added to the Constitution
an amendement may be proposed by a national convention ratified by conventions in three fourths of the States. The constitution it self was adopted in much this same way.
first method with which an amendment may be added to the Constitution
an amendement may be proposed by two-thirds vote in each house of Congress and be ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures. Today, 38 State Legislators must approve an amendment for it to become part of the Constitution. 26/27 of the Constitutions's amendements were adopted in this manner
third method with which an amendment may be added to the Constitution
an amendment may be proposed by a national convention, called by Congress at the request of two thirds of the State legislatures-today 34. It must be ratified by 3/4's of the states legislatures. This hasn't happened yet
Thomas Aquinas
an early reformer of the Catholic Church, who defined law as an order of reason for the common good
free enterprise system
an economic system characterized by the private ownership of capital goods, investments made by private decision, not by government directive, and success or failure determined by competition in the free marketplace
mixed economy
an economy in which private enterprise exists in combination with a considerable amount of government regulation and promotion
direct primary
an election held within a party to pick that party's candidates for the general election
law according to Thomas Aquinas
an order of reason for the common good
opinion leader
any person who, for any reason, has an unusually strong influence on the views of others. While they are the minority in a population, they are found everywhere. Can include people in public office, those who write for newspapers/magazines, doctors, lawyers, other sorts of a professionals, religious leaders, etc.
opinion leader
any person who, for any reason, who has an unusually strong influence on the views of others. While they are the minority in a population, they are found everywhere. Can include people in public office, those who write for newspapers/magazines, doctors, lawyers, other sorts of a professionals, religious leaders, etc.
Requirements to be in the house (3)
at least 25 years old, US citizen for at least 7 years, resident of state that is being represented
what are the requirements to be in the house (3)?
at least 25 years old, US citizen for at least 7 years, resident of state that is being represented
natural law*
based off laws of the universe
division of powers
basic principal of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided on a geographic basis (in the US, between the National Government and the States)
popular sovereignty
basic principal of the American of government which asserts that the people are the sources of any and all governmental power, and government can only exist with the consent of the governed
division of powers
basic principle of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided on a geographic basis (in the United States, between the National Government and the States).
why did the fourth article come about?
because of problems with trade and currency under the articles of the confederation
petition for nomination
candidates for public office are nominated by means of petitions signed by a certain required number of voters in the election district
amendment
changes in its written words
formal amendment
changes or additions that become part of the written language of the Constitution itself (SEE DIAGRAM ON P.73--REALLY GOOD)
23rd amendment
citizens in DC are given the right to vote in the presidential election
act of admission
comes after the enabling act, occurs is Congress still agrees to Statehood for the people of a territory after reviewing the document. It is an act that creates the new State. If the president signs the act, the State enters the Union.
what does the supreme court have jurisdiction over?
constitutional issues
the Supremacy Clause
creates a hierarchy of laws. Local law (city and county charter and ordinances), must yield to State law, State law must yield to Federal law, and Federal law must yield to the the Constitution which is at the top (good picture p.94)
private bill
deals with matters that affect a person or place
public bill
deals with the entire nation
how/why would the president be removed from office?
death, impeachment, or impairment
14th amendment
declares that all persons born in the U.S. are citizens and are guaranteed due process and equal protection of the laws
public opinion poll
devices that attempt to collect information by asking people questions
English Bill of Rights
document written by Parliament and signed in 1689 by William and Mary of Orange. It prohibited a standing army in peacetime, except with the consent of the Parliament, and required that all parliament elections be free. It also included guarantees such as the right to a fair trial, and freedom from excessive bail and from cruel and unusual punishment, required the Parliaments' consent for the king to make or suspend any laws, and made it illegal to punish people for petitioning the king. Much of our govenrment today is still based on those ideas
Ways to measure public opinion
elections, interest groups, the media, and personal contacts (calls, letters, e-mails etc.)
sovereign
every state is one; it has a supreme and absolute power within its territory and can decide its own foreign and domestic policies. It is neither subordinate nor responsible to any other authority NOTE: THE SATES IN THE US AREN'T X BECAUSE EACH STATE IS SUBORDINATE TO THE CONSTITUTION
blanket primary
every voter receives the same ballot that lists every candidate. one can choose to stick to one party or switch around as they cast their vote for different positions (a type of open primary). It's not a thing anymore
what is the main difference between executive agreements and treaties?
executive agreements don't have to be aproved by the Senate
purpose of the governmnet
form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty
revenue sharing
form of federal monetary aid under which Congress gave an annual share of federal tax revenue, with virtually no restrictions, to the States, cities, counties, and townships
ratification
formal approval
How long does the president serve for?
four years
difference between free exercise clause and establishment clause
free-not stopping people from practicing what they want esab-no establishing a set religion for everyone
what is the first step to getting a bill to become a law?
get a sponsor (this must be a congress member if it's on a national law)
compromise
give and take among various competing interests in order to find the position most acceptable to the largest number (and make all parties at least kinda happy); the process of blending and adjusting competing views and interests
limited government
government is restricted in what it may do, and each individual has certain rights that the government can't take away
15th amendment
grants African American men the right to vote; citizens cannot be denied the right to vote because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude
project grant
grants made by Congress that are grants made to States, localities, and sometimes private agencies that apply for them they are grants for projects like for cancer research
block grant
grants made for much more broadly defined purposes than are categorical grants, such as health care, social services, or welfare, not so many strings attached
grants-in-aid program
grants of federal money or other resources to the States and/or their cities, counties, and other local units, these grants often help the States perform a large share of their everyday functions
categorical grant
grants that are made for a specific, closely defined purpose (such as for school lunches or water purification). There are often lots of strings attached
electoral college
group of persons chosen in each State every four years who make a formal selection of the President and Vice President
5th amendment
guarantees due process (a legal proceeding carried out in according to established rules and principals) of law when a person is accused and tried of a crime. Also no double jeopardy (they can't be charged for the same crime more than once)
7th amendment
guarantees the right to a jury trial in civil cases involving more than $20 and asserts that cases may not be re-examined by another court.
assistant floor leaders (whips)
helps gather party members' suport for legislation
mass media
include those means of communication that reach large, widely dispersed audiences (masses of people) simultaneously.
public affairs
includes politics, public issues, and the making of public policies-those events and issues that concern the people at large
virginia plan
it called for a new government with three sperate branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislature-Congress- would be bicameral. Representation in wach house was to be based upon each States's population or upon the amount of money it gave for the support of the central government. The members of the lower house, the House of Representatives, were to be popularly elected in each state. Those of the upper house, the Senate, were to be chosen by the House from lists of persons nominated by the state legislatures. Congress was to be given all of the powers it held under the articles. In addition, it was to have the power "to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent" to act, to veto any State law in conflict with national law, and to use force if necessary to make a State obey national law.
Standing Committee Abilities
it can do one of many things: a) pigeonhole- put it aside to maybe come back to, they don't ever have to come back if they choose not to b) kill the bill outright c) make changes or add an amendment to the original d) leave the bill in original form
what does the standing committee do when it gets the bill?
it can do one of many things: a) pigeonhole- put it aside to maybe come back to, they don't ever have to come back if they choose not to b) kill the bill outright c) make changes or add an amendment to the original d) leave the bill in original form
what is the fifth article about?
it describes the process whereby the Constitution may be altered (the amendment process). Altering the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment or amendments and subsequent ratification.
If the bill is vetoed...
it goes back to congress and both houses vote on it again. If both houses get a 2/3rds vote in favor of it becoming a law, then it passes.
what happens if the president vetos the bill?
it goes back to congress and both houses vote on it again. If both houses get a 2/3rds vote in favor of it becoming a law, then it passes.
what does the fourth article do?
it honors the public records and judicial proceedings of each other. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in several states. Also, congress can admit new states into the union and has the power to make rules/regulations for territories and federal properties. also talks about federalsim
the ___ article expresses something about religion in office, what does it say?
it says that there can be no religious requirement for holding office
open primary
it's a general election and primary at the same time, anyone who gets more than 50% of the votes, just gets the position
what happens to a bill after its introduction and first reading?
it's given a title and a number and then the Speaker sends it to the standing committee
bedsheet ballots
it's just a really long ballot, very common
third article
judicial power is vested in one supreme court and in such inferior courts as the Congress, may from time to time, ordin and establish
divine law*
laws based off religion
quorum
least number of members who must be present for a legislative body to conduct business; majority
22nd amendment
limits the number of times that someone can be elected president to two times (no more than 2 terms as president per person)
9th amendment
limits the power of the federal government to those powers granted to the government in the Constitution. It provides that the naming of certain rights in the Constitution does not take away from the people rights that are not named. _-PROBS SOME CLARITY TO COME_-essentially means that the rights listed in preceding amendments (e.g., speech, religion, fair trial) are not the only rights the people have; it recognizes that there are rights that were simply not mentioned and that unenumerated rights are no less important than enumerated ones.
plebeians
lower class
peer group
made up of the people with whom one regularly associates with including friends, classmates, neighbors, and co-workers
seniority rule for chairman positions
majority party has head person from their party run the committee
A president can... (super long list)
make treaties with the approval of the Senate. veto bills and sign bills. represent our nation in talks with foreign countries. enforce the laws that Congress passes. act as Commander-in-Chief during a war. call out troops to protect our nation against an attack. make suggestions about things that should be new laws. lead his political party. entertain foreign guests. recognize foreign countries. grant pardons. nominate Cabinet members and Supreme Court Justices and other high officials. appoint ambassadors. talk directly to the people about problems. represent the best interest of all the people
resolution
measure that one house passes and the don't have the force of law
caucus
meeting to select a candidate or promote a policy
joint (and conference I think) committee
members are from both houses. Some are select committee members, some are permanent, and some are temporary. They take a topic like taxes and report back to both houses or chambers
what does the sixth article cover?
national debts, supremacy of national law, and oaths of office
what are the three types of laws?
natural law, divine law, and man-made law
floor leaders
next to the speaker, are the most important people in both houses. their main job is to make sure that laws pass that their parties want
how may people do most polls poll?
only about 1,500 (obviously that's not a set number and can vary a lot)
A corporation is considered a ________ under law
person
What are some factors that shape public opinion?
political socialization, schools, opinion leaders, the mass media, and other factors
straw vote
polls that sought to read the public's mind by asking the same question to a large number of people. It's unfortunately very unreliable because it on the false assumption that a relatively large number of responders will provide a fairly accurate picture of the public's views on a given question which isn't true because there is no reason that the people will be representing an accurate cross-section of the population
what are the 6 basic principals that the constitution is built around?
popular sovereignty, limited government, separation of powers, checks and balances, judicial review, and federalism
6 basic principals of the constitution
popular sovereignty- the people=the power limited government- the gov isn't all powerful separation of powers- powers separated between congress, pres, and supreme court checks and balances- each branch keeps the other in check so no one branch can get too much power judicial review- power to deterimine if what the gov does is in accord with the constitution federalism-the division of power among a central government and several regional governments
4 characteristics of a state
population, territory, sovereignty, and government
explicit powers
powers that are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers
exclusive powers
powers that can only be exercised by the national government
concurrent powers
powers that that both the National Government and the States possess and exercise
inherent powers
powers the constitution is assumed to have delegated to the National Government because it is the government of a sovereign state within the world community; even though the Constitution doesn't actually provide for them, they are powers that, over time, all national governments have possessed. Some include the power to: regulate immigration, deport illegal aliens, and to protect the nation against rebellion
8th amendment
prevents judges from setting excessive bail or handing out cruel unusual punishments. Most death penalty cases center around this amendment
interest group
private organizations whose members share certain views and objectives and work to shape the making and the content of public policy. These organizations are also very aptly known as pressure groups and special interest groups
25th amendment
procedures for determining presidential disability, presidential succession, and filling a vice-presidential vacancy
mass media and public opinion overarching def
public opinions are all the attitudes and views held by a large number of Americans. The "public" in public opinion means these opinions about government and politics that affect the most Americans are shared by a significant number of people.
examples of other factors that shape public opinion
race, ethnicity, occupation, place of residence, and gender
7th article
ratification of the constitution article, Article of the Constitution that addresses ratification and declares that the constitution should take affect if 9 out of 13 states ratify.
what does the seventh article cover?
ratifying the constitution
general election
regularly scheduled elections at which voters make the final selection of officeholders
what does the fourth article cover?
relations among states
loose construction
relies on the idea of implied powers and the "necessary and proper" clause. Both views on how to interpret the Constitution came up during the debate on chartering the Bank of the United States in 1791; , a person who interprets the constitution in a way that allows the federal government to take actions that the constitution does not specifically forbid it from taking.
21st amendment
repeals the prohibition of alcohol (18th amendment)
4th amendment
right of the people to secure in their person, papers, house, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures. Deals with PRIVACY
whenever a write-in candidate shows up on a ballot they have used which nomination process?
self-announcement
cultural relativism*
shows that there are ways to be "human" could be invented. Implication of a question: the development of knowing with any degree of certainty that values are G-d-given. The Puritains believed that the church of england was scripturally in error so they separated from England and came to the United States to be the first pilgrims
what happens in the Senate bill→law
similar process as in the House, but less formal. They can debate as long a necessary. They may kill a bill via filibuster.
standing committee
small groups that are set up on a permanent basis. The House and the Senate have more than 15. Each committee specializes in a subject. That committee handles all laws dealing with that particular subject. The majority party has a majority of members in each committee.
Pollster
someone who conducts polls
pollster
someone who conducts polls
what are the 5 basic freedoms?
speech, press, religion, petition, and assembly
Privileges and Immunities Clause
states that no State can draw unreasonable distinctions between its own residents and those persons who happen to live in other States
law of supply and demand
states that when supplies of goods and services become plentiful prices tend to drop and when supplies of goods and services become scarce, prices tend to rise
representative government
system of government in which public policies are made by officials selected by the voters and held accountable in periodic elections; the idea that government should serve the will of the people (government of, by and for the people)
schools' role in shaping public opinion
teachers and the development of good citizenship (the pledge of allegiance) classes like US history and Gov, and patriotic songs
What was the group of delegates who attended the Philadelphia convention called?
the Framers
Which body can bring impeachment articles against the president?
the House
Which body can create bills of revenue?
the House
Which body holds the power of the purse
the House
Who chooses the officers of the House
the House members (they choose their own officers.
terms
the House starts on January 3rd of odd numbered years. The Senate doesn't need to reorganize as only 1/3rd of the members are up for election in any two year period. The Senate tells the president when it's ready to hear any proposals he wishes to make.
What is the only body capable of voting or confirming the president's appointees for the judicial post.
the Senate
Which body can try an impeached president?
the Senate
What is replacing the party as the major vehicle for disseminating political information?
the TV
power
the ability to command or prevent action, the ability to achieve a desired end
what is the fifth article called?
the amending article
the divine right theory
the belief that G-d created the state and had given those of royal birth a "divine right" to rule.
the social contract theory
the belief that the state arose out of a voluntary act of free people. It thinks that the state exists with the sole purpose of serving the will of the people, and that they are the sole source of political power and that they are free to give or withhold that power as they choose.
the force theory
the belief that the state was born of force. They think that one person or a small group claimed claimed control over an area and forced all within it to submit to that person's or group's rule
Step 3 bill →law
the bill goes to the other house
The first ten amendments are collectively known as...
the bill of rights
constitution
the body of fundamental laws setting out the principals, structures, and processes of a government
office-group ballot
the candidates for an office are grouped together under the title of that that office (all of the people running for president, no matter what party are listed under one heading). Also the names are listed in random order and switched around.
the evolutionary theory
the claim that the state developed naturally out of the early family. They think that the primitive family, of which one person was the head, and thus the "government", was the first stage in political development
what trumps everything else?
the constitution
ballot
the device by which voter registers a choice in an election
federalism
the division of power among a central government and several regional governments
enlightenment
the eventual rise of England's industrial revolution, both before and during the enlightenment led to cultural revolution. Coming into frequent contact with thriving societies whose doctrines, political, economic, and religious structures were different than their own led to the notion that no one central religious or political practice was directly responsible for a country's success
parliamentary government
the executive is made up of the prime minister or premier, and that official's cabinet. The prime minister and the cabinet themselves are members of the legislative branch, the parliament
what's the real name of article 6?
the general provisions article
rule of law
the government and its officers are always subject to--never above--the law.
constitutionalism
the government must be conducted according to constitutional principals; basic principal that government and those who govern must obey the law; the rule of law
plurality
the greatest number of votes won by any candidate (not necessarily a majority)
framers
the group of delegates who attended the Philadelphia convention
The universe in terms of polls
the group of people who will be represented in the poll results
the universe (in terms of polls)
the group of people who will be represented in the poll results
which body can bring articles of impeachment?
the house
government
the institution through which a society makes and enforces its public policies; made up of those people who exercise its powers, all those who have authority and control over people
mandate
the instructions or commands a constituency gives to its elected officials. Often, whoever wins the election feels that since people voted for them, they agree with everything they proposed to do so their victory is equivalent to a _______ to carry out all of their campaign promises
what does the third article cover?
the judicial branch
extradition
the legal process by which a fugitive form justice in one State can be returned to that State. It's designed to prevent a person from escaping justice by fleeing the State.
what does the the first article cover?
the legislative branch
House rules committee
the most powerful committee in the House. Its members determine when/under what conditions the whole House will debate and vote on proposed laws
speaker of the house
the most powerful leader of the majority party. Most of the time is spent overseeing the House sessions. He/she may debate as a rep and must vote to break ties.
nomination
the naming of those who will seek office
quorum
the number of members required before action can take place in a committee
in a democracy who/what is the sovereign
the people
polling place
the place where the voters living in a precinct actually vote- it's located in or near each precinct
judicial review
the power of the courts to determine whether what government does is in accord with what the constitution provides; it is the power of a court to determine the constitutionality of governmental action
executive power
the power to execute, enforce, and administer law
judicial power
the power to interpret laws, to determine their meaning, and to settle disputes that arise within a society
legislative power
the power to make law and to frame public policies
what is article 1, section 8 about?
the powers granted to congress
article 1 section 8
the powers granted to congress which includes the powers to: collect taxes, pay debts, regulate trade, establish uniform laws concerning citizenship and bankruptcy, coin money, fix standards of weights and measures, set up federal courts, declare war, raise and support armies, and maintain a navy
10th amendment
the powers not delegated to the United States/ federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the States, are reserved to the States or the people.
federal government
the powers of the government are divided between a central government and several local governments
vice-president
the president of the Senate but doesn't have a vote unless the Senate is tied. He may not debate issues in his role. Also, the president pro tempore takes his place when he's not there.
veto
the president's power to reject any act of Congress but it can be overturned by a two-thirds vote in each house
what is the other name for the fourth article
the privileges/ immunity clause
politics
the process by which a society decides how power and resources will be distributed within that society
political socialization
the process by which people learn ideas and have opinions about issues, the family is the starting places to get information
3rd amendment
the quartering of troops in homes is only permitted with the consent of the house owner
2nd amendment
the right to bear arms
articles
the seven numbered sections of the constitution
what article says that all money borrowed by the confederation government will be repaid under the constitution?
the sixth
which article shows the separation between church and state?
the sixth
public agenda
the societal problems that the nation's political leaders and the general public agree need government attention
citizenship
the status of a citizen or member of a country with all its duties, rights and privileges
what is the other name for the 6th article?
the supremacy clause
who is the president of the senate? does he/she have a vote?
the vice-president is the president of the senate but has no vote unless there is a tie
Scientific Polling process
there is a universe and representative sample, it's important to prepare valid (non-influential) questions, select and control the polling process (like who do you choose and do you conduct the poll in person, online, by phone etc.), report results (analyze the data and give reports to the media), and evaluating the polls (public opinion influences vs. policy) also you need a medium to communicate
scientific polling process
there is a universe and representative sample, it's important to prepare valid (non-influential) questions, select and control the polling process (like who do you choose and do you conduct the poll in person, online, by phone etc.), report results (analyze the data and give reports to the media), and evaluating the polls (public opinion influences vs. policy) also you need a medium to communicate
committee chairmen
they allow proposed laws to come out of committee for a vote by the full body politic
implied powers
they aren't expressly stated in the Constitution but are reasonably suggested by the expressed power; goes along with the "necessary and proper" clause
articles of confederation
they established "a firm league of friendship" among the States. Each state kept "its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction, and right no expressly delegated to the US Congress..." The states came together for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual, general welfare
what was the purpose of the federalist papers?
they were arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution
how does the accuracy of polls in the old days relate to their accuracy today?
they were much less accurate then because not all groups of people were being represented. Nowadays we can make them very accurate
absolute monarch
this form of government is characterized by an all powerful king/queen
public opinion
those attitudes held by a significant number of people on matters of government and politics
reserved powers
those powers that the constitution that the Constitution does not grant to the National Government and does not, at the same time, deny to the States (powers saved for the states)
where does the bill go if it's approved by both houses?
to the president
what would cause impeachment of the president?
treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors
despite no changes in. written words there have been many changes tothe constitution over the years--TRUE or FALSE
true
Williams v. North Carolina
two adults had separate divorces in Nevada but they had been married out of state so when they got married it was questioned weather it was ok because their divorces had been out of where they had been married, a marriage performed and signed for in one state (under that state's authority of it's unique constitution) cannot be nullified by another state Significance: state sovereignty, also fourth article because of all of the stuff still applies in other states
dictatorship
ultimate responsibility for the exercise of the three powers (legislative, executive, and judicial) is held by a single person or a small group (such as in a). Those who rule cannot be held responsible for the will of the people.
democracy
ultimate responsibility for the exercise of the three powers (legislative, executive, and judicial) is held by the majority of the people (such as in a). The people hold the sovereign power and government is conducted only by and with the consent of the people
connecticut compromise
under this it was agreed that the Congress should be composed of two houses. In the smaller Senate, the states would be represented equally. In the House, the representation of each State would be based upon its population
patricians
upper class
How to Stop a Filibuster
via cloture which requires a 3/5ths vote from the Senate
what is the only way to stop a filibuster?
via cloture which requires a 3/5ths vote from the Senate
what is the order of succession if something happens to the president?
vice-president, speaker of the house
order of succession after president can't serve
vice-president, speaker of the house, president pro tempore
what is the order of succession if something happens to the president?
vice-president, speaker of the house, president pro tempore
McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819):
violated first article, congress' implied powers
automated voting
votes are cast on some type of voting machine
voting (in Greece)
voting (and citizenship?) was granted to men who had large plots of land, at first only the wealthy could vote and then poorer people could too
coattail effect
when a strong candidate running for an office at the top of the ballot helps attract voters to other candidates on the party's tickets
repeal
withdraw, cancel, recall
19th amendment
women receive the right to vote
man-made law*
written statues governing human interactions, man-made law could never overrule natural law
is online voting real?
yes, not super widely used and under a lot of fire but it has at been used and reconsidered
