EVOL326 Paleoanthropology

Geometric scale relationship

If we compare the surface area to volume ratio for geometrical similar structures, we will see an isometric change related to the object's linear dimension. This relationship therefore will determine biological functional and structural constraints on the form of an organism.

How is the geological time scale is divided?

Into a 4 level hierarchy of time intervals: Eons, Eras, Periods and Epochs.

Quadrupedal

Using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion; the basic mammalian (and primate) form of locomotion.

What does crouching indicate in primates?

Submission, insecurity or fear, and true for many other nonprimates, eg. dogs.

Superorder

A taxonomic group ranking above an order and below a class or subclass

Plesiadapiforms

Archaic Primates from the earliest Paleocene, between 65 and 52 mya. Members of an extinct goup that occupies a controversial position in primate phylogeny. When first discovered, they were considered early members of the primate order, but were reclassified in 1960's and treated as their own order. 6 families are commonly recognised within this group, but only concentrate on 3: Purgatoriidae, Plesiadapidae, Carpolestidae. Not the direct ancestors of modern Primates.

Nucleotides

Basic units of the DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate and one of four DNA bases.

Somatic cells

Basically, all the cells in the body except those involved with reproduction.

Derived

Being or having a feature that is not present in the ancestral form.

What does Guanine bond with in DNA?

Cytosine

Cantius

One of the earliest notharctids. Small to medium sized. primarily from North America, 2 species from Europe. Cranial and skeletal remains indicates that it was diurnal, foraging during the day. Probably traveled very rapidly through the trees, leaping quadrupedally. Dental formulation of 2.1.4.3. probably a fruit eater.

Quantitatively

Pertaining to measurements of quantity and including such properties as size, number and capacity. When data are quantified, they're expressed numerically and can be tested statistically.

What does Adenine bond with in DNA?

Thymine

Atelidae

Subdivided into 2 subfamilies.

Pithecidae

Subdivided into 2 subfamilies.

Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon

(1707-1788) a French naturalist, recognized the dynamic relationship between the external environment and living forms. Recognised that difference regions have unique plants and animals. He stressed that animals had come from a "centre of origin", but he never discussed the diversification of life over time.

Euprimates

"True primates". This term was coined by Elwyn Simons in 1972.

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

(1752 - 1840). A German anatomist, classified humans into 5 races. Although Blumenbach's categories came to be described simply as white, yellow, red, black and brown, he also used criteria other than skin colour. He emphasised that racial categories based on skin colour were arbitrary and that many traits including skin colour weren't discrete phenomena. If classifying all humans using such a system would completely omit everyone who didn't fall into a specific category. He recognised that traits such as skin colour showed overlapping expression between the groups.

Mary Anning

(1799-1847). Lived in the town of Lyme Regis on South Coast of England. Father died when she was 11 leaving his wife and 2 children destitute. He had taught her to recognise fossils so she earned a living selling them. Discovered the first complete fossil of Ichthyosaurus.

Francis Galton

(1822 - 1911), Charles Darwin's cousin, shared a growing fear among 19th Century Europeans that "civilised society" was being weakened by the failure of natural selection to completely eliminate unfit and inferior members. He wrote and lectured on the necessity of "race improvement" and suggested government regulation of marriage and family size, an approach he called eugenics.

Alfred Russel Wallace

(1823-1913), born into family of modest means. Little formal educated, went to work at age 14. In 1855, published an article suggesting that current species and the appearance of new ones was influenced by environmental factors.

Taxa

(Sing. taxon) A taxonomic groups of any rank (eg. species, family or class)

Mitochondria

(sing. mitochondrion). Structures contained within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that convert energy, derived from nutrients, to a form that can be used by the cell.

What species was on the cover page of the journal Science in 2010?

Australopithecus sediba skull

Holocene evolution

0.01 mya to present. Modern humans

What factors cause changes in allele frequencies?

1. Production of new variation (mutation) 2. Redistribution of variation through gene flow or genetic drift 3. Selection of "advantageous" allele combinations that promote reproductive success (that is, natural selection).

Based on the morphological considerations related to Tabun C2, describe the 2 different evolutionary scenarios.

1. The first is that these 2 morphologically distinct hominin groups are in fact a single, highly variable population. 2. the second scenario instead sees modern humans and Neanderthals as 2 biologically distinct lineages.

Pleistocene evolution

1.8 - 0.01 mya. Early Homo

In chimpanzees the humerofemoral (HI) index is approximately how much?

100

How many glacial advances were document in Europe during the Pleistocene?

15 major and 50 minor glacial advances document in Europe during this period.

Parietals

Are square and are the largest bones of the cranial vault.

Bone tissue formation

2 main processes resulting in the formation of bone tissue. Intramembraneous ossification and endochondral ossification.

Australopithecus sediba characteristics

2 partially complete skeletons, one of a juvenile and one of an adult female have been found at the Malapa cave, about 50 km northwest of Johannesburg (South Africa) and they have been dated to about 2.3 mya. Suggests that it was a biped with a height of 1.27m sharing some anatomical features with early Homo. Had a prominent nose, small brow ridges and smll post-canine teeth. The brain capacity was still small, and estimated to be 420 cm3, similar to living apes. Pelvis is similar to those of H. erectus and H. ergaster. Hand preserves Australopicus-like features such as a strong flexor apparatus associated with arboreal locomotion, and Homo-like features, such as long thumb and short fingers associated with precision gripping and possibly stone tool production. These anatomical features suggest that A. sediba may represent a basal condition associated with early stone tool use and production.

What does the central nervous system consist of?

2 parts: the spinal cord and the brain.

How many phases characterize the human walking cycle?

2.

The power stroke of mastication is divided into how many phases?

2. During the first part of the power stroke (Phase 1) and Phase 2 - the anterior-medial movement.

Paranthropus robustus

2.3 to 1.2 mya. Found in 1938 by Robert Broom from the Transvaal Museums. Characterised by robust and large jaws, large molars, prominent sagittal crest, and broad cheekbones. The brain capacity is slightly larger than those of P. aethiopicus, being estimated between 410 and 530 cm3.

When did the earliest stone tools appear?

2.5 million years ago. Several millions of years after the emergence of the earliest hominin forms.

How many bones are in the adult human skeleton?

206 bones, which are grouped into the axial and the appendicular skeleton.

Permineralisation preservation

A type of altered preservation. The pores that characterise the internal structures of some organisms become filled with mineral deposits, usually carried by water.

Miocene

23 to 5 million years ago. The emergence of the first hominoids and first possible hominins.

Miocene evolution

23-5.3 mya. Monkeys and apeas; first humanlike creatures

Chimpanzee

3 extant sub-species of common chimpanzee. Are wide but discontinuous distributed across Equatorial Africa. Occupy a variety of habitats, from rain forests to dry savannah areas with very few trees. Generally feed in trees much of the day and travel on the ground between feeding sites using the knuckle walking locomotion. In the trees, they can use both quadrupedal and suspensory locomotion. Limbs are more similar in length than those of gorillas and are less robust. Have narrower hands and feet, with more slender, curved digits. Are more suspensory than gorillas, but considerably less suspensory than gibbons and orangutans. Eat primarily fruits and nuts as well as leaves. Skull is very similar to those of gorillas, but have shallower faces and mandible and do not show such extensive development of sagittal and nuchal crests. Have broader incisors and cheek teeth with broader basins and lower, more rounded cusps. Predation adn hunting behaviours are well documents. Hunting is a commonly group activity in which several individuals participate and cooperated. Adults of both sexes spend large portions of their time foraging along, but they join from time to time with others in temporary associations or parties. Sociality of them varies considerably from population to population. Interactions between adults of neighbouring communities are usually aggressive.

Angle's Classification of types of malocclusions.

3 major types of malocclusions. Class 1 - normal occlusion or neutrocclusion; Class 2 - Distocclusion and Class 3 Mesiocclusion.

How many phases is hominin brain evolution divided into?

3 phases.

Australopithecus afarensis

3.7 million years ago. Brain size about 1/3 our size, anatomically similar to us, may have used stones and sticks as simple tools but no evidence that they made stone tools. Could not outrun most predators, small canines

The remains of Australopithecus afarensis are dated to between what dates?

3.9 and 3.0 mya

What is "Dragon Bone Hill"?

30 miles southwest of Beijing, near Zhoukoudian. In 1920's and 1930's, this cave site yielded the first and largest cache of fossils of AHomo erectus, historically known as Peking Man. Remains of about 45 individuals - thousands of stone tolls, debris from tool manufacture and thousands of animal bones. 100 - foot thick deposits that once filled the original cave.

Oligocene evolution

33 - 23 mya. Early catarrhines, precursors to monkeys and apes.

The cranial capacity in Kenyanthropus platyops was?

350 cm3

Proteins

3D molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules.

Eukaryotic cells

3D structure composed of carbohydrates, lipids (fats), nucleic acids and proteins. Contains several kinds of substructures called organelles.

Pliocene evolution

5.3 0 1.8 mya. Early homonin diversification

What did Max Kleiber theorise in regards to Rubners proposal?

50 years after the formulation of the Rubner's rule, he found that the rate of energy use in mammals increased with mass. But unlike Rubner, he found that the mass exponent was not 0.67 but instead close to 3/4 (or 0.75).

Eocene evolution

55.8 - 33 mya. First euprimates, early strepsirhines and haplorhines. First indisputable primates - just before this epoch in 56 mya, but is associated here.

Paleocene evolution

65-55.8 mya. First Archaic primates, plesiadapiforms. Major radiation of archaic primates.

How many vertebrae is the neck region composed by?

7

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

7-6 mya. Characterised by primitive and ape-like features, and also by some derived features more commonly expressed in later hominins. The cranial capacity is estimated to be in the range of 320 to 380 cm3, no larger than a modern chimpanzee. The skull is massively built, with prominent brow ridges, and characterised by a small sagittal crest and a great nuchal crest that served for the attachment of large masticatory muscles, as seen in gorillas. On the other hand, the small vertical face combined with small upper canines, is not ape-like but more human-like. This feature led Brunet's team to place this fossil in the hominin group.

What is bilophodont?

A condition seen in Old World monkeys where the 4 molar cusps are arranged into 2 transverse ridges (or lophs) perpendicular to the jaw. Has 3 buccal cusps and 2 lingual cusps that are separated from each other by y-shaped fissures.

What specimens were found at Atapuerca in Spain?

80 fossil human remains, probably belonging to 6 individuals. Dated to about 780,000 years ago. Both been attributed to a new species, Homo antecessor, on the basis of primitive and derived anatomical features.

What shaped spine do quadrupedal primates have?

A C shaped spine

Darwinius

A Eocene Primate. The most complete early Primate fossil ever found. Found in the Messel pit, near Frankfurt (Germany) and it was for the first time described in 2009 and dated to about 47 million years ago. Still unclear where to taxonomically place this fossil. If it is ancestral to Strepsirrhini or to Haplorrhini.

Dryopithecus

A Miocene primate. Dryopithecus is another that gives the name to the Y-5 molar pattern that is also known as the dryopithecine pattern. Another characteristic is the presence of an elbow joint capable of a full range of extension.

What happened in the Levant around 45 ka?

A Significant short term cooling. Deserts expanded north, west and downslope towards the coast.

The powerful muscle attached to the prominent sagittal crest in Paranthropus is called?

A Temporalis muscle

What age is estimated for the remains found in the sites of Maludong and Longlin?

A article was published in 2015 on the Chinese human remains at these sites. On the basis of the presence of a mixture of modern and archaic traits, suggests that these fossils may represent a late-surviving archaic population dated to 14,000 to 11,000 years ago. Due to high variability characterising modern humans from the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, it is possible to hypothesize that these remains belong to fully modern humans.

Biological continuity

A biological continuum. When expressions of a phenomenon continuously grade into one another so that there are no discrete categories, they exist on a continuum. Colour is one such phenomenon, and life-forms are another.

The brain is divided up into what parts?

A brain stem, cerebellum and cerebrum

Zygote

A cell formed by the union of an egg cell and a sperm cell. It contains the full complement of chromosomes (in humans, 46) and has the potential of developing into an entire organism.

Mutation

A change in DNA. The term can refer to changes in DNA bases (specifically called point mutations) as well as to changes in chromosome number and/or structure.

Point Mutation

A change in one of the four DNA bases.

Upper Paleolithic

A cultural period usually associated with modern humans but also found with some Neandertals and distinguished by technological innovation in various stone tool industries. Best known from western Europe, similar industries are also known from central and eastern Europe and Africa.

Paleomagnetism Dating

A dating method based on the earth's shifting magnetic pole.

Cartilage

A firm, elastic and compressible connective tissue.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A form of RNA that's assembled on a sequence of DNA bases. It carries the DNA code to the ribosomes during protein synthesis.

Assortative mating

A form of nonrandom mating. Occurs when individuals of either similar phenotypes (positive assortative mating) or dissimilar phenotypes (negative assortative mating) mate more often than expected by Hardy-Weinberg predictions. However, in the vast majority of human populations, neither factor appears to have much influence.

What are Paranthropines or robusts australopithecines

A group of early hominins that appears to have been an evolutionary dead end, probably because of their extreme specialisations. Specialisations mainly interest the cranial morphology that was suited to a feeding adaptation to hard and tough objects. To produce large bite forces, the muscles o masticaion that produce chewing force are maximised in size and placement for mechanical efficiency. The robust australopithecine skull reflects these changes.

What are some threat gestures used by primates?

A intense stare indicates a mild threat; we humans find prolonged eye contact with strangers very uncomfortable. Another threat gestures include a quick yawn to expose canine teeth (boboons, macaques), crouching and bobbing back and forth (patas monkeys) and branch shaking (many monkey species) High ranking baboons mount the hindquarters of subordinates to express dominance. Mounting may also serve to defuse potentially tense situations by indicating something like "It's okay, apology accepted".

Autosomes

All chromosomes except the sex chromosomes.

What evidence related to diet were discovered with Neanderthal remains in the Kabara Caves?

A large collection of seeds and plants, mostly composed of legumes, pistachios and acorns. The studies of Speth and Tchernov in 2001, indicates that Neanderthals occupied the Kebara Cave during winter and early spring focusing mostly on the hunting of gazelles and fallow deer, as well as in late spring and summer. The animal sources overlap with the spring legumes and the fall nuts and acorns, increasing and widening the dietary breadth of the Kebara Neanderthals. These results contradict the initial hypotheses that early modern humans exploited a broader dietary spectrum than Neanderthals.

Polyandry

A mating system wherein a female continuously associated with more than one male (usually 2 or 3) with whom she mates. Among nonhuman primates, polyandry is seen only in marmosets and tamarins. It also occurs in a few human societies.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A method of producing thousands of copies of a DNA sample.

Ouranopithecus

A miocene primate. Found in Greece and Turkey and it has been dated to between 10 and 8 mya. The morphology of the skull resembles those of a gorilla, with a large and broad face, prominent supraorbital torus and square-shaped orbits.

Oreopithecus

A miocene primate. Found in Italy and dated to 7 and 9 million years ago. Characterised by a primitive dentition, a relatively short snout, elevated nasal bones, small and globular neurocranium, vertical orbital plane and gracile facial bones. Well-preserved post-cranial skeleton shows characteristic short trunk, short hindlimbs and long forelimbs, indicating suspensory locomotion. Recent analysis of the pelvic bone, shows Oreopithecus is more similar to the hominin group than to extant great apes, suggesting a possible habitual bipedalism.

Sivapithecus

A miocene primate. One of the best known Asian genus, Dates back from 12.5 million years to 8.5 million years ago. Considered to be ancestral to modern orangutans. Has a concave face, with projecting incisors and large canines. The face curves markedly upward in profile, a condition called airorhynchy. Orbits are shaped like elongated ovals, tall from top to bottom and with a similar orientation of the tear ducts in the inner corners of the orbits.

What is the importance of the Neanderthal fossil site of La Chapelle-aux-Saint in France?

A nearly complete skeleton was found in 1908 buried in a shallow grave in a flexed position. At that time, French paleoanthropologists interpreted this skeleton as an ape-like and evolutionary divergent from modern humans. The revised anatomical description gave another interpretation, and it is today widely accepted as a classic Neanderthal individual. La Chapelle skeleton shows also evidence of a stressful life with high risk of injury that led to considerable body degeneration from daily activities.

When did Homo erectus appear?

A new species of Homo appeared in Africa 1.8 mya. This species was very successful and was able to live in different environments, colonizing part of South-East Asia, Indonesia and Europe. All these fossils shared common features and they have been attributed to Homo erectus.

What species from the genus Homo evolved in East Africa around 2 million years ago?

A new species of Homo, resembling more closely modern humans than australopiths. This species was named Homo erectus.

What was found in 1856 in the Feldhofer Cave along the Neander Valley near Mettmann in Germany?

A partial human skeletal remains. They were later attributed to a new human species, Homo neanderthalensis. 2 other finds had already been made prior to 1856, that of the juvenile skull at Engis in Belgium in 1830 and an adult skull at Forbes' Quarry in Gibraltar in 1848.

Mosaic evolution

A pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one functional system varies from that in other systems. For example, in hominin evolution, the dental system, locomotor system, adn neurological system (especially the brain) all evolved at markedly different rates.

Hemoglobin

A protein molecule that occurs in red blood cells and binds to the oxygen molecules.

Enamel thickness of Paranthropus robustus

A recent study demonstrated that in paranthropine species. In P. robustus, the enamel is not hyper-thick. Thus, this new 3D distribution of enamel thickness found in Paranthropus may yield valuable data for a better interpretation of molar adaptation to diet.

Paleomagnetism

A relative dating technique. It is based on the shifting nature of the Earth's geomagnetic pole. Although now oriented northward, the geomagnetic pole is known to have shifted several times in the past and at times it was oriented to the south. By examining magnetically charged particles encased in rocks, geologists can determine the orientation of these ancient compasses.

Infanticide

A reproductive strategy used by some primate species (and numerous nonprimate species). A new male will kill dependent infants from the previous male to put the female back into a reproductive cycle to increase his chance of fathering young without having to wait for 2-3 years for them to be weaned or risk himself by defending young that are not his own.

Discuss the Tabun Cave finds

A revised chronology at the Tabun Cave, and new ancient DNA analyses, open a new scenario on the evolutionary relationship between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans, in particular about the possibility that these 2 different hominin species interact or compete with each other in the Near East. The age estimate of this deposit is between 120,000 to 90,000 years old for the Neanderthal fossil remains. This means that that Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans inhabited the Levantine region were broadly contemporaneous. As it is only 100m away from the Skhul Cave, it is difficult to believe that Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans did not come in contact. This suggests that gene flow between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens probably occurred in the Middle East before their expansion in Eurasia.

Sagittal crest

A ridge of bone that runs down the middle of the cranium like a short mohawk. This serves as the attachment for the large temporal muscles, indicating strong chewing.

Gene

A sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product, such as RNA. A gene may be composed of thousands of DNA bases.

Dissolution preservation

A type of altered preservation. Refers to the process, in which the hard and soft tissue structures of buried remains are completely dissolved, usually by groundwater, leaving a hollow mold that can highlight the surface features of the original organism. A cast is formed when a mold is later filled with another substance of material. The cast shows the original shape of the fossilised organism.

Continuum

A set of relationships in which all components fall along a single integrated spectrum. All life reflects a single biological continum.

Sickle-cell anemia

A severe inherited hemoglobin disorder in which red blood cells collapse when deprived of oxygen. It results from inheriting two copies of a mutant allele. The type of mutation that produced the sickle-cell allele is a point of mutation.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

A single stranded molecule similar in structure to DNA> Three forms of RNA are essential to protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Endocast

A solid impression of the inside of the skull vault, often preserving details relating to the size and surface features of the brain.

Language

A standardised system of arbitrary vocal sounds, written symbols, and gestures used in communication.

Nucleus

A structure (organelle) found in all eukaryotic cells. This nucleus contains DNA and RNA among other things.

Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating

A technique for dating certain archaeological materials (such as stone tools) that were heated in the past and that, upon reheating, releasing the stored energy of radioactive decay as light. Used on heated materials such as clay or stone tools.

Slash-and-burn agriculture

A traditional land-clearing practice involving the cutting and burning of trees and vegetation. In many areas, fields are abandoned after a few years and clearing occurs elsewhere.

Paradigm shift

A transition from one conceptual framework or prevailing and widely accepted viewpoint to another. The acceptance of the discovery that the sun is the center of our solar system is an example of a paradigm shift.

transfer RNA (tRNA)

A type of RNA that binds to specific amino acids and transports them to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Petrification preservation

A type of altered preservation. Occurs when the mineral deposits replace the organic material completely. Therefore the organic material turns into stone. A classic example of this is the terrified wood, where the microscopic cellular structure of the plant is replaced by silica during the process of fossilisation.

Carbonisation preservation

A type of altered preservation. Process occurs within sediments that are highly compressed and heated. In such conditions, the organic materials consisting by oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen is forced out leaving a thin film of carbon.

Sexual Selection

A type of natural selection that operated on only one sex within a species. It's the result of competition for mates, and it can lead to sexual dimorphism with regard to one or more traits.

Inbreeding

A type of nonrandom mating in which relatives mate more often than predicted under random mating conditions.

Amber preservation

A type of unaltered preservation. Amber is a fossilised tree sap. If an insect occasionally gets caught in the sap it may become part of the fossil. Particular areas of the Baltic Sea coastline and a few islands in the West Indies are well known for insects preserved in amber.

Refrigeration preservation

A type of unaltered preservation. Can occur when an organism gets trapped in ice and preserved. This type of fossiliation primarily occurred during the Pleistocene when ice sheets covered much of the northern hemisphere. Eg. are the baby mammoth discovered recently in Siberia and dated to 40,000 years ago or Otzi, the iceman, that lived about 5000 years ago and he was found on an Alpine peak near the border between Italy and Austria.

Mummification preservation

A type of unaltered preservation. Occurs in very arid environments. In these conditions the soft tissues of an organism can quickly dehydrate or desiccate favouring this preservation.

Tar impregnation preservation

A type of unaltered preservation. This can occur if an animal is stuck in natural tar pits, which are composed of heavy oil, or asphalt. Tar pits are excellent sites for fossilisation. They can preserve even the soft tissue of the living organism. In the La Brea tar pits in southern California they have been discovered over 650 Pleistocene species of plants and animals.

What are the hominins sites in the Late Miocene epoch?

About 7 million years ago. The hominin sites are in the Awash and Omo-Turkana basins in Eastern Africa.

Climate characteristics of the Miocene epoch

About 7 million years ago. Was affected by a global cooling that caused an increase in aridity. In Africa during the Late Miocene, grasslands expanded and forests decreased in a response to global cooling and drying. This trend culminated in the wide-spread savannahs we find in East Africa today. Generally arid conditions coincide with the record of Sahelanthropus tchadensis in Chad and Orrorin tugenensis in Kenya, although these fossils were found under locally wooded environments.

What have studies on cranial morphology comparison from Early Holocene sites in South America and present-day Australians, Melanesians and Sub-Saharan Africans

According to the studies they revealed a great similarity between the cranial morphology. These 2 distinct biological populations could have colonized the New World during the transition between Pleistocene and Holocene.

What is the evidence that supporters of the first theory in relation to the dual occupation of 2 biologically distinct populations in the Levant?

According to the workers that support this theory, there was no overlap in the occupation of the Levant, since the 2 populations inhabited the region at different times, under different climatic conditions. These scholars suggest that rapid climatic changes and climate deterioration forced the disappearances of anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals. This was probably favoured low density of human populations at the time, meaning that they would have been vulnerable to major changes in climate. Anatomically modern humans entered in the levant in response to severe aridity occurring in Eastern Africa during OIS 5.

Altruism

Actions that benefit another individual but at some potential risk or cost to oneself.

Prosocial behaviour

Actions that benefit other individuals and/or a society as a whole. Loosely speaking, the term "prosocial" is the opposite of "antisocial".

Stem Group

All of the taxa in a clade before a major speciation event. Stem groups are often difficult to recognize in the fossil record since they don't often have the shared derived traits found in the crown group.

Crown Group

All of the taxa that come after a major speciation event. Crown groups are easier to identify than stem groups because the members possess the clade's shared derived traits.

Arboreal theory

Adaptations such as grasping hands and feet, orbital convergence and enhanced cognitive processing capacity are seen as the product of an arboreal life. A major flaw in this theory is the existence of arboreal mammals that do not possess any of these traits and are very successful.

Sectorial

Adapted for cutting or shearing; among primates, this term refers to the compressed (side to side) first lower premolar, which functions as a sheaing surface with the upper canines.

What are the four bases that make up DNA?

Adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine.

Christian fundamentalists

Adherents to a movement in American Protestantism that began in the early twentieth century. This group holds that the teachings of the Bible are infaffible and should be taken literally.

What are the estimates by anthropologists on the average height and weight of Homo erectus?

Adult Homo erectus weighed well over 100 pounds with an average adult height of about 5 feet 6 inches (McHenry, 1992; Ruff and Walker, 1993).

What was the first hominin species that can be described as fully obligate bipedalism?

African Homo erectus or Homo ergaster. The nearly complete skeleton KNM-WT 15000, also known as the "Turkana boy", exhibits many of the key features related to obligate bipedalism, including the narrow pelvis, the barrel-like chest and lower limbs longer than the upper limbs.

When did Neanderthal fossils cease to appear in the Levantine fossil record?

After 45 ka. And were later on replaced by Homo sapiens populations. New stable isotope data suggests a different scenario. Climatic differenced certainly influenced human migration patterns into the Levantine region at certain times, but not necessarily at all times.

What did the Dutch anatomist Eugene Dubois find in 1891 on the Island of Java.

After a 5 year search, he found a partial cranium, a femur and a molar on the Island of Java, that he assigned to a new homonin species, Pithecanthropus erectus - later changed to Homo to reflect the great similarity of this hominid to modern humans. Several other hominin fossils have been found of the Island of Java by Ralph von Koenigswald, at the Pleistocene sites of Sangiran and at Ngandong, with an age estimation comprised between 1.6 mya to 27 kya.

Amino acid racemization dating methods

All biological tissues contain amino acids. These can have 2 different configurations, D and L, which are mirror images of each other. Living organisms generally keep all thier amino acids in the L configuration. When an organism dies, control over the configuration of the amino acids ceases, and the ratio of D to L moves from a value near 0 towards an equilibrium value near 1, a process called racemization. Measuring the ratio of D to L in a sample enables one to estimate how long ago the specimen died. It is usually applied to date deep-sea cores or deep cave deposits with a range of 5,000 to 100,000 years.

Vertical clinging and leaping

Allows arboreal species to move between discontinuous supports. This type of locomotion requires powerful hind limbs to propel the leap as well as to break the impact of landing. Most but not all, vertical clinging and leaping species have a tail that is used maintain attitude control during leaps.

Brachiation or Suspensory behaviour

Allows larger species to spread their weight among small supports and also to avoid the problem of balancing their body above a support. This process is highly developed in the gibbon and siamang, which are anatomically adapted for it in the length of their forelimbs, their long hooklike fingers, and the mobility of their shoulder joints. The South American spider monkey, considered a semibrachiator, uses its prehensile tail as a third arm. Spider monkeys both run along branches and swing from them.

Glial cells

Also called neuroglia. Are a type of cell in the nervous system. They are the supporting cells that help maintain the brain.

Who developed the "Out of Africa" theory?

Also known as the "Replacement Model". First developed by Chris Stringer and Peter Andrews. It proposed that modern humans evolved from African Archaic Homo sapiens within the last 200,000 years. Some populations migration into the rest of world replacing Neanderthals in Eurasia and other Archaic humans in Asia. According to this model, the anatomical differences that we see in contemporaneous modern humans from different parts of the world emerged in the last 40,000 years. A critique to this model was that, because the African Homo sapiens was a different and distinct species. It excluded the possibility of some interbreeding with local non-African hominin groups. But new evidence result from nacient DNA analyses suggest that Neanderthal and modern human populations interbred.

Devonian Period

Also known as the age of fishes. This period was a time of great tectonic activity, where Laurasia and Gondwanaland were convergent, and the continent Euramerica (Laurussia) was created. Also a time of great transition: in the sea: ammonoids and fish evolve and quickly diversify. On land, trees and forests appear for the first time. The first insects, spiders and tetrapods evolve.

Alleles

Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles occur at the same locus on paired chromosomes and thus govern the same trait, but because they're different, their action may result in different expressions of that trait.

Affiliative behaviours

Amicable associations between individuals. Affiliative behaviours, such as grooming, reinforce social bonds and promote group cohesions.

Miocene Primates

Among the micoene primates were the ancestors of all modern species of apes and humans. One of the first primates to be classified as an ape is Proconsul. Dryopithecus is another that gives the name to the Y-5 molar pattern that is also known as the dryopithecine pattern. Ouranopithecus, found in Greece and Turkey and dated to between 10 and 8 mya. Orepithecus, found in Italy and dated to 7 and 9 mya. Sivapithecus, Asian genus dating to 12.5 -8.5 million years ago. The last early Asian ape, called Gigantopithecus, surviving until 100 thousand years ago.

Apidium

An Oligocene primate. Characterised by an almost complete orbital closure, fused mandibular symphysis, lacrimal bone within orbit and a dental formula 2.1.3.3. Still possess some primitive features as smaller brains than extant Old World Monkeys, and the ectotympanic ring. Was small, squirrel-like fruit and seed eating primate, adept at leaping and springing.

Aegyptopithecus

An Oligocene primate. Different from Apidium because it shows a different dental formula:: 2.l1.2.3, and same found in extant Old World Monkey. Larger than Apidium, short-limbed and slow moving.

What is microcephaly?

An abnormally small head due to failure of brain growth.

How many calories do brains need to develop and maintain?

An adult human needs to consume about 280-420 kcal of energy a day. In contrast, an adult chimpanzee brain requires only 100-120 kcal/day. Aiello and Wheeler (1995) pointed out that the brain is not the only expensive tissue in the body. The heart, kidneys, liver and gastrointestinal tracts consume at least as much energy as the brain. It appears that the stomach and intestines have decreased in size at the same time as the brain increased in size in human evolution.

What is the most important hominin specimen that was recovered at Amud Cave?

An adult male - Amud 1. It's overall cranial and mandibular morphology, together with its robusticity, are in the range of the Classic European Neanderthals.

Homeobox genes

An evolutionarily ancient family of regulatory genes that directs the development of the overall body plan and the segmentation of body tissues. There are at least 20 families of homeobox genes.

Human Genome Project

An international effort aimed at sequencing and mapping the entire human genome, completed in 2003.

Definition of paleontology

Ancient Greek word. "paleos" or old/ancient, and "ontos" or being/existence, It is the study of ancient life through the fossil record. Reconstruct the history of the Earth and of ancient life through the study of fossils of extinct species of plants and animals. Some study the interactions between fossil forms and their environment to reconstruct the ecosystems of the past, while others work on the evolution of fossil taxa.

Explain thermoregulation in brain evolution

Another challenge posed by a bigger brain is thermoregulation. In hot and arid environments, brain temperature may be one of the biggest limits on survival. The human brain can only tolerate for short periods of time temperatures about 41 degrees celsius before suffering permanent damages or death. Dean Falk suggests that the vascular system of early bipeds became reoriented so that cranila blood flowed preferentially to the vertebral plexus instead of the internal jugular vein in response to gravity. Therefore the networks of veins in early hominins acted as a radiator that released a thermal constraint on brain size.

What is special about LB1 (Australopithecus afarensis specimen)?

Anthropologists used the small brain size of this specimen together with other anatomical features, to suggest that this specimen could have suffered from Laron syndrome, an autosomal-recessive case of primary microcephaly. A further study that analysed the brain shape in human microcephalics and Homo florensiensis, refused the pathological explanation. The scatter plot of relative frontal breadth and cerebellar protrusion demonstrated that these 2 variables can discriminate with success normal and microcephalic humans, it rejects the microcephaly hypothesis.

Communication

Any act that conveys information to another individual. Frequently, the result of communication is a change in the behaviour of the recipient. Communication may not be deliverate but may instead be the result of involuntary processes or a secondary consequence of an intentional action.

What does the term malocclusion refer to?

Any deviation from a normal occlusion is considered to be malocclusion.

The Parasagittal plane

Any planar plane that is parallel to the sagittal plane.

Behaviour

Anything organisms do that involves action in respnse to internal or external stimuli. The response of an individual, group or species to its environment. Such respnses may or may not be deliberate and they aren't necessarily the results of conscious decision making.

When did the cultural period known as the Upper Paleolithic begin in Western Europe?

Approximately 40,000 years ago. This period is usually divided into 5 different industries, based on stone tool technology: Chatelperronian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian.

What are the 3 theories proposed about the origins of primates?

Arboreal theory, Visual predation theory and the Angiosperm radiation theory.

What group are the skeletal remains found in Elandsfontein adn Florisbad, South Africa associated with?

Archaic Homo sapiens. These partial crania show a combination of ancestral and derived features similar to Kabwe. Some authors proposed a new taxonomic status to these African hominins, assigned them to the species Homo rhodesiensis. But they show many similarities with the contemporaneous hominins found in Europe. Due to this, the majority of experts do not accept the validity of Homo rhodesiensis as a distinct type of hominin, but believe that the Rhodesian Man should be classified within the group of Homo heidelbergensis.

What are perikymata?

Are Retzius lines in the teeth that have reached the tooth surface. They show as external ridges encircling the tooth crown.

The phalanges

Are all shorter than metacarpals, lack round heads, and are anteroposteriorly flattened in their shafts. The thumb phalanges are shorter and squatter than the others, and the thumb lacks an intermediate phalanx. Except for the thumb, each finger has 3 phalanges: proximal, middle and distal.

Frontal lobes

Are associated with the regulation of the voluntary movement, concentration, memory and recognition, motor aspects of speech and emotions.

Isotopes

Are atoms of an element that differ in their number of neutrons. Eg. Carbon (C) is known in several isotopic forms. They have the same number of protons (6), each one differs in numbers of neutrons. Carbon 12 has 6 neutrons, Carbon 13 has 7 neutrons and Carbon 14 has 8 neutron.

Lower molar crowns

Are characterised by 4 or 5 major cusps. Their outlines can be squared, rectangular or oblong. Lower molars have usually 2 major roots, but occasionally have 3.

Molar crowns

Are characterised by larger and squarer crowns, and bear more cusps than other teeth. Usually have multiple roots. Upper molar crowns have 3 or 4 cusps. The outline of the crowns resembles the shape of a rhombus. They have usually 3 major roots that are variable fused.

Canine crowns

Are conical and tusk-like. Canine roots are longer than other roots in the same dentition. There is a single main central cusp.

Canine teeth

Are conical and tusklike with a single main central cusp. They posses one long root.

Old World Monkeys

Are divided into 2 subfamilies Cercopithecinae and Colobinae.

Catarrhini

Are divided into 2 superfamilies: cercopithecoidea, or Old World Monkeys, and Hominoidea, including apes and humans. The space where the petrosal bone is in lemurs, lorises and tarsiers are filled with spongy bone. The ear tube is much longer than the tube in tarsiers. Nose has a downward projecting nostrils separated by a small septum. 2 premolars. Cranial sutures fuse earlier than in platyrrhines. Have a frontal-sphenoid contact in the pterion region, and the parietal and zygomatic bones are separated.

Body fossils

Are formed by the hard parts of the body of an organism, including bones, teeth or shells.

Parietal lobes

Are important for aspects of fine motor control, including speech and gesturing, and for processing visual and other somatic stimuli.

Tarsiers

Are included in only one superfamily. As New World monkeys (or platyrrhini). Show a mix of strepsirhine and haplorhine features that have often created confusion about their taxonomic lever. They possess enormous eyes that are actually larger than their brains, and are protected by a bony socket that is partially closed, similar to higher primates. Although they are nocturnal animals, they lack of the reflective tapetum lucidum found in all lemurs and lorises, but they do possess a retinal fovea, resembling thus diurnal higher primates. Their noses resemble that of higher primates as well, both externally, in the absence of an attached upper lip with a median fold, and internally. Show primitive primate features shared with leumurs and lorises, as an unfused mandibular symphysis, molar teeth with high crusps, grooming claws on their second and third toes, multiple nipples and a bicornate uterus. The tympanic ring is external to the auditory bulla and extends laterally to form a bony tube, the external auditory meatus. Dental formula is unique among primates, but overal resemble those of anthropoids with large upper central incisors, small lower incisors and large canines. The hands and feet are relatively long, reflecting both their clinging abilities and their predatory habits. Have extremely long legs and many more specific adaptations for leaping. Live in a variety of habitats of Indonesia, Phillipinges nad Borneo. Mainly carnivores, eating cockroaches, beetles, moths, lizards, snakes and roosting birds.

Paranasal sinuses

Are interconnected hollow spaces inside the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid and maxillary bones. These spaces reduce the weight of the skull, produce mucus and allow air to resonate for voice production. Are called the frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, sphenoidal sinus and the ethmoidal air cells.

Occipital lobes

Are involved with the ability to recognise objects. They are responsible for the process of visual information.

Temporal lobes

Are linked to various aspects of perception and memory, including the recognition of words, sounds and visual images.

Osteocytes

Are mature bone cells that are responsible for maintaining the bone tissue.

Lower canine crowns

Are narrow relative to their height. Their root is often more compressed in sections than the upper. Lower canines sometimes have an accessory root, never seen in the upper.

Squirrel monkeys

Are part of the Callitricine family. Are smaller than Capuchins and have molars with very high cusps adapted for an insectivorous diet. Their tails are prehensile in infants but not in adults. Their fingers are short and the thumb is relatively unopposable.

Aotines or Owl Monkeys

Are part of the Callitricine family. Are the only nocturnal higher primates. Have a medium body size with relatively long legs and a long tail. They have large digit pads on their hands and feet, a slightly opposable thumb and often a compressed, claw-like grooming nail on the second digit of each foot. They have very large upper central incisors and small third molars. The size of their orbits is very large, the largest of any anthropoid. Despite their nocturnal habits, their lack of a tapetum lucidum, replaced by a tapetum fibrosum. The retina of the owl monkeys has only a single type of cone, so they do not have a colour vision, but it is monochromatic. They are primarily frugivorous, but they can eat also leaves and insects.

Capuchin Monkeys

Are part of the Callitricine family. Have large premolars, and square molar teeth with thick enamel, which they use to open hard nuts. Their forelimbs and hindlimbs are more similar in size that those of many platyrrhines. Have a prehensile tail and short fingers and opposable thumbs.

Callicebines or titi monkeys

Are part of the Platyrrhine family. Have short faces, fluffy bodies with long, fluffy tails and long legs. Compared with other platyrrhines they have very short canines. They have relatively short snouts and long skulls. Titi monkeys are mainly frugivorous and live in monogamous family groups.

Premolar crowns

Are round, shorter than canine crowns and smaller than molar crowns.

Palatine bones

Are small, delicate, I-shaped elements which form the rear of the hard palate and part of the wall and floor of the nasal cavity.

Lower incisor crowns.

Are smaller than upper. Their crowns are more chisel-shaped, and they are broader than long, and they are less asymmetrical than upper. The roots are compressed mesiodistally.

Neurons

Are the core of the central nervous system. Specialised for intercellular communication through the transmission and reception of electrical signals. Each neuron has several features: a cell body with nucleus, many processes, known as dendrites, that communicate information from other neurons to the cell body, and a single long process, the axon, that connects to the other neurons. Synapses are small junctions across which nerve impulses pass. Axons are wrapped by myelin sheaths with intervening spaces, known as nodes of Ranvier. The function of this structure is to increase the speed at which impulses propagate along the axon.

Deciduous teeth

Are the first to form, erupt and function in the first year of life. Are systematically shed and replaced by the permanent dentition throughout childhood and adolescence. In each quadrant of dentition there are 2 incisors, one canine and 2 molars. The deciduous teeth are represented by the lower case letters.

Epochs

Are the fourth division of geological time.

Incisors

Are the frontal teeth that are spatulate with a sharp incisal edge. They normally have one root.

Orangutans

Are the largest living Asian apes. There are 2 living subspecies, one on Borneo and on Sumatra. Show a high grade of sexual dimorphism, with females weighing approximately 60kg and the males roughly twice that. The forelimbs show extreme specializations for suspensory behaviour. Have very long forelimbs, and long hands with long curved fingers and a short pollex. Hindlimbs are relatively short and have hand-like feet, with long, curved digits and a reduced hallux. Females and young individuals are almost exclusively arboreal, which males on Borneo frequently descend to the ground. Skull - relatively high, rounded braincase, poorly developed brow ridges, a deep face with small orbits set close together, and a uniquely prognathic snout. The mandible is deep. Have cheek teeth with thick enamel, low flat cusps, and crenulated occlusal surfaces. They have large upper central incisors and small peg-like upper laterals. Canines are large and sexually dimorphic. Eat primarily fruits, and new leaves, shoots and barks. Usually solitary. The only social group consists of females with their immature offspring. Almost exclusively arboreal, including adaptations to brachiation, vertical climbing and arboreal quadrupedalism.

Teeth

Are the most resistant to chemical and physiological destruction out of all the skeletal elements. They are the part of the body that interacts directly with the environment, serving to seize and masticate food materials. Adults have 4 different types of teeth, the incisor, canines, premolars, and molars.

Callitricines

Are the smallest and most distinctive New World Monkeys. possess a unique dentition with only 2 molars. Skeleton is characterized by long trunks, tails and legs. They live in marginal and disturbed habitats, eating fruit, insects, and exudates. Have a simple unicornate uterus and a single pair of nipples, they give birth to dyzigotic twins which share a common placenta. Presence of claws in all digits except the great toe. Rather the nails characteristic of other higher primates - adaptation to cling to the sides of large tree trunks to feed on gums, saps and insects. Subfamily contains capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys.

Premolars

Are the teeth directly behind the canines. They show rounded crowns, usually characterized by 2 cusps. They are usually single rooted.

Periods

Are the third division of geological times and are named for either location or characteristics of the defining rock formations.

Trace fossils

Are traces and structures that recorded the activity of ancient organisms.

When is the earliest evidence of human-like brains?

Around 2.0 million year ago.

When is the first evidence of stone tool manufacture and use?

Around 2.5 million years ago.

How does Body Size influence Social Structure?

As a rule, larger animals require fewer alories per unit of weight than smaller animals because larger animals have less surface area relative to body mass than smaller animals. Body heat is lost at the surface, larger animals can retain heat more efficiently, so they need less energy overall. It may seem strange, but 2 10 pound monkeys require more food than one 22-pound monkey.

Characteristics of the leg in bipeds.

As the body weight is transferred through the legs into the feet during bipedal standing and walking, the femur assumes a critical role in biped hominins. In modern humans, the femur is characterised by a large femoral head and by a large femoral neck, for the increase in weight transfer through hip joint. The condyles are larger and more elliptical than those of African great apes. And the presence of a bicondylar (or Valgus) angle between the femur into the knee.

What is the bipedal locomotion hypothesis that was proposed by Cliff Jolly in 1970?

Associated with seed collecting behaviour. He argued that the environmental change occurred in Africa during the Miocene, determined the expansion of grasslands and the decrease of forested habitats, in response to global cooling and drying. The appearance of new dietary opportunities pushed early hominins in feeding on grass seeds that occurred while standing upright. But fails to explain the emergence of bipedal locomotion as it was already prevelant in quadruped animals feeding such as the gerenuk antelope that stands on posterior limbs while feeding from trees without the need to move bipedally. And dental analysis of early hominin dentition microwear patterns suggests the consumption of fruit rather than seeds.

What is the earliest fossil evidence for potential hominin bipedalism associated with?

Associated with the skeletal remains found in Chad and dated between 7.0 to 6.0 mya, that are assigned to a new hominin species, Sahelanthropus tchadensis. The anterior position of the foramen magnum has led to hypothesize that this species was biped. No postcranial remains have been found and it is therefore difficult to establish with certainty that this species assumed bipedalism on a regular basis.

Variance model of South American Colonization or primates

Augmented that a common Haplorrhine or Tarsiod ancestor a continent comprised of the 2 landmasses now known as South America and Africa. after a series of tectonic shearing and shifting events, the continent was separated and the descent lines of Platyrrhines and Catarrhines began to evolve separately.

Identify the hominin species illustrated in this photo

Australopithecus afarensis

Taung Child

Australopithecus africanus specimen found in a limestone quarry at Taung in South Africa in 1924. Described by Raymond Dart. The fossil is constituted by a partial skull and brain endocast preserved by the natural limestone. Based on tooth eruption it is estimated that the child was 3 years old at death. Probably killed by an eagle as there were puncture marks found at the bottom of the eye sockets. These marks resemble those made by a modern eagle's sharp talons and beaks when they atack monkeys in Africa today.

Australopithecine brain capacity

Average cranial capacity around 450 cc, comparable to those of orangutans and chimpanzees.

Paranthropine brain capacity

Average cranial capacity of between 470-530 cc, and comparable to those of an adult male gorilla. Brain size increase could be associated to the craniofacial change occurred as biomechanical response to the mastication of hard and tough foods included in their diet. Could have led to an increase in cranial capacity without affecting the brain size.

When have the remains from the Skhul and Qafzeh regions been dated to and how?

Based on morphological traits and on uncertainty on the chronological information from these deposits, it is believed that the they are more recent than the neighbouring Neanderthals. However, with the application of new dating techniques in the late 80's, such as the electron spin resonance (thermoluminescence and uranium series), the human remains from this region have been dated to between 90,000 and 130,000 years ago, resulting to be much older than the Near Eastern Neanderthals. These results radically changed the previous theories about the origin and dispersion of modern humans, indicating their existence in Western Asia long before their appearance in Europe and supporting this model of a recent African origin for Homo sapiens.

Stable isotope analysis of P. boisei

Based on the principle "you are what you eat". Based on carbon isotope compositions in tooth enamel, has been used for hominin paleodietary reconstructions. The resulting carbon isotope composition reveals the proportions of 2 different plants consumed; plants using C3, such as trees, bushes and forbs, and plants using C4, such as tropical grasses and some sedges. This analysis shows that P. boisei had a diet of about 75-80% of C4 plants, unlike that of any other fossil hominin but similar to that of grasseating hippos and zebras.

What theory did Rubner in 1883 propose?

Based on the surface area to volume ratio concept. He proposed a theory where the basal metabolic rate of an animal is determined by its energy losses to the environment. Because of these energetic losses are determined by the contact surface, with the increase of body mass the surface area to volume ratio will decrease. He was able to calculate the mass exponent. Because the surface area (S) increases as the square and the volume (V) as the cube, the mass exponent b should be 2/3 that is 0.67, as illustrated in this graph for the Guinea pig.

Fission track dating

Based on the use of damage made by the spontaneous fission of uranium-238 (238 U) that is the most abundant isotope of uranium. These damages are visible as fission tracks and can be seen and counted with an optical microscope. The number of fission tracks is directly proportional to the amount of time since the glassy material cooled from a molten state. Since the half-life of uranium - 238 is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years, the chronometric age of a sample can be calculated. With the exception of early historic human made glass artifacts the fission track method is usually only employed to date geological strata.

Why is methods pertaining to the relationship between tooth size and body mass in primate living species difficult and ofter result in inappropriate findings?

Because early hominins such as australopithecines had exceptionally large postcanine teeth for their body size, the methodology results inappropriate. Inappropriate may also be regression predictions beased on craniofacial measurements, simply because primates do not transmit body weight through their skulls or teeth. Weight-bearing portions of the locomotor skeleton are better candidate fo being reliable estimators of overall body size.

How does intramembranous ossification differ from the endochondral ossification?

Because intramembranous ossification begins without a preliminary cartilage stage.

Why does the assessment of incremental features permit precise reconstruction of an individual's developmental history?

Because tooth growth begins before birth and continues throughout adolescence, assessment of incremental features may permit precise reconstruction of an individual's developmental history, including birth, subsequent stress during development and death.

How did body size evolved in the early phases of human evolution

Before 2.6 mya, hominins were characterised by small bodies with small hindlimbs relative to forelimbs. There was also a strong sexual dimorphism in body size, with males much larger than females. Between 2.5 and 1.8 mya, with the emergence of the genus Homo, the bodies enlarged, sexual dimorphism decreases and limb proportions changed. Homo habilis still retain primitive features, such as a small body, limb proportion Australopithecus-like and a great sexual dimorphism. Only with Homo rudolfensis, we see a body size and body morphology that closely resembles those of Homo ergaster.

The masticatory cycle of mammals

Begins with puncture-crushing characterized primarily by verticle mandibular movements where the food is pulped and tooth-to-tooth contact rarely occurs. After the food has initially been reduced and softened by puncture-crushing, a rhythmic chewing phase (or power stroke) follows where the jaw movements are guided by the occlusal morphology of the upper and lower teeth.

Endochondral ossification

Begins with the formation of a hyaline cartilage model that will be later replaced by bone. The cartilage in the center of the shaft calcifies and then develops cavities. The periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone begins to form. The diaphysis elongates and a medullar cavity forms as ossification continues.

Culture

Behavioural aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns and social roles. Culture is a set of learned behaviours transmitted from one generation to the next by nonbiological (i.e., nongenetic) means.

Reproductive strategies

Behaviours or behavioural complexes that have been favoured by natural selection to increase individual reproductive success. The behaviours need not be deliberate, and they often vary considerably between males and females.

What dates are associated with the Late Pleistocene?

Between 125,000 and 10,000 years ago.

What dates are associated with the Early Pleistocene?

Between 2.6 and 0.78 mya.

Early hominin characteristics

Between 20 mya and 4 mya Locomotion: bipedal, shortened pelvis, some differences from later hominins, showing smaller body size and long arms relative to legs, long fingers and toes, probably capable of considerable climbing. Brain: Larger than Miocene forms, but still only moderately encephalized: prior to 6 mya, no more encephalized than chimpanzees Dentition: moderately large incisors, canines somewhat reduced, upper canine/lower first premolar lack honing complex; molar tooth enamel caps very thick. Toolmaking Behaviour: In earliest stages unknown; no stone tools used prior to 2.6 mya, probably somewhat more oriented toward tool manufacture and use than chimpanzees.

When did Neanderthals colonise most of western and southern Europe?

Between 225,000 and 28,000 years ago. They also expanded into the Middle East.

What dates are associated with the Middle Pleistocene?

Between 780,000 and 125,000 years ago.

Binomial nomenclature

Binomial meaning "two names". In taxonomy, the convention established by Carolus Linnaeus whereby genus and species names are used to refer to living things. For example, Homo sapiens refers to human beings.

Pelvis size and shape of efficient bipeds

Bipedalism requires a narrow pelvis, but that need must be balanced against the need for a birth canal wide enough for a large brained baby. Pelvic dimensions in human females, differently from those of great apes, closely matches the neonatal head size.

What are the 2 types of fossils.

Body fossils and Trace fossils.

What are some factors that influence Social Structure?

Body size, Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), Diet, Distribution of Resources, Predation, Dispersal, Life Histories, Strategies, Distribution and Types of Sleeping Sites, Activity Patterns and Human Activities.

Variation of body size and EQ

Body weight explains 62% variation in brain size across the primate species. When the non-linear relationship by log transforming is considered, body size explains 94% of variation in brain size.

Osteoblasts

Bone forming cells responsible for synthesizing and depositing bone material. Often concentrated just beneath the periosteum. Make large quantities of a pre-bone tissue - Osteoid. Initiate process of calcification. When surrounded by bone matrix, called osteocytes (cells that reside in lacunae).

Mature Bone

Bone tissue arranged in an organized structure produced by the repeated addition of uniform lamellae to bone surfaces during appositional growth. Also known as lamellar bone.

Intramembraneous ossification

Bone tissue is formed directly from connective tissue, known as mesenchyme, without a preliminary cartilage stage. Some bones of the skull, the clavicles, pelvis, scapulae and part of the mandible are created through this type of ossification. Mesenchymal cells first cluster together and start to secrete the organic components of bone matrix which then becomes mineralised through the crystalization of calcium salts. As calcification occurs, the mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts. Some osteoblasts being to secrete osteoid, which is calcified within 2 days. Some osteoblasts are trapped in bony pockets, and differentiate in osteocytes.

What was found a the Grotte du Renne in France to support the theory that Neanderthals had complex social and symbolic behaviours?

Bone tools, pigments and personal ornaments.

What locomotory behaviours do Gibbons exhibit?

Brachiation.

Ardipithecus ramidus distinctive characteristics

Brain was small, even for a ape. Cranial capacity has been estimated between 300 and 350 cm3. Face is small and lacks the large cheekbones seen in Australopithecus. Foramen magnum is anteriorly positioned and interpreted as a derived condiion shared with later hominins. The skull is also characterized by a midprojecting face, already seen in Sahelantropus, but that differs from those of chimpanzees. Has small non-sharpened canine teeth, with a relatively small sexual dimorphism. Reduction of sexual dimorphism in the canine teeth was probably favoured by sexual selection. Suggested to represent that in living monkeys and apes the upper canine is important in male agonistic behaviour, the canine teeth reduction could be linked with fundamental changes in the reproductive and social behaviour. Molar enamel thickness is somewhat intermediae between modern humans and chimpanzees. Thin enamel layer, as seen in chimpanzees, is related to a soft diet that can include arboreal ripe fruits. Lack of thick enamel indicated that Ardipithecus ramidus was not adpated to a heavy abrasive diet as were later Australopithecus and Homo. Data including stable isotope analysis suggests that this species was a generalised onmivorous and frugivorous, differing thus from Australopithecus and living African apes.

Alouattines or howler monkeys

Broad distribution ranging from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. They are large and sexually dimorphic. They have relatively small incisors and large sexually dimorphic canines. They molars are characterized by well-developed shearing crests, typical of a folivorous diet. Skull is characterised by a relatively small cranial capacity and lack of cranial flexion. They are the loudest animals on earth. This is possible by the existence of a very large hyoid bone that works as a resonating chamber. The mandible is quite large and deep. Howler monkeys have forelimbs and hindlimbs that are similar in length, and a long prehensile tails.

Lucy was studied to estimate body size and stature why and by whom?

By both Jungers and McHenry using different methods based on hindlimb measurements, obtained a similar stature estimation of 105cm. And the body mass predictions gave similar results, comprised between 29 and 30kg. It was important to study to understand the evolution, ecology and behaviour of these early hominins.

What is the Upper Paleolithic culturally characterised by?

By richness and diversity of burial rituals that were far more elaborate than those of the Middle Paleolithic. A good example is that of Sungir, near Moscow, where grave goods included a bed of red ocher, thousands of ivory beads, long spears made of straightened mammoth tusks, ivory engravings and jewelry.

How are hominins defined?

By their dental features, bipedal locomotion, large brain size and tool making behaviour. But they did not evolve at the same time with the same rate, but show a pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one functional system varies from that in other systems. This pattern is called mosaic evolution

In posterior view

Can see the parietal bones, which form the sides and roof of the cranial vault. Each parietal articulates with the opposite parietal along the sagittal suture and with the frontal, temporal, occipital and the sphenoid.

How is brain size estimated and measured?

Can be measured directly, through dissection as a mass of a volume, or indirectly from the volume of endocranial cavity.

The Transverse, or horizontal plane

Can be placed at any height but always passes perpendicular to the sagittal and frontal planes.

Midsagittal section of the skull

Can be seen the coronal suture that separates the frontal and parietal bones and the cranial internal vault, where are visible depressions and furrows corresponding to the cerebral convolutions and ramification of the middle meningeal artery.

Lower limbs

Carry the entire weight of the erect body. Bones are thicker and stronger than those of upper limbs. They are divided into 3 segments: thigh, leg and foot.

Meiosis

Cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes. Meiosis involves two divisions and results in four daughter cells, each containing only half the original number of chromosomes. These cells can develop into gametes.

Principle of lateral continuity

Certainly that of cross-cutting relationships. First developed by James Hutton, and later refined by Charles Lyell. States that an event cutting across existing rock is younger than the disturbed rock.

Woven Bone

Characterised by a matrix of collagen fibers organized irregularly.

Pitheciines

Characterised by unusual dental specializations for processing relatively soft fruits and seeds encased in tough outer coverings that are generally too hard for other monkeys. Specializations include procumbent incisors, robust canines, a relatively small premolar and molar teeth characterized by low cusps. In association with their specialisations they have slightly prognathic snouts, a narrow U-shaped palate, and enlarged nasal bones. They live in a wide variety of habitats.

Life history traits

Characteristics and developmental stages that influence reproductive rates. Examples include longevity, age at sexual maturity, length of time between births, etc.

Radiocarbon dating

Chemical analysis used to determine the age of organic materials based on their content of the radioisotope carbon-14 (14 C). Relies on a simple natural phenomenon. As the Earth's upper atmosphere is bombarded by cosmic radiation, atmospheric nitrogen is broken down into the unstable isotope 14 C. The unstable isotope is brought to Earth by atmospheric activity, such as storms and becomes fixed in the biosphere. It reacts identically to 12C and 13C and 14C. becomes attached to complex organic molecules through photosynthesis in plants and becomes part of their molecular makeup. Animals eating those plants in turn absorb 14C as well as the stable isotopes. Process of ingesting 14C continues as long as the plant or animal remains alive. When the organism dies, the ratio of 14C within its carcass begins to gradually decrease. The rate of decrease is 1/2 the quantity at death every 5,730 years. That is the half-life of 14C. This method can be used to date organic material as recent as a few hundred years old, and can be extended as far back as 75,000 years, although the probability of error rises rapidly after 40,000 years.

What is explained by the Bergmann's rule and Allen rules?

Climate and adaption influences on the body size and shape in mammals.

New World Monkeys

Colour vision among this group is surprisingly variable. Due to differening arrangements of the pigment genes on X chromosome. They typically have only X chromosome pigment gene; multiple alleles allow different types of dichromatic colour vision, and in females heterozygous variant forms trichromatic colour vision. This is the case with marmosets, tamarins, squirrel monkeys and spider monkeys. All males of these species only see blues and greens. Both male and female howler monkeys are trichromatic. Nocturnal owl monkeys are monochromatic. They only see black, white and intermediate grays. A rare genetic disorder in humans known as achromatopsia causes a similar inability to see colours due to defective cones.

What is the most significant Homo erectus fossil?

Comes from East Turkana and is a nearly complete skull. Dated to 1.7 mya, is about the same age of other fossils outside of Africa and is now known to be the oldest known member of this species from Africa. Cranial capacity is estimated at 848 cm3, in the lower range for Homo erectus (700 - 1,250 cm3.

Dental microwear texture analysis study

Compared the microwear pattern in A. africanus and in P. robustus. The microwear texture in A. africanus resulted to be more anisotropic and more variable than P. robustus. This suggests that A. africanus ate more tough foods and P. robustus consumed hard and brittle foods, but that both had variable and overlapping diets.

Hylobatids

Composed of 8 species of gibbons and the siamang. Distributed in Southeast Asia. Are most primitive of living apes, retaining many monkey-like features. Relatively small (between 5-11kg) with no sexual size dimorphism. Have simple molar teeth, characterised by low, rounded cusps. Incisors are relatively short, but broad. Both sexes have long canines and blade-like lower anterior premolars. Gibbons have short snouts and shallow faces, large orbits with protruding rims and a wide interorbital distance.

Bone Tissue

Composite of 2 kinds of materials. A large protein molecule known as collagen - constitutes about 90% of the organic content of bone. The second component consists of crystals of hydroxyapatite giving bone its hardness and rigidity. 3 primary cells are involved in the formation and maintenance of bone tissue.

Anthropoids

Comprise of all primates except lemurs, lorises and tarsiers. Includes Old World monkeys, New World monkeys, apes and humans.

The Pleistocene Epoch

Comprises the time period spanned from 2.6 million years ago to 10,000 years ago. It is marked by stong climatic fluctuations. Fluctuations were cyclical with alternated glacial and interglacial intervals. During glacial intervals, the average temperatures drop down resulting in the expansion of ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres. The interglacial periods were characterised by warmer global temperatures: the ice melted and the glaciers retreated back. These climatic fluctuations impacted on climate, flora and fauna. The changes on food availability affected hominin migrations.

Skeletal system

Comprising of bones, joints, ligaments and connective tissues. Provides different functions for the human body. Helps supporting the weight of the muscles and internal organs; it protects soft and delicate internal organs, structure for muscles to attach so we can move, storage of important minerals such as calcium and phosphorous, produces red blood cells.

Ocular cones

Cones provide the sharpest images and are responsible for the ability to see colour, but they only function effectively when the light is bright.

Haversian Systems

Consist of canals and canaliculi, representing the basic structural unit of compact bone. Passing through the core of each haversian system is a hollow haversian canal. Through the canal, blood, lymph and nerve fibres pass.

Hominoids

Consist of only 5 genera. Divided into 2 families, hylobatids (or lesser apes) and hominidae (includes great apes and humans).

Describe the anatomical features of Homo antecessor specimen ATD6-69.

Consisting of a partial cranium of a 10 year old juvenile. The brain capacity has been estimated in 1000 cm3. The skull shows some primitive features as the double browridge and a protruding occipital bun. This is contradictory to this species showing a low forehead, a modern looking midface and small post-canine teeth.

Appendicular skeleton

Consists of 126 bones, and is formed by the shoulder and pelvic girdles and by the upper and lower limbs. Its main function helps the movement of the body.

Structure of the vertebrae

Consists of 2 essential parts, an anterior segment - the body, and a posterior part - the vertebral or neural arch; these enclose a foramen, the vertebral foramen. The vertebral arch consists of a pair of pedicles and laminae, supporting seven processes, 4 articular, 2 transverse and one spinous.

Panini Family

Consists of 2 species. Chimpanzees and bonobos.

The foot

Consists of 3 different regions: the tarsus, the metatarsus and the phalanges. It supports the body weight, acting as a lever to propel body forward when walking.

The metatarsus

Consists of 5 small long bones called metatarsals, with round distal articular surfaces (heads) and more squarish proximal ends (bases).

The metacarpus

Consists of 5 tubular bones, with round distal surfaces (heads) and more rectangular proximal ends (bases).

Describe the Levallois technique

Consists of a core that is first rounded by removing flakes around the edges. Flakes are then knocked off by hitting the core from the outer edge towards the center. This creates a flake with cutting edges on all sides.

Spongy Bone

Consists of soft, light and porous osseous tissue enclosing large cavities that give a honeycomb or spongy appearance. Organised into thin bony spicules (trabeculae) arranged along lines of stress. Highly vascular and frequently contains bone marrow.

Dietary cave deposits in Amund

Contain numerous plant fossils, some of them edible, suggesting that a broad spectrum of plants had been exploited by Neanderthals from the end of the Middle Paleolithic.

Bundled bone

Contains bundles of collagen fibers organized nearly parallel to one another.

The Crushing process of the chewing phase

Crushing is the force distributed between 2 hard bodies in a direction nearly perpendicular to the contact plane.

What are the earliest finds from Atapuerca dated to?

Dates to 1.2 mya, making it clearly the oldest hominin speciment yet found in western Europe.

The Grinding process of the chewing phase

Grinding is the resulting action of the combination of perpendicular and parallel forces to the contact plane.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

DNA found in the mitochondria. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother.

Discuss Cro-Magnon1 anatomical traits.

Cro-Magnon1 was discovered in 1868. This is one of the oldest human remains to be recognised as belonging to our own species. The remains belonged to an adult male that was probably 50 years old at his death, that shows modern traits including a high and rounded skull with a near vertical forehead, a large browridge and a chin.

The leg

Corresponds to the region of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle. It is formed by the tibia and fibula bones.

Endosteum

Covers the trabeculae of spongy bone, forming the medullary cavity of tubular bones where the bone marrow is stored.

Australopithecus Afarensis skull characteristics

Cranial capacity range between 350 and 500 cm3. Similar to modern apes. The skull shows some ape-like features as the projecting face, the presence of sagittal crest in males, and in the cranial base. Morphology of jaws and teeth is intermediate between those of apes and humans. Jaws are characterised by parallel tooth rows that curve at the back. In 2006, it has been discovered in the Hadar region, a complete cranium and a partial skeleton belonging to an immature individual dated to about 3.3 mya. These resemble a adult A. afarensis

What are the differences in cranial size of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens?

Cranial size is directly related to brain size. Early Homo had cranial capacities ranging from as small as 500 cm3 to as large as 800 cm3. Homo erectus, shows considerable brain enlargement, with a cranial capacity of about 700 to 1,250 cm3 and a mean of approximately 900 cm3.

noncoding DNA

DNA that does not direct the production of proteins. However, such DNA segments produce thousands of molecules (for example, RNA) that are involved in gene regulation. Thus the term noncoding DNA is misleading.

What is the best know fossils from the Middle Pleistocene found in China?

Dali and Jinniushan. Dated to between 230,000 and 180,000 years ago. The cranial capacity is large and the cranial vault bones are thin. These are modern features, unexpected for this period of time.

Homo erectus discovery in Sima del Elefante (Atapuerca, Spain)

Dated to 1.2 mya. Oldest evidence of hominins in western Europe, possibly not Homo erectus.

Homo erectus discovery in Sangiran (Java)

Dated to 1.6 mya. First discovery of Homo erectus from anywhere; shows dispersal out of Africa into southwest Asia by 1.6 mya.

Homo erectus discovery in Dmanisi (Republic of Georgia)

Dated to 1.8 mya. Oldest well-dated hominins outside of Africa; not like full Homo erectus morphology, but are small - bodies and small-brained.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Tabun (Israel)

Dated to 110,000 ya - date uncertain. Well-preserved and very well-studied fossils showing early evidence of Neanderthals in southwestern Asia.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Kabwe (Broken Hill, Zambia)

Dated to 130,000 ya. Nearly complete skull; mosaic of features (browridge very robust, but braincase expanded).

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Jinniushan (China)

Dated to 200,000 ya. Partial skeleton with cranium showing relatively large brain size; some Chinese scholars suggest it as possible ancestor of early Chinese Homo sapiens.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Dali (China)

Dated to 230,000 - 180,000 ya. Nearly complete skull; best evidence of Homo heidelbergensis in Asia.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Swanscombe (England)

Dated to 300,000 - 259,000 ya. Partial skull, but shows considerable brain expansion.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Vindija (China)

Dated to 42,000 - 28,000 ya. Large sample - best evidence of Neanderthals in eastern Europe. Latest well-dated Neanderthal site.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in La Chapelle (France)

Dated to 50,000 ya. Most famous Neanderthal site; histocially provided early, but distorted, interpretation of Neanderthals.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, northern Spain)

Dated to 600,000 - 400,000 ya. Large sample; very early evidence of Neandertal ancestry (>500,000 ya); earliest evidence of deliberate body disposal of the dead anywhere.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Bodo (Ethiopia)

Dated to 600,000 ya. Earliest example of African Homo heidelbergensis; likely evidence of butchery.

Homo heidelbergensis discoveries in Shanidar (Iraq)

Dated to 70,000 - 60,000 yea. Several well-preserved skeletons; good example of Neandertals from southwestern Asia; one individual with multiple injuries.

Homo erectus discovery in Ceprano in Italy

Dated to 900,000 - 350,000. Well-preserved cranium; best evidence of full Homo erectus morphology from any site in Europe.

Homo erectus found in China

Dated to about 1.15 to 0.15 mya.

What are the dates associated with the skull found at Steinheim in Germany?

Dated to about 250,000 years ago. The brain size is estimated to be 1200 cm3. Although the face is similar to other Homo heidelbergensis specimens, the cranium shows a depression in the occipital bone that is very Neanderthal - like.

Orrorin tugenesis

Dated to about 6 mya. Found in Kenya by Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford. Consists of fragmentary remains, probably belonging to 5 individuals, including several limb bones, jaw fragments and isolated teeth. The postcranial bones are particularly important because they clearly suggest a bipedal locomotion. The small canine teeth and their thick enamel layer are considered as a distinctive feature of the hominin group. Based on the morphological characteristics, Senut and team argued that Orrorin tugenenis is the direct human ancestor, with australopiths should be considered an extinct offshoot not ancestral to modern humans. Some anatomical adaptations of the upper limbs and the presence of curved fingers may indicate that this species was also adapted to arboreal environments. Supported by paleoenvironmental data that suggests the presence of an open woodland habitat with dense tree forests. Remains indicate a larger body size than expected for a late Miocene ape. Femur differs from those of apes and Homo, and most strongly resembles those of Australopithecus and Paranthropus, indicating that Orrorin was bipedal but it is not more closely related to Homo than to Australopithecus.

What did the pelvic bone found in Gona, Ethipoia in 2008 tell us?

Dated to between 0.9 to 1.4 mya. This obstetrically capacious pelvis demonstrates that pelvic shape in Homo ergaster was evolving in response to increasing fetal brain size. This pelvis indicated that neither adaptations to tropical environments nor endurance running were primary selective factors in determining pelvis morphology in Homo ergaster/Homo erectus during the early Pleistocene.

Discuss the recent discovery consisting of a hominin pelvis found in the Busidima Formation of Gona in Afar (Ethipoia).

Dated to between 1.4 and 0.9 mya, further complicates out further interpretations on the evolution of body size and shape in early humans. In fact, this pelvis was assigned to a female individual of Homo egaster (Homo erectus), showing an absolute eide bi-iliac breadth, indicating that they had a very broad trunk. This pelvis indicated that neither adaptations to tropical environments, nor endurance running ,were primary selective factors in determining pelvis morphology in Homo ergaster during the early Pleistocene.

The Sangiran fossil

Dated to between 1.6 to 0.7 mya. The most preserved specimens are Sangiran 17, an adult male skull characterised by a brain capacity of 1000 cm3, and Sangiran 2 with a brain capacity of 810 cm3. The Sangiran fossil share the same Homo erectus features characterising the Trinil human remains.

What climatic changes occurred around 75,000 years ago?

Decreased rainfalls and dropped temperatures that determined the increase in grasses and steppe vegetation. Expansions of the Sahara and Arabian deserts during this period probably isolated the Levant's Homo sapiens populations from their African counterparts. Cut off from larger Homo sapien populations in Africa, the descendants of the Skhul/Qafzeh humans probably dwindled to extinction around 75-70 ka. Neanderthals reoccupied the Levant when warmer and more humid conditions reasserted themselves after 70 ka. This probably reflects a greater physiological tolerance for colder conditions.

Analogous features that are found in the dentine tissue.

Dental tissue preserves a permanent record of their development through time, represented by incremental features in enamel and dentine microstructures. Counts and measurements of these incremental features have been used to determine the rate and duration of tooth formation, stress experienced during development, and age at death of juveniles. It is like determining the age of the tree looking inside the core analyzing annual circles, and counting the rings of each annual circle.

What is Dentine?

Dentine forms the inner portion of the tooth structure. Its composition is histologically analogous to bone composition, with almost 50% of mineral component and 50% of organic matrix based on collagen fibers. In the crown dentine is located just below the enamel surface, and it encapsulates the central cavity of the tooth (pulp cavity). Primary dentine develops during growth, whereas secondary dentine forms after root formation is complete.

How does Predation influence Social Structure?

Depending on their size, primates are vulnerable to many types of predators, including snakes, birds of prey, leopards, wild dogs and even other primates. Response o predation depends on their body size, social structure and the type of predator. Where predation pressure is high and body size is small, large communities are advantageous. May be multimale-multifemale groups of congregations of one male-multifemale groups.

Describe the diet of the Middle Paleolithic Mousterian cave deposits of Amud and Kebara in Israel.

Deposits contain numerous plant fossils such as legumes, pistachios and acorns.

Allometry

Described how traits scale with one another, and it measures the relationships between the size of the body parts. Is related to changes in size in organism's traits during developmental stages. The study of allometry can focus on 2 different aspects: 1. on differential growth, referring to the scaling relationship between the size of the body part and the size of the whole organism. 2. on biological scaling, which has a braoder meaning referring to the functional mechanisms in scaling relationship determining changes in morphological, physical or ecological traits.

Ethnographies

Detailed descriptive studies of human societies. In cultural anthropology, an ethnography is traditionally the study of a non-Western society.

Difference in skeletal shape in primate taxa

Differences are related to locomotion. The postcranial skeleton provides both a structural support and a series of attachments and levers to aid in the movements.

Adaptations of the brain in the course of evolutionary development

Differences in relative size, structure and function of the brain underwent a marked modification in the course of evolutionary development of the more complex vertebrates. In primitive vertebrate such as fish, the brain stem is the largest part of the brain, the forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus) is diminutive, consisting mostly of olfactory bulbs. As higher vertebrates evolved from fish-like ancestors, the forebrain enlarged. In birds, the forebrain is expanded and involved in their complex behaviour. In humans, the brain is dominated by a large cerebrum, which is linked to reasoning and cognition.

What are the types of cells in the central nervous system.

Differentiate in neurons and glial cells.

Where was the most representative fossils of Homo erectus been discovered?

Discovered at Zhoukoudian between 1920 and 1930. Yielded numerous fossils including 14 crania, more than 100 isolated teeth and fragmented postcranial elements that are by far the largest collection of Homo erectus found anywhere. They were remains of 40 individuals dated between 0.78 to 0.68 mya. This fossil material was lost during World war 2 after the invasion of the Japanese Army in China in 1941. Only casts of the originals made by Franz Weidenreich, a german anthropologist are left.

The Black Skull

Discovered in 1985 by Yves Coppens. Dated to 2.4 and 2.7 mya. Assigned to Paranthropus aethiopicus. The colour is characterising this skull is given by high level of manganese absorbed during fossilisation. The brain capacity is estimated in 410 cm3, similar to modern apes. The skull is heavily built with prominent sagittal crest, large zygimathic arch, and broad cheekbones, both indicating a powerful masticatory system adapted to eat tough and hard plant foods.

Discuss the discovery of the fossil of a young boy at the site of Lagar Velho in Portugal.

Discovered in April 1999. Found a skeleton of a young boy deliberated buried. It has been dated to about 24,500 years. According to some scientists, the skeleton contains a mixture of features from both modern humans and Neanderthas and is best explained as being a hybrid. It is dated to be at least 4,000 years more recent that the last known Neanderthals from Gibraltar, they consider it to be not the result of a direct interbreeding, but the descendant of a hybrid population that persisted for thousands of years.

Why is the discovery of the well-preserved hyoid bone important?

Discovered in Kebara in Israel. It contributes to the understanding of the speech capacities of Neanderthals.

Kenyanthropus platyops

Discovered in Kenya near Lake Turkana, and dated between 3.5 and 3.2 mya. Constituted by a single skull, highly fragmented, with a mixture of primitive and derived features. Cranial capacity is small and estimated in 350 cm3, similar to a modern chimpanzee. Has a broad face and small molars are human-like features. Based on these derived, Meave Leakey attributed this species to a new genus. But no real concensus as to whether K. platyops is even distinct from the contemporary and much better known Australopithecus afarensis. Also those who think it is similar to Homo rudolfensis, which existed in the same geographic region, but more than a million years later.

Fossil KNM-ER 62000

Discovered in Koobi Fora in Kenya and dated to between 1.95 to 1.78 mya. A well preserved face of a late juvenile, closely resembles KNM-ER 1470 although it is markedly smaller. Morphological features of the mandible. Suggests that these new fossils likely belong to the species Homo rudolfensis.

Discuss "Flo" the "Little Lade of Flores"

Discovered in Liang Bua Cave on the island of Flores, east of Java. Remains consist of an incomplete skeleton of an adult female (LB1) as well as additional specimens from approximately 13 other individuals. The female skeleton (LB1) has some aspects similar to the Dmanisi hominins - barely 3 feet tall, as short as the smallest australopith - her brain estimated at 417 cm3 was no larger than a chimpanzee. They were still living on Flores just 13,000 ya. Stone tools have been discovered with the remains.

Paranthropus aethiopicus

Discovered in southern Ethiopia west of the Omo River by a French team led by Yves Coppens and dated to between 2.4 and 2.7 mya. This new species generated more interest with the discovery of the Black Skull in 1985.

Ralph Von Koenigswald

Discovered the fossilised teeth of Gigantopithecus blacki. Was born in Germany but later became a Dutch citizen. Was taken prisoner by the Japanese on the island of Java during World War 2. Had to hide his small collection of Giganto teeth by burying them in a milk bottle until after the war.

Chromosomes

Discrete structures composed of DNA and proteins found only in the nuclei of cells. Chromosomes are visible under magnification only during certain phases of cell division.

How does Dispersal influence Social Structure?

Dispersal is another factor that influences social structure and relationships within groups. Members of one sex leave the group in which they were born (their natal group) about the time they become sexually mature. Male dispersal is more common pattern ) ring tailed lemurs, vervets and macaques). Female dispersal is seen in some colobus species, hamadryas baboons, chimpanzees and mountain gorillas. In groups based on mated pair, the offspring of both sexes either leave or are driven away by their parents (gibbons and siamangs). When females leave they join another group. Males may do this but in some species (eg. gorillas) they may live alone for a time, or they may temporarily join an all male "bachelor" group until they are able to establish a group of their own. Common theme is that individuals who disperse usually fine mates outside their natal group - conclude that the most valid explanations for disperal are related to 2 major factors; reduced competition between males for mates and the decreased likelihood of close inbreeding.

Describe the cranial shape of Homo erectus

Display a highly distinctive shape. Partly because of increased brain size but probably more correlated with increased body size. Ramifications of this heavily built cranium are reflected in thick cranial bone, large browridges (supraorbital tori) above the eyes and a projecting nuchal torus at the back of the skull. Browcase is long and low, receding from the large browridges with little forehead development. Cranium is wider a the base compared with earlier and later species of Homo.

Class 2 of Angle's Classification of types of malocclusions.

Distocculusion. The dental relationship in which the mandibular dental arch is posterior to the maxillary dental arch in one or both lateral segments, the mandibular first molar is distal to the maxillary first molar.

Australopith time frame

Diverse forms, some more primitive, others highly derived (4.2 to 1.2 mya).

Describe the anatomy of a tooth

Divided into 3 parts. 1)the crown 2) the root 3) the pulp chamber.

Denition

Divided into 4 quadrants: upper left, upper right, lower left and lower right.

The Sagittal plane

Divides the body into symmetrical right and left halves.

Who first excavated the Cave of Kebara?

Dorothy Garrod at the beginning of 1930, but the most significant discovery was made in 1983, when a near complete skeleton was recovered in association with a Levallois-Mousterian lithic industry.

True or false. High temperatures promote fossilisation?

False

Euprimates

During Eocene epoch (55.8 - 33 mya) - definite recognizable and modern derived primate traits, such as forward facing eyes, greater encephalization, postorbital bar, nails instead of claws at ends of their fingers instead of claws, opposable big toe. Two main groups - Adapoidea and Omomyoidea.

How would it be possible for modern humans to have moved out of Africa at an earlier time frame?

During glacial times, the sea level was low, and Australia was joined to New Guinea forming a landmass called Sahul, and the distance between Timor and Sahul would have been reduced to about 90 km. It is hypothesized that modern humans arrived in Southeast Asia around 70,000 years ago. Some of these populations may have crossed the ocean between islands colonizing Australia about 50,000 years ago. This date corresponds to the age estimation of the oldest archeological site found in the northern parts of Australia at Malakunanja.

The mastication process

During mastication, the food is broken down and reduced to small pieces, providing an increased surface area for the digestive enzymes to act upon.

When did the first members of the order Primate appear?

During the Eocene, about 50 million years ago. Found in North America, Europe, Africa and Asia. Closely resemble lemurs, lorises and tarsiers. During this epoch that they reached the island of Madagascar.

Why is the Levant important?

During the Pleistocene the Levant was an important crossroads for the migrations of hominins and animals between Africa and Eurasia.

Asian Origin Model

During the Tertiary Period, South America was geographically isolated. Proposes that the ancestral group of Platyrrhines developed in Asia and dispersed to North America via the Bering Bridge in the late Eocene.

African origin model

During the Tertiary Period, South America was geographically isolated. The ancestors of the modern New Wold monkeys are hypothesized to have migrated from Africa to South America. Most important evidence in this model is the morphological similarity found between Platyrrhines and the Oligocene Primates from Africa.

What is the North American model of how New World monkeys appear in Bolivia?

During the Tertiary Period, South America was geographically isolated. This theory suggests that Eocene Tarsiiform primates colonized the South American continent through island hopping by waif dispersal across the Caribbean Sea.

Carboniferous Period

During the early part of this period, East Gondwanaland began to drift toward the South Pole. The Euramerica supercontinent collided with the northern margin of Gondwanaland forming Laurasia by the late Carboniferous. The forests became more and more important, esp. in the early Carboniferous where the climate was warm and humid. But towards the end of this period the temperatures began to drop and the amniotic egg freed life from dependence on water. Giant forms of dragonflies and other insects inhabit the land. Reptiles appeared, Sharks became abundant and diversified.

What is the talon in relation to dentition?

During the evolution of mammalian dentition, certain groups developed an additional low shelf, called the talon, constituted by the hypocone cusp.

Oligocene Primates

During this period South America was separated both from Africa and North America. Most come from a single locality, EI Fayum in Egypt. 36-31 million years ago (during the early and mid Oligocene). Was a tropical rainforest. Other fossil deposits have been found in North and West Africa, the southern Arabian Peninsula, China, Southeast Asia and well as North and South America. Among these - Apidium and Aegyptopithecus.

Cambrian Period

During this period occurred an explosion of life with the appearance of all the existing phyla at this time.Most continents were located in the southern hemisphere. At the beginning life was entirely confined to the oceans. Animals with shells and exoskeletons appeared for the first time, including trilobites, brachiopods and mollusks.

Ordovician Period

During this time, the different landmasses that now constitute Southern Europe, Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia remained joined together in the supercontinent Gondwanaland which had moved down to the South Pole. Characterised by warm temperatures that favoured the marine life. During this period evolved for the first time the foraminifera.

True or false? Large brains and tool- making behvaiour were the first hallmarks of human evolution?

False

When did primates evolve?

Earliest primates evolved from insectivorous mammals during the early Paleocene, resembling living tree shrews, flying lemurs and bats.

True or false. In general, smaller primates tend to be folivorous?

False.

What are autonomic responses to threatening or novel stimuli?

Eg. raised body hair (most species), or enhanced body odor (gorillas) indicates excitment or fear.

Terrestrial quadrupedalism

Enables a primate to move rapidly on the ground. Tend to have long forelimbs and hindlimbs of similar length; shortened digits and elongated, robust tarsal and metatarsal elements; narrow thoraxes, a reduced tail and a restricted shoulder joint.

What are the 4 main dental tissues?

Enamel, cement, dental pulp, together with dentine are the 4 main dental tissues.

Discuss encephalization comparison between Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens.

Encephalization was reached through different trajectories. Around the time of birth, modern humans and Neanderthals have similar endocranial sizes and shapes. After the constraints on neonatal shape and size imposed by the shape of the birth canal of female pelvis are relaxed, the 2 species develope along different pathways. The difference between the developmental patterns of modern humans and Neanderthals is most prominent directly after birth.

Eons

Eons are the first and largest divisions of geological time.

Chronometric dating techniques

Estimate the date of an object in absolute terms, through the use of a natural clock such as radioactive decay or tree ring growth.

What age has the Hexian site been dated to?

Estimated to between 270,000 and 150,000 years ago, resulting this is being one of the latest Homo erectus together with the fossils from Ngandong.

What is a fossil?

Evidence of ancient organisms. They are the historical documentation of biology. Accumulation of fossils from earlier geological periods preserved in sedimentary rock is defined as fossil record. Can help us to study how evolution has created and changed life forms on Earth. Can be useful to determine the geological time scale and to suggest relative ages to particular sedimentary layers. Provide information about past environmental conditions and they can help to reconstruct the dynamic and position of tectonic plates during past geological times.

Discuss the dangerous Neanderthal lifestyle

Evident from the analysis of the skeletal remains found at the Shanidar Cave in northern Iraq. The specimen Shanidar 1 shows a series of remarkable features: the examination of his skeletal remains suggests that at a young age this individual experienced a crushing blow to his head. The blow damaged the left eye (possibly blinding him) and the brain controlling the right side of the body, leading to a withered right arm and possible paralysis that also crippled his right leg. One of Shanidar 1's middle foot bones on his right foot shows a healed fracture, which probably only enhanced his noticeable limp. All injuries showed signs of healing, so none of them resulted in his death. He was estimated to live until 35-45 years of age. He would probably not been able to survive without the care of his social group - earliest example of Neanderthal altruism.

Earliest human ancestor

Evolved from a species that lives some 6-8 million years ago (mya).

Australopithecus afarensis locomotor habits

Example of the most abundant evidence of hominin bipedalism. The skeleton of Lucy, a female specimen dated to 3.2 million years ago, is probably one of the best examples providing the first direct anatomical evidence of a true shift from occasional to habitual bipedalism. Thge wide sacrum would have kept the mass of the trunk close to the hip allowing efficient transfer of the weight to the lower limb during the walking. The short and wide iliac blades would have allowed the lesser gluteal muscles to be situated laterally and act as pelvic abductors. The presence of the anterior inferior iliac spine indicates the attachment of some of the gluteal muscles important during bipedal walking. The bicondylar angle and the large femoral head are human like and unequivocally imply habitual bipedality. The Laetoli footprints from Tanzania have been assigned to this species.

Genetic Polymorphisms Used to Study Human Variation: DNA based.

Examples: Microsatellites (multiple repeats along a chromosomal region). Alus: (single repeats that can jump between chromosomes. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (change in single nucleotide within coding or noncoding DNA). Note: most of these characteristics are neutral and therefore not influenced by natural selection.

Genetic Polymorphisms Used to Study Human Variation. Phenotypically ascertained

Examples: Red blood cell antigens (ABO, MN, etc.) White blood cell antigens (HLA). PTC. Note: most of these traits are subject to natural selection.

What is the bipedal locomotion hypothesis that was proposed by Kevin Hunt?

Expanded on Cliff Jolly's hypothesis of bipedal locomotion habits being associated to dietary habits of feeding on grass seeds upright. He expanded this to include the emergence of bipedal locomotion with postural feeding behaviour consisting in picking seeds, berries and fruits from bushes and in lower branches. But fails to explain the emergence of bipedal locomotion as it was already prevelant in quadruped animals feeding such as the gerenuk antelope that stands on posterior limbs while feeding from trees without the need to move bipedally. And dental analysis of early hominin dentition microwear patterns suggests the consumption of fruit rather than seeds.

What is Milford Wolpoff associated with?

Expanded on the regional continuity model initialised by Franz Weidenreich. Further developed the model emphasizing the importance of gene flow between regional lines. Through gene flow and natural selection, local populations would not have evolved totally independently, and interbreeding would have prevented speciation between regional lineages.

Describe the African continent during interglacial phases of the Pleistocene.

Experienced an increase of rainfalls that determined an advance of the savanna vegetation toward the deserted zones, and the expansion of the forest area in the western and central parts. During the glacial period, due to the reduced rainfall, there was an increased aridity with the expansion of deserts.

Vertebral column

Extends from the skull to the pelvis, supporting the head and enclosing the spinal chord. Is divided into 5 major regions: the cervical vertebrae, composed of 7 vertebrae of the neck region, the thoracic vertebrae, consisting of 12 vertebrae of the thoracic region; the lumbar vertebrae with 5 vertebrae of the lower back; the sacrum, an inferior to lumbar vertebrae articulating with the coxal bones; the coccyx, the most inferior region of the vertebral column.

Why do Chinese anthropologists argue that modern Chinese evolved regionally from Homo erectus populations?

Few human fossil remains, contemporaneous to the African European Middle Pleistocene groups have been found in Asia also displaying primitive and derived features. Chinese paleoanthropologists suggest that the retention of primitive features such as sagittal keel and flattened nasal bones found in these human remains, together wtih the presences of some of these traits in modern humans in China, can be indicative of a genetic continuity, excluding the possibility that modern Chinese did not evolve from Homo sapiens neither in Europe of Africa.

Describe the art found in a cave at Altamira

Filled with superb portrayals of bison in red and black. The artist even took advantage of bulges in the walls to create a sense of relief - 3D in the painting.

Principle of Faunal Succession

First developed by William Smith. Based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same period of times throughout the Earth, their presence or absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found.

When was the term allometry introduced and by whom?

First introduced by Julian Huxley in 1936. He was studying the growth relationship between the size of chela in male fiddler crab and body size.

Extant Platyrrhines and Catarrhines come from a common anthropoid or proto-anthropoid ancestor. But how did these Platyrrhine ancestors reached South America?

First, ocean currents of the time would have facilitated a crossing from Africa to South America and not from North America. During the middle Oligocene there was a large drop in sea level that may have allowed rafting to be more permissible. The presence of volcanic islands around the Mid-Atlantic ridge during the Eocene probably shortens the open sea distances substantially, facilitating the colonization fo the South American continent.

What were the fossil remains found in Africa and dated between 1.9 and 1.5 mya?

Firstly attributed to Homo erectus and now widely assigned to a new species, Homo ergaster - means "working man" referring to the use of tools.

Paranthropus boisei

Firstly described by Mary Leakey in 1959, with a well preserved cranium found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Other skeletal remains attributed to this species have been found in Ethiopia, Kenya and Malawi, with a timespan comprised between 2.6 and 1.1 mya. Characterised by a unique and specialised skull adapted for heavy chewing, as a prominent sagittal crest, broad cheekbones and flaring zygomatic arches. The cranial capacity is estimated between 500 and 550 cm3. The molars are large and canines and incisors small.

Bergmann's Rule

Focuses on body size. He found that mammals living in colder climates showed larger body sizes. He explained this relationship between body size and climate, as an adaptive response to reduce heat dissipation, helping to maintain higher body temperatures. A simple geometric interpretation. As volume increases, surface areas decreases as a proportion of a volume. Shows how larger bodies dissipate less heat.

Allen's rule

Focuses on the body's limbs. He observed that mammals in warmer environmens are characterized by longer limbs because they would help to dissipate heat, while mammals living in colder climates show shorter limbs which would help in conserving body heat. A simple geometrical explanation related to the surface/volume ratio. Therefore showing that having longer limbs help to better dissipate body heat in warmer environments.

Selective pressures

Forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals.

Maxillae

Form the dominant portion of the face. Functionally, they hold the tooth roots and form most of the nasal aperture and floor, most of the hard palate, and the floors of the orbits. Comprise of 4 basic processes and they articulate with each other and with the frontal, nasals, lacrimals, ethmoid, inferior nasal choncae, palatines, vomer, zygomatics and sphenoid.

Zygomatic bones

Form the prominent corners of the face. The edges are easily identifiable, with the rounded orbital rim, the sharp area around jugale adjacent to the temporal fossa, and the roughened inferior border. Each zygomatic bone articulates via its three main processes, with the frontal. sphenoid, temporal and maxilla.

Temporal bones

Form the transition between cranial wall and base, house the delicate organs of hearing, and form the upper surface of the jaw joints. Highly irregularly shape of the temporal bones is related to the varying functions of the bone. The temporal articulates with the parietal, occipital, sphenoid, zygomatic and mandible through the temporomandibular joint.

Sedimentary rocks

Formed at or near the Earth's surface by the accumulation and lithification of sediment, or by the precipitation from solution. Sediment can be transported by water, as rivers or lakes, by ice or glaciers and by wind. Sedimentary rocks are often deposited in layers and frequently contain fossils.

Upper limbs

Formed by 30 bones that are grouped in the arm, forearm and hand. The arm is the region of the upper limb between the shoulder and the elbow.

Compact Bone

Found in walls of the bone shafts and on external bone surfaces. Is dense and solid.

The Pubis

Forms the anterior region of the coxal bone. It lies horizontally in the anatomical position. The pubis symphysis is the nearmidline surface of the pubis where the 2 coxal bones most closely approach, and are joined by a fibrocartilage.

The Axial Skeleton

Forms the long axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull and the bones of the trunk, including the vertebrae, sacrum, ribs and sternum. Generally these bones are most involved in protecting and supporting functions.

The Ischium

Forms the posteroinferior region of the coxal bone, joining the pubis anteriorly. The ischial tuberosities are the strongest parts of the hip bone.

Discuss fossil OH 9

Fossil Homo erectus. Also consists of a partial cranium found by Richard Leakey at Olduvai in Tanzania. This fossil has been dated 1.2 mya and his cranial capacity estimated in 1067 cm3.

Discuss fossil KNM-ER 3883

Fossil Homo erectus. Consists of partial cranium belongs to an adult male, and with a cranial capacity estimated in 800 cm3.

Discuss fossil KNM-WT 15000

Fossil Homo erectus. The most important fossil for this specimen. Discovered in 1984 by Kamoya Kimeu at Nariokotome, west of the Lake Turkana in Kenya, also know as "Turkana Boy". Consists of a cranium and a partial skeleton that was successively reconstructed. It holds information about body size, body shape and growth rate in Homo ergaster. The skeleton belongs to an immature individual, who was probably 8-10 years of age when he died. He was 1.6m tall and weighed 48kg when he died. His cranial capacity was 880 cm3. Scientists believed that the growth rate was similar to Homo sapiens, and they estimated an adult height of 185 cm and an adult cranial capacity of 909 cm3. Because he was very tall with a slender body, some scientists hypothesized that his body shape was an adaptation to live in a hot and dry climate of Africa. His long legs and narrow pelvis helped him walk further, increasing his home range, and maybe even run long distanced. Furthermore, it was concluded that Homo ergaster pelvis were obsetetrically restricted to birthing a small-brained neonate.

Australopithecus gahri

Fossil remains found in Ethiopia, including cranial fragments from a single individual. These remains have been dated to about 2.5 mya. The skull differs from those of earlier australopithecines in certain features, particularly with respect to the large size of its teeth, especially the molars and premolards. Such robus grinding equipment suggests a diet including tough and fibrous foods. The cranial capacity has been estimated in 450 cm3. Its taxonomic status is still controversial.

Fossil remains from Koobi

Fossils have been dated to 1.95 to 1.78 mya, a bit younger of the earliest forms of Homo. Suggests that these new fossils likely belong to the species Homo rudolfensis.

What are index fossils?

Fossils widely distributed in a limited time span.

What is the evidence that supports the use of personal ornaments, expressions of symbolic/functional behaviours related to the emergence of modern cultures?

Found at the Qafzeh Cave, the presence of perforated marine shells, and the discovery of orange and red pigment material at Skhul.

Discuss the Omo2 fossil.

Found between 1967 and 1974 near the Omo River in Ethiopia and dated to about 195,000 years ago. Reveals an overall modern morphology with some primitive features. More robust than Omo1 and less modern in morphology.

Discuss the Omo1 fossil

Found between 1967 and 1974 near the Omo River in Ethiopia and dated to about 195,000 years ago. Reveals an overall modern morphology with some primitive features. The braincase is expanded and more rounded, the forehead is high and the chin is prominent.

Discuss the Trinil fossil

Found by Dubois. Is characterized by a cranial capacity of 940 cm3, that is slightly bigger than of African Homo ergaster. The presence of thick cranial vault, sagittal keel, browridges and nuchal torus, are more pronouced than those in Homo ergaster. The femur is similar to modern humans, but it is more massively built.

Where have fossil remains of Neanderthals been recently attributed to?

Found from caves in the Altai region of Siberia, extending thus the Neanderthal geographical range into central Asia.

Gorillas

Found in 10 Central African countries. Occupy a broad diversity of habitats ranging from coastal lowland forests to the high altitude mountain rainforests. They are 4 recognized gorilla subspecies and 2 species, the Eastern and the Western gorillas. All 4 gorillas are classified as either Endangered or Critically Endangered. Less than 800 Mountain Gorillas left today. Are the largest of the living apes. Extreme sexual size dimorphism, females can weigh between 70-90kg and males up to 200kg. Mountain Gorillas mainly feed on leaves while the other subspecies eat more fruit. Mountain gorillas live in groups of 9/10 individuals with one mature adult male, or silverback, one or more younger males and several adult females with offspring. Have relatively long forelimbs. Hands very broad and have large pollex and dermal ridges on the dorsal surface of their digits. Trunk is relatively short and broad and have wide thorax and broad pelvis. Hindlimbs are relatively short, and feet are broad. Mountain gorillas live on the ground while lowland forms are more arboreal. On the ground, they move by quadrupedal walking and running. Have an unusual hand posture for quadrupedal standing and moving called knuckle walking. Skulls have robust nuchal and sagittal crests. Crests are more pronounced in adult males than in females. Like the sagittal crest, the robust nuchal is very pronounced in adult males, supporting the large temporal muscles needed to grind coarse vegetation. Have relatively long snouts and pronounced brow ridges. Molar teeth have a greater development of crests than those of any other hominoid, associated with their folivorous diet. They have large tusk-like canines and relatively small incisors.

Australopithecus africanus

Found in 1924 in a limestone quarry at Taung in South Africa described by a young Australian anatomist Raymond Dart. Described on a basis of a micture of human-like and ape-lke features, believed to be an early ancestor of humans, assigning it to a new species. From 1924, many other fossil remains have been found in South Africa, dated between 3.3 and 2.3 mya and attributed to this species.

Neanderthal remins found in St. Cesaire, France.

Found in 1978. They are dated to about 36,000 years ago. The most striking feature was the association of these skeletal remains with the Chatelperronian lithic industry.

Discuss the skeletal remains found at the cave of Lamalunga in southern Italy

Found in 1993 by a group of speleologists. Remains are unique because the fossil is covered in calcium carbonate concretions. They probably belong to a single adult male. It has been hypothesized that this man probably fell down into the cave and was unable to get out. No evidence of bone fractures. He probably starved to death. Extracting these remains are very difficult, the fossil was analysed using a Micro camera and 3D laser topographic survey. Dating is not very precise but it is estimated to be between 400,000 and 200,000 years old. These remains show some Neanderthal-like features, but primitive cranial traits align this cranium with other Homo heidelbergensis specimens of Europe.

Discuss the fossil remains from Herto in Ethiopia.

Found in 2003. Greatly contributed in understanding the origins of modern humans, giving strong support to the Out of Africa theory. Remains include a mostly complete adult cranium, an incomplete adult cranium, a fairly complete child's cranium and other cranial fragments. These remains have been dated to between 160,000 and 154,000 years ago and been assigned by Tim White and his team to a new subspecies Homo sapiens idaltu - anatomically and chronologically intermediated between older Archaic humans and more recent fully modern humans. The most complete adult cranium has a large cranial capacity estimated in 1450 cm3, well within the range of contemporaneous modern humans. The skull is heavily built with prominent arching browridges, a long cranial vault and a large projecting occipital protuberance.

Where have the oldest fossil remains assigned to anatomically modern humans been found and how old are they?

Found in Africa and dated to about 200,000 years ago.

What is the age of the Ngandong fossils?

Found in Java and managed to survive there until less than 100,000 years ago. Estimated age of these Homo erectus fossils suggesting an age of only 50,000 to 25,000 years ago.

Describe KNM-ER 1813 (the most complete skul of Homo habilis)

Found in Koobi Fora, East of Turkana (Kenya) in 1973. It is the most complete skull of this species, with a cranial capacity estimated to be 510 cm3, just slightly bigger than an average australopithecine. Despite its small brain size, it shows many similarities with the other members of this species, as the small orbit size, the facial prognathism, and the overall size.

Laetoli footprints

Found in Tanzania and assigned to Australopithecus afarensis. The analysis of this foot morphology shows a strong heel-strike, and a slight gap between the hallux and the other toes and a well-developed medial longitudinal arch, providing thus convincing evidence of bipedalism. The close spacing of the footprints indicated that the hominins who left them had a short stride, and therefore probably had short legs.

Discuss Arago 21.

Found in Tautavel in France. The skull is distorted, probably during fossilisation. It has been dated to between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago.

Where have the oldest Homo sapien fossils been found outside of Africa and how old are they?

Found in the Levantine region and are dated to between 50,000 and 40,000 years ago.

What causes the different locomotor styles between humans and great apes?

Found in the structural changes of our skeleton that directly affect the skull, the spine, the pelvis, the legs and the feet. Sshaped spine in humans (bipeds) using the primary and secondary curvatures to put the center of gravity and balance over the hips and feet, and the C shaped spine in quadrupeds putting the gravity over their centre when on 4 legs but in front of their feet if standing upright on 2 legs.

Long bones

Found in the upper and lower limbs. Relatively long elements. External surface is covered by thin double-layered membrane known as periosteum. Inner bone surface is covered with cellular membrane called the endosteum.

What is the most drastic morphological adaptation in the human skeleton that relate to bipedalism?

Found within the pelvis and lower limbs. The skeleton of a habitual biped evolved to facilitate balancing and save energy.

What species was found from Aramis in Ethiopia in 1994?

Fragmentary fossil remains, including some isolated teeth and jaw bones. Have been described and assigned to a new hominin genus, Ardipithecus. And dated to about 4.4 mya, representing the oldest hominin fossils discovered at the time. Additional remains were found in 2009 by a team led by Tim White, describing the new species as Ardipithecus ramidus consisting of a partial skeleton. Found with other faunal remains that indicate a wooded environment, contradicting the hypothesis that bipedalism evolved in open Savannah environment. Additional fragmentary fossils found in Ethiopia near Aramis, dating to between 5.8 and 5.2 mya, and been assigned not to the same genus Ardipithecus but to a new species Kedabba, based on distinctive dental features. Many scientists are skeptical about this taxonomic status attributed to these fossil remains.

What was discovered at Amud Cave in renewed works after the original discovery?

Fragmentary human remains belonging to immature individual. The specimen is a partial skeleton of 10 month olf individual. This reconfirms the presence of Neanderthals in the Middle Paleolithic in the Near East, while the taphonomic circumstances lend support to the claim of intentional burial by this group.

Discuss the remains discovered in Denisova Cave in Siberia.

Fragmented human remains were discovered that have been dated to between 50,000 t0 30,000 years ago. A team from Max Planck Institute from Germany extracted ancient DNA from a phalanx found in this cave. The sequence of the complete mtDNA genome of the Denisovan remains diverged from the common lineage leading to modern human and Neanderthal mtDNAs about 1 million years ago - that is about twice as far back in time as the divergence between Neanderthal and modern human mtDNAs.

Colobines

From family Cercopithecoidea. Have broad interorbital regions and narrow incisors. Have deep mandibles. Have complex stomachs and long legs. Leaf-eating monkeys living in Africa and Asia. The African sp. come in 3 colour groups which dictate behavioural aspects; black and white, red and olive.

Cercopithecines

From family Cercopithecoidea. Have narrow interorbital regions and broad incisors. Have shallow lower jaws. Have cheek pouches and similar arms and legs. Predominantly an African group. Only a single, very successful genus, Macaca, is found in Asia or Europe. Range in size from the tiny arboreal talapoin monkey of western Africa to the large, mostly terrestrial baboons.

Where did the species Homo radiate from and to?

From the African continent, migrating to South-east Asia, Indonesia and Europe. But we do not know which species first moved out of Africa and when exactly it happened.

What is the best example of western European Homo sapiens?

From the Cro-Magnon site, a rock shelter in southern France.

What primate species have the thickest relative enamel thickness?

From the thinner end: Pan, Hylobates, Pongo and Homo.

Cercopithecoidea

Further divided into the subfamilies of Cercopithecinae and Colobinae.

Sacral vertebrae

Fuse during adolescence into one immobile, wedge-shaped bone, the sacrum. Typically formed from 5 segments, but may have as few as four or as many as 6. Located at the base of the vertebral column. It articulated bilaterally with the 2 ossa coxa and inferiorly with the small coccyx.

Laetoli Footprints

Grassland Savanna in now northern Tanzania in East Africa. Date to 3.7 million years ago. Australopithecus afarensis.

Regulatory genes

Genes that influence the activity of other genes. Regulatory genes direct embryonic development and are involved in physiological processes throughout life. They are critically important to the evolutionary process.

Name the sites where Middle Pleistocene sites in Europe that have yielded more fossil hominins that in Africa. And the approximate dates of these sites.

Germany, Greece, Italy, France, England and Spain. Dated to between 600,000 and 200,000 years ago.

Silurian Period

Gondwanaland continues its slow southern drift, while Siberia, Laurentia and Baltica converge at the equator. Following the Ordovician extinction event there was a rapid recovery of invertebrate faunas during the Silurian. High sea levels and warm shallow continental seas provided a hospitable environment for marine life of all kinds. The biota and ecological dynamics were basically still similar to that of the Ordovician, but was more diverse, including jawless fish.

What primate species have the thinnest relative enamel thickness?

Gorillas and Symphalangus.

How does Distribution and Types of Sleeping Sites influence Social Structure?

Gorillas are the only nonhuman primates that sleep on the ground. Primate sleeping sites can be in trees or on cliff faces, and their spacing can be related to social structure and predator avoidance.

Matrilines

Groups that consist of a female, her daughters, and their offsrping. Matrilines are common among macaques.

Besides metabolism, body size and shape in mammals are influenced by what else?

Growth, nutrition, sexual dimorphism, climate and adaptation.

What was found in the cache of the earliest stone tools that were discovered in Africa?

Hammer stones that show battering on their surfaces, stone cores with a series of flake scars along one or more edges, and sharp stone flakes that were struck from the cores and offer useful cutting edges, long with lots of debris from the process of percussion flaking. This industry has been called Oldowan.

Conditions that promote fossilisation

Hard body elements. More common for fossilisation in marine environments as terrestrial environments are more subjected to early erosion. Organism needs to undergo rapid burial. Also important that they are buried in anaerobic conditions, because oxygen favours the presence of bacteria that decompose organic material. Rapid burial promotes fossilisation as it prevents decomposition, and avoids damage by scavengers and weathering agents.

Describe the basal mammalian molar

Has a triangular shape outline with 3 main cusps: the protocone, the metacone and the paracone. These cusps are surrounded by ridges (or cingulum) on both the lingual and buccal sides. Highest cusp of the upper tooth occluded with the space between adjacent lower teeth, and functioned as a shearing end. Arrangement called trigon.

Upper premolar crowns

Have 2 main cusps: buccal and lingual. The buccal and lingual cusps are of nearly equal size. Their crowns are characterised by strong occlusal grooves oriented mesio-distally between the major cusps. Upper crowns are also more oval in occlusal outline. They tend to have double roots.

What is special about the cranium and brain capacity of Homo habilis?

Have a bigger brain capacity that early primates, several aspects of their post-cranial skeleton are still ape-like, as the small body size, the longer arms compared to their legs, and the slightly curved fingers. Some scholars suggested that this species should be classified as Australipithecus habilis.

Insect eating primates

Have a digestive tract with a simple stomach and a short large intestine. Are characterized by molar and premolar teeth with sharp cusps and well developed shearing crests.

Gum eating primates

Have an enlarged caecum, suggesting that they may use bacteria in the gut to breakdown the structural carbohydrates in gums or resins. Usually have specialized incisor teeth for digging holes in bark and scraping exudates out of the holes.

Leaf eating primates

Have an enlargement of part of the digestive tract for the housing of bacteria for the breakdown of cellulose. Have relatively small incisors and molar teeth with well developed shearing crests.

Australopithecine dentition

Have large cheek teeth relative to their anterior than Hmo, particularly in Paranthropus, where there is a marked increase from second incisors to distal round of the dental arcade, and premolars are larger than the canines. Have cheek teeth 1.7 to 2.3 times larger than modern hominoid of similar body size.

Molars

Have large crowns, bearing more cusps than other teeth. They usually have multiple roots.

Flat Bones

Have thin, flat surfaces, and found especially in the cranium, in the shoulder girdle and in the thorax.

What did McHenry attempt to reconstruct using hind limb measurements?

He attempted to reconstruct the hominin statures using hind limb measurements. It is the most direct and reliable estimates are those that require only slight reconstruction of the fossil, especially for specimens relatively complete. He applied regression equations to estimate stature in Plio-Pleistocene hominins by means of the femurstature ratio reported by Feldesman et al. this ratio is given by the maximum femur length, multiplied for one hundred and divided by the living statures taken from different human populations. The stature will be obtained by multiplying the maximum femur length for one hundred and by dividing it with the femur-stature ratio.

What did Wolpoff in 1976 claim about Australopithecine dentition?

He claimed that a high level of dental sexual dimorphism amongst australopithecines on the basis of the shape of their crown diameter distributions.

What did Brody describe in 1945?

He described the relationship between body size and energy consumption through the mouse-to-elephant-curve, finding the same mass exponent proposed by Kleiber (0.75). The exponent is often close to 0.75 but it can vary from 0.5 to 1.. The exponent b frequently differs among animal groups. Dispite the importance of the exact value of b, the relationship between metabolic rate and body mass is important because energy use shapes many aspects of an organism's boiology.

Who is Raymond Dart and what is he famous for?

He is a Australian anatomist that described the Taung Child, an example of Australopithicus africanus found in a limestone quarry at Taung in South Africa in 1924.

What is the bipedal locomotion hypothesis that was proposed by Owen Lovejoy?

He proposed a model that combined together information about the climate, anatomy, and reproductive physiology to explain the evolution of bipedal locomotion. He hypothesized in particular that there was selective advantage in carrying food. Because 5 million years ago the climate in East Africa was coolign and drying, food sources became scattered. Consequently hominins would have to cover long distances to gather food. In this scenario, it would have been disadvantageous for females to raise their offspring. He suggested that monogamous males would have gathered food and carried it back to dependent females and young. Argued that a monogamous mating system was selective advantageous because increased infant survival. Bipedal males were able to collect and carry supplementary food to their females, and this could significantly increase their birth rate. However, skeletal evidence in early hominins does not support a monogamous mating system. Indicates great level of sexual dimorphism, as body size variation and hence suggesting a polygamous mating system as those of chimpanzees. In earliest hominin forms probably evolved in forested habitat rather than in open grasslands such as savannah.

What theory did Sir Arthur Keith raise in 1923?

He raised the possibility that humans were descended from arboread apes, not knuckle-walkers. Other researchers see knuckle-walking as the precursor locomotory habit to bipedalism.

How did Raymond Dart see bipedalism?

He saw it as a selective advantage that allowed long distance viewing over tall grasses to spot predators and possibly prey. But, not necessary to be a habitual or obligate biped to see over the grass to scan for potential predators. Chimpanzees and other non-human primated can stand upright to have a better view of their surroundings. Moreover, upright individuals are more visible to predators.

Charles Darwin bipedalism origin hypothesis

He suggested that early hominins became bipedal to free the hands to carry and manipulate tools. Large brained hominins appeared million years later the first evidence of bipedal locomotion.

Periosteum

Highly vascularized membrane, including nerve fibres, lymphatic and blood vessels that nourishes the bone.

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Qafzeh, Israel

Hominin - Homo sapien. Dated to 110,000 ya. Large sample (at least 20 individuals). Definitely modern, but some individuals fairly robust; early date (>100,000 ya).

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Skhul

Hominin - Homo sapien. Dated to 115,000 ya. Minimum 10 individuals; like Qafzeh modern morphology, but slightly earlier date (and earliest modern humans known outside of Africa)

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Herto (Ethiopia).

Hominin - Homo sapiens idaltu. Dates to 160,000 - 154,000 ya. Very well-preserved cranium; date >150,000 ya, the best preserved early modern human found anywhere.

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Omo, Ethiopia

Hominin - Homo sapiens. Dated to 195,000 ya. Dated almost 200,000 ya and the oldest modern human found anywhere; 2 crania found, one more modern looking than the other.

What was the importance of the discovery of the Zhoukoudian site?

Homo erectus. and the layers of ash at the Zhoukoudian Cave - have been interpreted as indicating the use of fire by Homo erectus. Controlling fire was one of the major cultural breakthroughs of all prehistory, providing warmth, a means of cooking, light to further modify tools and protection. This is the first definitive use of fire. However, new analysis indicates that this was not actually ash, doubting the possibility that Homo erectus was able to control fire.

What species was discovered on the island of Flores at Liang Bua in 2004?

Homo floresiensis was discovered. The remains were dated to between 95,000 and 17,000 years ago and have provoked great debate in the scientific community.

What is the earliest member of the genus Homo?

Homo habilis.

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Tianyuan Cave, China

Homo sapiens Dated to 40,000 ya. Partial skull and a few postcranial bones; oldest modern human find from China.

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Abrigo do Lagar Velho, Portugal

Homo sapiens. Dated to 24,500 ya. Child's skeleton; some suggestion of possible hybrid between Neanderthal and modern human - but is controversial.

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Cro-Magnon, France

Homo sapiens. Dated to 30,000 ya. Most famous early modern human find in the world; earliest evidence of modern humans in France.

Early Modern Homo sapien discoveries in Niah Cave, Borneo Indonesia.

Homo sapiens. Dated to 45,000-40,000 ya. partial skull recently redated more accurately; oldest modern human find from Asia.

The pulp chamber of a tooth

Houses the dental pulp, an organ that consists of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves. Enamel, cement, dental pulp, together with dentine are the 4 main dental tissues.

Osteoclasts

Huge cells derived from fusion of many monocytes (a type of white blood cell), and are responsible for the resorption (or removal) of bone tissue.

Fossil remains from Ngandong.

Human fossil remains. These specimens share similarities with Homo erectus from Sangiran and Trinil. The most important features however is their possible young chronology, that has been estimated between 500,000 to 27,000 years ago. These fossils may represent the latest Homo erectus survival in Java, long after the species have disappeared elsewhere. New chronological data give an age estimation of 500,000 to 143,000, confirming the late survival of this Homo erectus population, but excluding that they would not be contemporaneous of Neanderthals and modern humans.

Trichromatic vision

Humans, apes and most of the Old World monkeys have this type of vision. They have 3 different kinds of opsins on their cones, which allow them to discriminate between blues, greens and reds.

Isometric Growth

If the allometric coefficient a = 1. resulting from the same growth rate of the organ and the body size. The heart has a growth rate that is almost isometric.

Negative Allometry

If the allometric coefficient a<1, where the organ shows a lower growth rate than the body as whole, we have a negative allometry. A good example of negative allometry in humans is the human head that grows more slowly than the rest of body after birth, and so it is proportionally smaller in adults than in newborns.

Can we say that primates with high EQs are more intelligent than those with lower EQs?

If we consider the EQ values for the red colobus (1.11) we can see that it is higher than those of gorillas (1.02), Difference does not necessarily mean that the red colobus monkeys are smarter than gorillas. Gorillas rely on a low-quality leafy diet that may have driven selection for larger body size. While colobus monkeys are characterized by ruminant-like digestive systems that are highly designed to process leaves, gorillas have simple stomachs. In order to breakdown the indigestible plant cellulose, gorillas have large intestine where a large bacterial flora turns the cellulose into valuabl digestible carbohydrates through the fermentation process.

Histological Types of Bones

Immature and mature.

Describe the art found in the Lascaux Cave

Immense wild bulls dominate what's called the Great Hall of Bulls, also horses, deer and other animals are drawn with remarkable skill adorn the walls in black, red and yellow.

Brain growth rate in humans

Important factor. Humans grow their brains more rapidly than chimpanzees, particularly in their first postnatal year, when human brain continues to enlarge at a fetal rate of growth. Rapid brain growth combined with slow body growth leads to a more positive ontogenetic allometry in humans.

Stereoscopic vision

Important for depth perception. And animals that have it usually need the ability to judge distances nicely. Is an invaluable tool for animals that need to move quickly. It allows them to judge the distances to important objects in their environments. For monkeys jumping from branch to branch high up in the canopies of forests, this is a matter of life and death. Also critical for hunters, such as cats and hawks, who need to accurately judge distances in the pursuit of their prey. Is often preferable to have greater peripheral vision if you are the prey. Gazelles, rabbits and chickens have nearly a 360 degree field of view, but relatively little of that is steroscopic vision.

When was the first identification of the type of malocclusions present in the modern human dentition?

In 1899 with Angle's Classification, which is defined by the position of the paracone of the fist molar in relation to the lower first molar.

Kromdaai site

In 1938 Robert Broom from the Transvaal Museum in Pretoria, firstly described some hominin teeth found at the Kromdaai site. Attributed these remains to Paranthropus robustus. Other remains belonging to this species have been discovered in South Africa, with a timespan comprised between 2.3 and 1.2 mya.

What are Rodman and McHenry's bipedal locomotion theories?

In 1980 they argued that there is a considerable energetic advantage to become bipedal. They pointed out that although humans do not necessarily walk more efficiently than all quadrupeds, they certainly walk more efficiently than knuckle-walking African apes. According to this theory bipedalism arose to make moving increasingly dispersed feeding in trees more efficient. Criticisms: highlight the fact that chimpanzees and gorillas are able to move bipedally without spending more energy than moving quadrupedally. Many scholars see the inevitable initial inefficiency of a quadruped walking bipedally as an insurmountable evolutionary barrier.

Homo floresiensis body mass and morphological features.

In 2004, the discovery of small ancient humans, found on the island of Flores and dated between 95,000 and 17,000 years ago, have provoked great debates in scientific community. One of the most peculiar features is its short stature. The maximum femur length of LB1 (280mm) is just below the smallest recorded for A. afarensis and equal to the smallest estimate for the OH62 Homo habilis femur (280 - 404mm) Applying stature estimation formulae developed from human pygmies gives a stature estimate of 106cm for LB1. Body mass can be estimated from stature, and cross sectional areas and dimensions of articular surfaces and shafts of long bones. Using the regression equation we can calculate the body weight of LB1, which is 44kg. Using the ratio of stature to body mass calculated from African Pygmy data gives a body weight of 28.7kg for a stature of 106cm. Body weight can also be estimated from stature using a regression formula developed from Jamaican School children data. This produces a body weight of 16kg.

Why have the dates of the presence of modern humans in Europe been pushed far back?

In 2014, 2 articles in Nature pushed back the dates due to re dating with new radiocarbon dating techniques. A human jawbone found in 1927 at Kents Cavern in Britain have been redated to between 44,000 to 41,000 years ago. And Deciduous teeth from Grotta del Cavallo in southern Italy, these were previously assigned to Neanderthals have been re-analysed and re-dated. The analyses suggests that these teeth belonged to modern humans lived in southern Italy between 45,000 and 43,000 years ago, representing the oldest Europen anatomically modern human. This new analyses extended the period of coexistence between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens populations in Europe to 17,000 years.

What data is used to support the theory of human migration from Africa to Asia and Australia?

In 2014, an article was published in the journal Science, of the analysis of DNA of human hair from a young Aboriginal man collected in the early 1920's. This analysis led to reconstruct the first complete genome sequences of an Aboriginal Australian. According to these authors present-day Australian Aborigines are descendants of an early human dispersal into eastern Asia, possibly between 75,000 to 62,000 year ago, representing the oldest continuous populations outside Africa.

Lactase persistence

In adults, the continued production of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose (milk sugar). This allows adults in some human populations to digest fresh milk products. The discontinued production of lactase in adults leads to lactose intolerance and the inability to digest fresh milk.

Incest avoidance

In animals, the tendency not to mate with close relatives. This tendency may be due to various social and ecological factors that keep the individuals apart. There may also be innate factors that lead to incest avoidance, but these aren't well understood.

Feet in quadrupeds.

In apes, the big toe is opposable (similar to human thumbs). Feet are great for climbing trees and walking along for short distances, but not so good for walking upright over long distances.

Permanent dentition

In each quadrant, there are: 2 incisors, one canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars.

Complementary

In genetics, referring to the fact that DNA bases form pairs (called base pairs) in a precise manner. For example, adenine can bond only to thymine. These two bases are said to be complementary because one requires the other to form a complete DNA base pair.

Sex chromosomes

In mammals, the X and Y chromosomes.

Foramen magnum differences between modern humans and great apes.

In modern humans it is positioned anteriorly and oriented horizontally, reflecting the position of the spine. In quaruped, the spinal column runs parallel to the ground and the foramen magnum is more dorsally placed.

Locomotion in Primates

In primates can be divided into several major categories, each characterized by different patterns of limb use: arboreal and terrestrial quadrupedalism, leaping, suspensory behaviour - brachiating - and bipedalism.

What is the drypithecus pattern?

In relation to dentition. The molar occlusal surface typical of all hominoid primates. Rarely found in the symetrical pattern of the bilophodont detition ( 3 buccal cusps and 2 lingual cusps), but it undergoes numerous variations and simplifications.

How are the aspects of a tooth labeled?

In relation to its position in the line of teeth.

Discuss the view of Neanderthals having cultural and symbolic behaviour

In some Middle Paleolithic caves associated with Neanderthal skeletal remains have been recovered numerous shells that are perforated and painted, suggesting they may have been strung together to be worn. Evidence of modifications on faunal remains that cannot be clearly relatable to feeding and utilitarian uses. Eg. 22 species of birds, remains included several wing bones, it has been suggested to be deliberately cut to take the feathers off. It is believed that the feathers were used as ornaments. The symbolic implications of body painting and of the ornamental use of pigment-stained and perforated marine shells were always associated with Upper Paleolithic Homo sapiens. These finds demonstrate that Neanderthals had a more complex social and symolic behaviour than previously thought.

Where are secondary ossification centers?

In the epiphyses. The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.

Explain the relationship between climate and body shape as explained by Christopher Ruff.

In the last 20 years, he carried on several studies showing the relationship between climate and body shape in human evolution. He focused his attention on postcranial elements such as the bi-iliac breadth and limbs. In his first studies, he applied the cylindrical model. Predicts that within a similar temperature zone variation in height should be accompanied by little or no variation in breadth. Between different temperature zones absolute breadth should vary, being larger in colder climates and smaller in warmer climates, regardless of height. Ruff used the bi-iliac breadth as an index of body breadth.

Cranial capacity in latest Pleistocene hominins

In the last phase of human brain evolution the cranial capacities of Archaic Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals reached the modern range. Neanderthals had a cranial capacity that exceeds those of modern humans.

Bones

In the skeleton, they articulate at joints and connected to one another by means of ligaments and cartilage. n Moved by muscles acting directly on bone surfaces or through tendons that are tough inelastic fibrous tissues. Wide range of sizes and shapes. Are living organisms, constituted of dynamic and multiple tissue types. Composed of osseous tissue, cartilage, connective tissue, vascular tissue, lymphatic tissue, adipose tissue and nervous tissue. All adult bones are constituted of two basic structural components: compact and spongy bone.

What are some examples of intentional behaviours in primates that serve as communication?

Include a wide variety of gestures, facial expressions, and vocalisations, some of which we humans share.

Strepsirrhini

Include lemurs and lorises. The word actually means 'wet nose'. Have a wet nose connected to the upper lip, much like the wet noses of dogs and cats. Can be divided into 2 superfamilies, Lemuroidea and Lorisoidea. The nostrils are laterally spilt and there is an area of moist skin beneath the nose - called a rhinarium. Over the central area of the rhinarium, just below the nostrils - that is called philtrum is connected to the underlying maxilla via a fold of skin called the frenulum. The upper lips are firmly attached to the maxilla and cannot be rolled as it can be in Haplorrhini. Skull - from superior view - see the metopic suture (the frontal suture that divides the 2 halves of the frontal bone, is unfused. The frontal bone is therefore separated in left and right bones. Skull is characterised by retention of primitive primate features, no postorbital closure. In lateral view: postorbital bar. Possess a smaller braincase and much longer snouts that are indicative or correspondingly larger reliance on olfaction. In the mandible: the mandibular symphysis is unfused - consist in 2 halves, left and right with a fibrous joint that allows a limited amount of movements. Have an unusual dental toothcomb, composed of lower incisors and canines. The toothcomb is usually used for grooming. While licking the fur clean, the animal will run the toothcomb through the fur to comb it. Have an ectotympanic ring that varies between lemurs and lorises. Is also present also in Platyrrhini. Lemurs, lorises and tarsiers all have a large air space within the petrosal bone, called the petrosal bulla. Have a large olfactory system. Have large olfactory bulb in the brain. Behaviourally, many seem to rely more on olfactory cues - scent marking territories, scent 'battles' - may relate to the fact that they are often nocturnal or crepuscular. Presence of the reflecting tapetum lucidum in the eye (a common feature in many mammalian groups - this one involves different chemicals, suggesting that it may be a derived feature of this group). Possess feet with hairy non-frictional heels and therefore they are not able to use full plantigrade postures. Have a laterally flaring talus and a grooming claw on the second digit of their feet. Reproductive system - 2 pairs of nipples, a bicornate uterus and epitheliochorial type of placentation - features probably primitive primate characteristics and found in many other mammal groups.

Prosimians

Include lemurs, lorises and tarsiers, grouped together because they were considered morphologically more primitive than other primates.

What type of fossils have been found at Dmanisi from 1991 to 2005?

Include several crania, mandible and post-cranial elements probably belonging to 6 individuals.

Haplorrhini

Include tarsiers and all other primates. The word haplorhine means 'dry nose'. All have a dry nose that is not connected to the upper lip. The upperlips are unattached and can be rolled. The frontal bone is a singular bone. There is a separating plate between orbits and temporal fossa. Moveover the upper incisors are small and separated by a large cleft. In lateral view: Postorbital closure, and posses a larger braincase with a reduced snout. In the mandible: composed of a single bone element.

When has the fossils from Lantian been dated to and what did they consist of?

Included cranial fragments, jaws and isolated teeth. They were dated to about 1.15 mya. The reconstructed skull probably belongs to an adult female with a cranial capacity of 780 cm3. An almost complete mandible with well preserved teeth show similarities with the Homo erectus specimens from Zhoukoudian.

Cebidae

Includes 3 subfamilies.

Atelines

Includes the woolly monkeys, the spider monkeys and the woolly spider monkeys. In particular the spider monkeys are characterized by a long prehensile tail and by long slender limbes that resemble those of gibbons and other suspensory species.

Which of these features is NOT a primate characteristic: A generalised dentition Nails instead of claws Prehensile hands Increase reliance on olfaction

Increase reliance on olfaction

What type of enamel thickness do Cercopithecoids have?

Intermediate relative enamel thickness, which is greater than that of ceboids, on average.

How does bipedal locomotion affect the anatomical adaptations of the legs?

Increased weight transfer through the femur and into the foot determines also an anatomical change in the proximal and distal surface of the tibia. In modern humans the medial condyle is enlongated anter-posteriorly, while in chimpanzees it is circular; the distal surface of the tibia is squared in modern humans and trapezoid in chimpanzees. Superior surface of the talus articulates with the distal ends of the tibia nearly parallel in modern humans. On the contrary in chimpanzees the superior articular surface of the talus is medially oriented, probably associated with the inverted position of the foot used during vertical climbing.

What are some well known facial expressions?

Indicated emotional states that are seen in chimpanzees and especially honobos. Include the well-known play face (also seen in several other primate and nonprimate species), associated with play behavious and the fear grin indicating fear and submission.

Dental analyses in Turkana boy

Indicates that probably 7 to 9 years of age at death refusing therefore the widely accepted estimate of 11 to 12 years of age proposed by Ruff and Walker. New findings support the hypothesis that H. ergaster had a different growth trajectory and schedule of life history events than either modern humans or chimpanzees.

Describe the cranium found at Ceprano (near Rome) in 1996

Initially dated to 0.8 - 0.9 mya. The distinctive skull fragment shows differences with the Asian Homo erectus leading the italian anthropologists to assign this specimen to a new species. But it shares many similarities with Homo antecessor, and many scientists believe that it belonds to this taxonomic group. New dating techniques placed this specimen to 450-000 and 350-000 years ago, resulting therefore, much more recent than previously thought. It does not show Neanderthal features, he was contemporaneous with Homo heidelbergensis, and probably represents an ancestral stock of this species.

Describe the art found in Grotte Chauvet

Inside the cave, preserved unseen for thousands of years, are a multitude of images including dots, stenciled human handprints and most dramatically, hundreds of animal representations. Radiocarbon dating has placed these during the Aurignacian , likely more than 35,000 ya. This makes this site considerably earlier than the Magdalenian sites of Lascaus and most of the images at Altamira.

The hand

Is a complex structure formed by the carpus in the wrist region. the metacarpals in the palm region and the phalanges in the fingers region. There are small bones called sesamoid bones that lie within the tendons of the hand. The carpal forms the true wrist, the proximal region of the hand. The gliding movements occur between carpals.,

Gross dental wear

Is a cumulative process which occurs during the lifespan of the animal and thus reflects the diet over a long term. Studies on a variety of mammals have shown that the type of wear and the relative sizes of the different facets can be related to the diet of mammal in question. In comparing mammals with similar dental morphology, differences in diet will produce different wear patterns, while mammals with a similar diet but with a different dental morphology will show similar wear patterns.

The ilium

Is a large, flaring bone, forming the superior region of the coxal bone. It is the site of attachment of many muscles. It articulates with the sacrum, forming the sacroiliac joint.

The scapula

Is a large, flat triangular bone with 2 basic surfaces; posterior and costal. It lies between the dorsal surface of the rib cage, between ribs 2 and 7. There are 3 borders that meet 3 angles, superior, medial and lateral. The scapula articulates with the clavicle and the humerus.

The fibula

Is a long, thin bone that lies lateral to the tibia, articulating twice with it and once with the talus. Although this bone plays only a indirect role in the knee joint, serving to anchor ligaments, it plays a key role in forming the lateral border of the ankle joint.

Fovea

Is a modification of the retina, found in monkeys, apes and humans, in which the light sensitive cells are packed extremely close together, allowing a very good visual acuity.

The vomer

Is a small, thin, plow-shaped, midline bone that occupies and divides the nasal cavity.

Regression Equation

Is a statistical technique used to explain or predict the behaviour of a dependent variable. For primates: this regression equation was calculated by Martin (1990) wherein the brain mass is equal to 1.146 multiplied for the endocranial volume with the power of 0.976.

The clavicle

Is a tubular bone. Its medial end articulates, via a synovial joint, with the clavicular notch of the manubrium. its lateral end (acromial end) articulates with the acromial process of the scapula.

Dendrochronology dating

Is an accurate dating technique based on the analysis of tree-ring growth pattern. Annual growth rings reflect the amount of water available each seasons, and the temperature fluctuations from winter to summer. All trees of the same species in an area usually have roughly the same pattern of growth. Since weather patterns tend to run in cycles of a number of years, the sequence of tree rings in a region will also reflect the same cycling. This methodology is limited to wood for which there is a master sequence that goes back just over 11,000 years using oak and pine trees.

What does Tabun C-Type Layer consist of?

Is characterised by classic, radially prepared Levallois cores used in the delivery of ovoid flakes.

The pelvic girdle

Is composed of 4 main elements: the right and left os coxae and the sacrum and coccyx. It supports and protects the abdominal and pelvic organs. It anchors muscles of the abdomen and leg. Is fixed to the axial skeleton via its vertebral element, the sacrum. The coxal bones consist of the 3 separate bones in childhood; the ilium, the ischium and the pubis. These bones fuse in early adolescence, but they retain separate names.

Dental occlusion

Is defined as the contact between opposing maxillary and mandibular teeth during jaw closure. Full occlusion (or centric occlusion) is attained in the maximal intercuspation position, referred as the best fit of the teeth regardless of the condylar position.

Hominoidea

Is divided in Hylobatidea or lesser apes, including gibbons and siamangs.

Hominidae taxon

Is divided into 3 subfamilies: Ponginae, Gorillinae and Homininae.

The forarm

Is formed from the radius and ulna. Their proximal ends articulate with the humerus, while their distal ends articulate with carpals.

The Radius

Is lateral. Articulates with the ulna. Is the shortest of the 3 arm bones. It is named for its action, a turning movement about the capitulum of the humerus, which allows the bone to rotate relative to the more fixed ulna.

Hyoid bone

Is located in the neck. It is the only bone in the body that does not articulate with another bone. It is suspended from the tips of the styloid processes of the temporal bones by the stylohyoid ligaments. Gives attachment to a variety of muscles and ligaments that connect it to the cranium, mandible, tongue, larynx, pharynx, sternum and shoulder girdle.

The Ulna

Is medial. Articulates with the radius. It is longest, thinnest bone of the forearm. It is the main bone responsible for forming the elbow joint with the humerus.

Arboreal Quadrupedalism

Is more suitable for movements on a continuous network of branches. Show a long tail, narrow thoraxes, laterally placed scapulae and grasping feet.

Lumuroidea

Is one of 2 superfamilies. It is divided into 5 families and are found on the island of Madagascar and other islands off the coast of Africa. Madagascar is separated from Africe for over 100 million years 0 unique and limited mammalian faune, no larger carnivores or ungulates. The only primates are strepsirhines and no monkeys or apes. Lemurids are typical Malagasy lemurs .

Lorisoidea

Is one of the 2 superfamilies. Is divided into 2 families. They are found in tropical forests and woodlands of India, Sri Lanka, southeast Asia and Africa.

The Coronal plane

Is placed at right angle to the sagittal plane, divides the body into anterior and posterior halves.

Nuchal Plane in chimpanzees

Is positioned somewhere between modern humans (horizontal and facing downwards) and quadrupeds (horizontal and facing rearwards).

The occipital bone

Is set at the rear of the cranium.

The Amud Cave

Is situated on the margins of the Dead Sea Rift about 5 km northwest of the Sea of Galilee. The cave was first excavated by a team of Japanese researchers between 1961 and 1964. The 4.5m stratigraphic sequence consists of Middle Paleolithic deposits, including the remains of a poorly preserved hominin skeleton and fragments of 3 other individuals.

Dental Abrasion

Is the friction of exogenous materials forced over tooth surfaces. The abrasive particles are usually contained in the food, however other foreign objects can also cause abrasion such as dust present in the environment, or tools used for oral hygiene such as toothbrush and toothpaste.

Brain endocast

Is the internal cast of the cranial vault that reflects the external morphological features of the brain impressed on the cranial bone. Can only provie approximations of external features of the brain. Do not provide direct information about the internal structure of the brain such as morphology of the neurons, number of neurons, neuron density or neuron connectivity.

Cerebrum

Is the largest part of the human brain. It performs most complex cognitive functions. It is divided into 2 sections called hemispheres that are connectedf through the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes named for their covering bones: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe and temporal lobe. External surface is irregular for the presence of gyri and sulci. The outer layer of the cerebrum is also known as the cerebral cortex, is made of nerve fibers called gray matter. The inner layer is made of a different type of nerve fibers called white matter. Each area of the brain is correlated with certain functions.

The femur

Is the longest, heaviest and strongest bone of the body. It articulates with the acetabulum of the ex coxae. Distally, it articulates with the patella and the proximal tibia. The leg's actions at the hip include medial and lateral rotation, abduction, adduction, flexion and extension. At the knee, motion is far more restricted, confined mostly to flexion and extension.

Dental Erosion

Is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution without the involvement of bacteria. The mechanisms of attrition, abrasions and erosion act together, each with a varying intensity and duration to produce a multitude of different wear patterns.

Strephsirrhine relative enamel thickness

Is the lowest among primates.

The tibia

Is the major weight-bearing bone of the lower leg. It articulates proximally with the distal femur, twice laterally with the fibula, and distally with the talus.

Dental Attrition

Is the mechanical wear produced by tooth-to-tooth contact without the presence of food, between adjacent and opposing teeth producing flat and shiny areas with well-defined borders called wear facets.

Basal metabolic rate

Is the minimum metabolic rate for an organism living in thermo-neutral zones. Is mainly used for endothermic animals. Several studies have shown that the basal metabolic rate is strictly related to the organism's body size.

Turkana Boy (KNM-WT 15000)

Is the most complete early human skeleton ever found. It provided a unique view into the biology, morphology and evolution earl Homo. Initially age estimations provided an age at death of 11 to 12 years. Ruff and Walker estimated a stature at death of 160cm using regression equations from analyses of modern human populations. Authors estimated that the stature of this young specimen would have increased from 160cm at death to 185cm in adulthood, and they also predict a body mass of 68kg. Ruff and Walker utilized the % of growth remaining between 11 and 12 years and adulthood in some modern human populations, with assumption that growth rate, development and life history in early Homo were similar to those found in Homo sapiens.

The brain stem

Is the most inferior portion of the brain and it connects the spinal cord to the brain. It controls and regulated the autonomic functions, such as breathing and heartbeat, it maintains consciousness and it is also involved in the regulation and control of complex motor patterns.

The Humerus

Is the only bone of the arm, the longest and strongest bone of the upper limb. It comprises a proximal end with a round articular head, a shaft, and an irregular distal end. It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder and with the radius and ulna at the elbow.

Metabolic rate

Is the rate of energy consumption (or rate at which an organism converts chemical energy into heat and external work).

What is the encephalization quotient (EQ)?

Is the ratio of the actual brain size with the expected size. eg. a vertebrate with an EQ lower than 1, such as the ostrich, will have a brain smaller than expected and it will be graphically placed below the intercept line. On the contrary, a vertebrate with EQ higher than 1, as in modern humans, will have a brain larger than expected and will graphically position above the intercept line.

The thigh

Is the region of the lower limb comprised between the hip and the knee, consisting of one singular bone, the femur.

Dental Anthropology

Is the study of dental tissues and their importance for understanding growth and development in hominin fossils. Teeth are the most durable and most common remains found in the fossil record. They provide information about phylogeny, growth, development and diet.

Behavioural genetics

Is the study of how genes affect behaviour, is a relatively new field. We don;t know the extent to which genes actually influence behaviour in humans or other species.

Linguistic anthropology

Is the study of human speech and language, including the origins of language in general as well as specific languages.

The crown of a tooth

Is the top part of the tooth and it is covered by the enamel layer.

The coccyx

Is the vestigial tail, highly variable in shape, with 3 to 5 variable fused segments. The rudimentary vertebrae of the coccyx have articular and transverse processes superiorly, but lack pedicles, laminae and spinous processes. Serves to anchor pelvic muscles and ligaments.

Temporomandibular joint

Is where the mandible, or lower jaw, articulates through its condyles with the temporal bones. The primary function of this bone is mastication. The mandible holds the lower teeth and provides insertion surfaces for the masticatory muscles. These 2 functions are performed by the 2 basic parts of the mandible: the body and the ascending ramus.

What are Haile-Selassie and team associated with?

Isolated teeth and post-cranial elements uncovered from the Middle Awash in Ethiopia dated to between 5.8 and 5.2 million years ago and classified to a new species considered a new minor variant of Ardipithecus ramidus and names Ardipithecus kadabba. They found these teeth lacked the honing complex that characterises Miocene and living apes. The sectorial premolar complex is formed by the upper canine that is sharpened against the lower third premolar. On the basis of similiarities in the anatomy and age, the team believes that Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orroring tugenensis should be included in teh genus Ardipithecus.

What does the Levant refer to?

It a geographic area that refers to the eastern Mediterranean littoral including modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and southern part of Turkey.

What did Aiello and Wheeler propose in regards to increase and decrease human organs throughout human evolution?

It appears that the stomach and intestines have decreased in size at the same time as the brain increased in size in human evolution. They also suggested that this trade-off required an increase in dietary quality, such as more meat and fat. The reduced masticatory functional compled and dental reduction in the early members of the genus Homo, has been linked to dietary shift, providing the energy required for the expensive large brains. However dental microwear analyses do not show a dietary specialisation for tough meat in H habilis but rather indicate a dietary shift between H. habilis and H. erectus. Richard Wrangham (2009) has noted that cooking meat and high quality plant foods make them easier to eat and digest. He therefore suggested that cooking may have been essential for proving the high quality diet necessary to support larger brains. But there is much debate about when cooking first evolved.

When did human occupation in Australia occur?

It appears to have occurred quite early, with some archaeological sites dating to between 50,000 to 40,000 year ago. The earliest human remains have been found at Lake Mungo in southeastern Australia. Numerous archaeological sites dated to the Late Pleistocene have been discovered in Australia in the last 30 years.

What is the theoretical basis of the replacement model?

It assumes that the genetic pattern seen today can be used as a window into the past. The genetic variance found partly reflects the human migrations occurred in the Late Pleistocene. The genetic diversity in indigenous African populations strongly supports the African origin for modern humans and some of the replacement elsewhere.

When did archaeological investigations in the Levant begin?

It began in the early 20th Century.

How does the evolution of body size in the human lineage have significant implications for other aspects of hominin biology.

It can be helpful to calculate the relative degree of encephalization; dietary reconstructions, habitat preferences; social and reproductive behaviour and sexual dimorphism.

How is the vegetation regions divided in the Levant?

It can be mainly divided into 3 phytogeographic regions. 1. the Mediterranean zone, that becomes less prevalent away from the Mediterranean Sea. 2. The Irano-Turanian found in continental climate areas with extreme temperatures and precipitation between 300 mm and 150 mm. 3. The Saharo-Sindian zone where occurred very little precipitation, less than 150 mm per annum.

What was the climate like during the OIS 4 in the Levant?

It corresponds to a glacial period, where the harsh climatic conditions determined a progressive increase in aridity in the Levantine regions. Between the end of OIS 4 and the beginning of OIS 3, the climatic conditions in Levant were much colder and wetter than those present during the OIS 5, with marked summer rainfalls and dense forest cover.

What could the rapid Neanderthal disappearance indicate?

It could reflect a direct competition for resources between the 2 species, where a more advanced technology and a more complex social organization could have favoured the anatomically modern human populations. It has also been proposed that the severe and unstable climate changes caused the fragmentation and degradation of the Neanderthal habitat, promoting weakness, isolation or extinction. Since the Neanderthal populations had successfully adapted for more than 200,000 years surviving severe climatic fluctuations. It is more likely to hypothesize that the combination of elements such as environmental deterioration and intensified resource competition with anatomically modern humans, led the Neanderthals to their extinction.

What does the discovery of microfossil plants trapped in the dental calculus of some Neanderthal specimens show?

It demonstrated the consumption of plant foods. Dental calculus or tartar, is a form of hardened dental plaque formed by a continual accumulation of minerals from saliva. They found phytoliths and starch grains from edible plants showing damages that have been interpreted as a distinctive marker of cooking. These results represented the first direct evidence of the intake of plant materials in teh Neanderthal diet, showing that Neanderthals made use of the diverse plant foods available in their local environment and transformed them into more easily digestible foodstuffs in part through cooking them, suggesting an overall sophistication in Neanderthal dietary regimes.

What affect did the climatic changes during the Pleistocene in Europ have on hominin populations?

It forced them to migrate in environments that offered better food availability.

What does the study of Neanderthal dentition tell us?

It gives us important information about the cultural behaviour and subsistence strategies adopted by these human populations. Neanderthals are characterised by large anterior teeth that are heavily worn. Anthropologists suggest that Neanderthals use their frontal teeth as a tool, for cutting, tearing, holding and shaping a variety of objects.

What does the stable isotope data recovered from faunal assemblages found at the Amud and Qafzeh sites tell us?

It gives us new insights on the paleoclimate during the Neanderthal and modern human occupation in the Levantine region. This data suggests that Neanderthal populations at Amud lived in wetter conditions than today, confirming the vegetation map created by Can Andel and Tzedakis in 1996. The cave was surrounded by dense woodland habitats favoured by precipitations falling throughout the year.

Discuss the morphology of Homo floresiensis

It has a small endocranial volume and short stature is estimated to be 106 cm, similar to, or smaller than Australopithecus afarensis. The cranial capacity was estimated to be 417 cm3 using a virtual reconstruction of the endocast. The endocast shape of LB1 resembles that of Homo erectus but the derived frontal and temporal lobes and the position of the lunate sulcus indicated the capabilities for higher cognitive processing.

What has the new archaeological and genetic data revealed?

It has revealed that during the last 30,000 years anatomically modern humans were not the only hominin species living on this planet. Neanderthals were close to their extinction living in isolated refuges in southern Europe. In Asia, 2 other hominin species were contemporaneous of modern humans: Homo floresiensis and the Denisovans.

What cultural significance for the Aurignacian culture possess?

It has the oldest example of art that is associated with the beginning of the modern behaviour. On the classic example of this Paleolithic art is certainly represented by cave paintings, as those of Lascaux is southwestern France, where large animals native to the region, human figures and abstract signs were painted on the walls of this cave area.

What happens when bones break?

It immediately starts a bone healing process to restore the bone tissue to its original physical and mechanical property. Immediately after fracture, extensive bleeding occurs, developing in a hematoma, bone cells at the site become deprived of nutrients and die. The site becomes swollen, painful and inflamed. Connective tissue stem cells and capillary blood vessels penetrate the inflamed fracture hematoma and as phagocytes clear the debris from the injury. New fibrous connective tissue forms til developing a fibrocartilaginous callus. Osteoclasts continue to dissolve away the fibrous and cartilaginous callus, while osteoblasts continue to replace that material with new bone matrix. In the last stage, bone remodeling will continue until the normal dimensions and composition of the bone are recreated.

What does a purposeful striding gait imply?

It implies confidence.

Analyse the postcranial Neanderthal skeleton

It indicates the presence of a robust and muscular body, with short forearms and lower legs and wide trunks. These anatomical features have been interpreted as thermal adaptations to harsh glacial conditions.

What is dental cement?

It is a bone-like tissue that covers the external surface of tooth roots, surrounding the dentine of the root and neck of a tooth. It is composed by both mineral and organic material. Its function is to attach the periodontal ligament to the surface of the root.

What is tooth enamel?

It is a highly calcified tissue, heavily mineralised that covers the surface of the tooth crown. It is the hardest and most durable part of our body.

Discuss the hyoid bone found in the Neanderthal specimen in Kebara

It is almost identical in size and shape to the hyoid bones of contemporary Homo sapiens. Based on these morphological similarities, most of the anthropologists believe that human speech capabilities were fully developed in Neanderthals.

What does enamel thickness tell us?

It is an important diagnostic features that can be used in the taxonomic, phylognetic and dietary assessments of fossil primate teeth.

How is Israel characterised?

It is characterised by a semi-arid Mediterranean climate with rainy winters and hot and dry summers.

What is the Gran Dolina site dated to?

It is dated to approximately 850,000-780,000 ya. All of the remains found here are fragmentary making identification difficult. They may be places into a separate species that represents a link between early Homo and the later hominins. They may exhibit some modern features, there is speculation that they may have been cannibalistic that is non ritualistic and not out of desperation. Cut and percussion marks on the hominin bones in question indicate that the bodies were processed much in the same way as any other animal.

How is the Levantine region divided today?

It is divided into 4 physiographic zones: the Coastal Plain, the Galilee Mountains, the Jordan Rift Valley and the Golan Heights.

How many stages is the Pleistocene divided into?

It is divided into 4 stages that are grouped into 3 parts: Early Pleistocene, Middle Pleistocene, Late Pleistocene.

The root of the tooth

It is embedded in the jaws and coated with a thin layer of cement.

What age is estimated for the remains found in the Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian, China?

It is estimated to be between 33,000 to 10,000 years ago.

Nuchal Plane in modern humans

It is horizontal and faces downwards.

Nuchal Plane in quadrupeds

It is horizontal and faces rearward.

Why is Olduvai Gorge important?

It is important because it has the most complete and best studied paleoanthropological record of any early hominin site in the world. The lithics found in this site are bifacially flaked and long rippled edges so they would have been made with direct percussion with retouching with a "soft" hammer such as bone or antler.

Where are the oldest archaeological sites related to the first colonisation of America by modern humans.

It is located in North America and are dated to around 15,000 years ago. This is agreement with the traditional theory that is further supported by new genetic data that suggests that single population of modern humans dispersed from southern Siberia toward the Bering Land Bridge as early as 30,000 years ago and further dispersed from Beringia to the Americas after ~16,500 years ago.

What is tooth enamel comprised of?

It is mostly composed by fiber-like crystals and by small percentages of water and proteins. It is not remodeled during life, enamel is unique among mammalian tissues in that it preserves a permanent record o its ontogeny. Its composition results to be much tougher than mineral alone. The mineral and non-mineral components are organized in a complex fabric that dissipates forces traveling through teeth and protects them from fractures.

What is the bivariate plot of the relationship between humerus and femur length in Homo floresiensis.

It is not just an aberrant or pathological individual. It shows that the Homo erectus plots close tot he recent human samples, while Homo floresiensis shows the same limb proportions of Australopithecus afarensis. Similar results are obtained from the bivariate plot of ulna and femur length. Abnormal growth seems an unlikely explanation, as growth-hormone-related dwarfism and microcephaly in modern humans result in normal limb and pelvic proportions. The differences found in limb proportions exclude the possibility that Homo floresiensis populations cannot be referred to either Homo sapeins or Homo erectus.

Comparison between bi-iliac breadth and maximum femoral length in several modern and earlier human samples.

It is possible separating modern high latitude populations from those living in the tropics. Homo ergaster falls squarely in the middle of the bivariate distribution for the modern East Africans. In constrast, the Neanderthal specimens fall at the upper extreme of the range variation in the modern samples for bi-iliac breadth, being most similar to Eskimos.

What has research told us about the development of Neanderthals and what was studied?

It is possible to reconstruct the precise developmental history of an individual, including birth, subsequenbt stress during development, and death, by analysing the dental incremental features, that accumulate through time, as the annual rings of a tree. Scientists showed that Neanderthal teeth in juveniles formed over a shorter period of time than in modern humans.

Where is the Cave of Kebara situated?

It is situated in the southeast end of Mount Carmel, about 13 km south of Es Skhul and el-Tabun caves. The mouth of the cave is about 60m above the sea level, facing the Mediterranean coastal plain.

What was uncovered in Qafzeh Cave?

It is situated near Nazareth in the lower Gailee. It was first excavated by Rene Neuville and Moshe Stekelis between 1932 and 1935. Excavations were renewed in 1965 by Vandermeersch and continued until 1979. Lithic assemblages and skeletal remains of large mammals were discovered within all the stratigraphic units identified in the sequence. Skeletal human remains associated with a Middle Paleolithic industry were recovered only in the lower archaeological layers.

What is tooth wear?

It is the gradual loss of tooth surface caused by 3 processes: attrition, abrasion and erosion.

Why is the site of Krapina in northern Croatia important?

It is the largest Neanderthal fossil site in the world. It is important because it allowed for the first time the possibility to study the Neanderthal remains at the population level. This collection consists mainly of fragments remains, dated to about 130,000 years ago. Mostly belonging to young individuals.

What is insular dwarfism?

It is the process and condition of the reduction in size of large animals over a number of generations when their population's range is limited to a small environment, primarily islands.

What id the distal side in relation to dentition?

It is the side that is the farthest side from the midline of the face.

Is it simple to estimate the body mass of fossils?

It is very difficult to estimate accurate body mass in fossil hominins, especially when the fossil sample is fragmented. Different body mass estimations will also give different EQ values.

What is the first hypothesis relating to the proposed origins and evolution of the Flores fossil remains?

It links Homo floresiensis to the process of insular dwarfism derived from an ancestral Homo erectus population.

What is the presence of flowering plants discovered in one of the burials from the Shanidar Cave (Northern Iraq) indicate?

It may indicate a mortuary ritual in relation to intentional burials by Neanderthals.

What do new dating techniques from the late 80's, like ESR change the original dating of the Qafzeh and Skhul Neanderthals and their chronological relation to the Tabun, Kebara and Amud Neanderthals?

It proves that the Qafzeh and Skhul are much older than Neanderthals from Tabyn, Kebara and Amud. The Skhul remains were dated to between 100-130 ka and the fossils from Qafzeh were dated to about 60 ka. Those of Amud to between 50-70 ka.

What does the term buccal refer to?

It refers to the surface of the posterior teeth touching the cheek.

What does the term lingual refer to?

It refers to the surface or area touching the tongue.

What does Mesowear represent?

It represents an intermediate level between microwear and wear facets, based on facet development on the occlusal surface of the teeth considering the cusp relief and cusp shape. Analysis allows evaluating the relative roles of attrition and abrasion in shaping tooth cusp morphology over an animal's lifetime. It was primarily used to reconstruct the paleodiet of extinct species based on the mesowear features of extant mammals.

What does the wrist morphology of Homo floresiensis tell us?

It retains wrist morphology that is primitive for the African apehuman clade. These results raise the possibility that the ancestor of Homo floresiensis was not Homo erectus but instead some other, more primitive, hominin whose dispersal into Southeast Asia is still undocumented.

What does the study of anterior dental wear relative to postcanine attrition between the Qafzeh/Skhul group and the Near Eastern Neanderthals suggest?

It reveals a marked contrast suggesting dissimilarities in object manipulation that reflects behavioural differenced between these 2 hominin species. Based on these considerations and supported by other archaeological evidence, Trinkaus suggests that the people from Skhul and Qafzeh were considerably less mobile than the other Near Eastern Neanderthals.

How should behaviour be viewed?

It should be viewed as the product of complex interactions between genetic and evironmental factors.

What does dental evolution from Homo habilis to Homo erectus to Homo sapiens show?

It shows a strong negative allometry that implies a sharp reduction in the relative size of the posterior teeth. The diameters of cheek teeth decreased from early Homo to Homo erectus, to archaic Homo sapiens, to Neanderthals and finally anatomically modern Homo sapiens.

What does dental evolution from A. afarensis to A. africanus to P. robustus to P. boisei show?

It shows a strong positive allometry indicating increasing megadontia through time.

What has the analysis of additional remains found at Liang Bua prove?

It shows further evidence that Homo florensiensis is not just an aberrant or pathological individual. Abnormal growth seems an unlikely explanation, as growth-hormone-related dwarfism and microcephaly in modern humans result in normal limb and pelvic proportions.

What does the genetic history of the new human species the Denisovans show?

It shows that even though the Denisovans shared a common origin with Neanderthals, this population was not involved in the putative gene flow from Neanderthals into Eurasians. The comparison with the genome sequence of present-day populations revealed that the Denisovan genome matches for 4-6% with modern Melanesians and Australian aborigines. They hypothesized that the Denisovans may have been widespread in Asia during the Late Pleistocene and interbred with present-day human populations in Southeast Asia. But the genome analyses was too low quality to produce reliable results. The same team developed a new method covering almost 100% of the mappable nucleotide positions in the genome. The results confirmed that part of the Denisovan's DNA can be found in modern humans from Papua New Guinea. Their results suggests that the Denisovans had a low genetic diversity reflecting small populations around 400 ka. These researchers hypothesized that this girl died around 80 ka using only genetic data, resulting in almost 50,000 years older than previous sediment dating.

What did recent studies on dental development and brain growth in Neanderthals suggest?

It suggested that they were characterised by a rapid growth pattern, compared to modern humans.

What does the high concentration of bones, stone and artifacts found in many Middle Pleistocene sites suggest?

It suggests that Homo heidelbergensis built temporary structures. While traditional views see these Middle Pleistocene hominins as scavengers, new evidence suggests that they were hunting large mammals and they exploited different food sources, depending on the season. New archaeological evidence also suggests that Homo heidlebergensis started exploiting marine fish and invertebrate resources.

What does the Replacement Model indicate for the modern humans in the Levant?

It suggests that modern humans lived in the Levant during the warm last interglacial period (Oxygen Isotope Stage [OIS] 5), yet abandoned it at the beginning of the cold OIS 4 (around 75 ka). At this time European Neanderthals migrated into the Levant occupying the abandoned human niches left by early Homo sapiens. When the climate severely deteriorated during the last glacial period (OIS 3), Neanderthal populations were replaced by modern humans coming from Africa.

What is the third hypothesis relating to the proposed origins and evolution of the Flores fossil remains?

It suggests that the ancestors of Homo floresiensis left Africa before the evolution of Homo erectus.

What is the second hypothesis relating to the proposed origins and evolution of the Flores fossil remains?

It suggests the presence of a small braincase and normal-sized faces as characteristics of a secondary microcephly.

What the masticatory processes of the chewing phase?

It undergoes 3 main masticatory processes: Shearing, Crushing and Grinding.

What was the species found by Louis Leakey in 1960?

It was Homo habilis, discovered by Leaky and his team at Olduvai Gorge in northwestern Tanzania. They found the remains of 2 parietal bones, a mandible and several isolated teeth, that have been dated to 1.8 mya, representing the first members of our genus.

What was the climate like during the OIS 5 in the Levant?

It was characterized by a warmer climate, that favoured the distribution of a Mediterranean vegetation.

Who developed the regional continuity model?

It was developed through years and was firstly proposed by Franz Weidenreich, who believed that "archaic" morphological traits found in some modern human populations from Europe, China, Indonesia and Australia, where inherited from local hominin groups, as Neanderthals in Europe, and Homo erectus in China.

What were the characteristics of Aurignacian culture?

It was marked by a great diversification and specialisation of tools, including the invention of the burin, or engraving tool that made much of the art possible.

How was the Levantine Middle Paleolithic industry ordered?

It was ordered into 3 major types of assemblages. The stratigraphic sequence of the Tabun Cave has long been used as the reference site for classifying the Middle Paleolithic industry. The terminology follows the statigraphic nomenclature identified by Dorothy Garrod in 1937 and corresponds to the Layers D, C and B.

What would the confirmation of dating of the oldest archaeological sites confirm?

It would confirm that modern humans moving out of Africa at around 150,000, arriving earlier in Australia than in Europe.

What makes Australopithecus afarensis a hominin?

Its manner of locomotion

Australopithecus Afarensis dentition characteristics

Jaws are characterised by parallel tooth rows that curve at the back. Canines were long and pointed as seen in other living apes. Premolars were ape-like but molars show features that are human-like.

What is the key resource on allometry and brain size?

Jerison's work on "Evolution of the brain and intelligence (1973). He applied different allometric functions to different groups of animals. He defines the encephalization quotient (EQ) as the ratio of the observed brain mass for a species relative to the brain mass predicted for its body size, based on a priori assumption that in mammals brain mass scales to body mass tot he power of 0.67. Other studies have empirically demonstrated that brain mass across mammals actually scales to body mass close to the power of .076. Martin (1981) used this other formula obtaining thus different EQ values.

What is the most important skull fossils attributed to Homo erectus?

KNM-ER 3733. Found in Kenya and dated to 1.8 mya. This skull is believed to belong to an adult female, based on the comparison with another cranium from Koobi Fora, KNM-ER 3883, and with the KNM-WT 15000 male, found on the opposite side of Lake Turkana. This skull shows less robust features with a cranial capacity estimated to 850 cm3.

What is the most important specimens of Archaic Homo sapiens?

Kabwe, found at Broken Hill site in Zambia. This site yielded a complete cranium and other cranial and postcranial fragments belonging to several individuals.

Cerebellum

Known also as "little brain" extends behind the brain stem, occupying most of the floor of the posterior cranial fossa. Has many neurons as the rest of the brain combined. These neurons receive sensory input from the rest of the bosy and coordinate this information with outgoing motor commands from the cerebrum. Involved in the coordination of voluntary motor movement, in the control of balance and equilibrium and in the muscle tone.

Platyrrhine

Known as New World Monkeys because they only live in Central and South America. This taxon is divided into 3 familes, Cebidae, Pithecidae and Atelidae and 7 subfamilies. Has 3 premolars. The tympanic ring is fused to the side of the auditory bulla and does not extend laterally as a bony tube, the ear tube. The cranial sutures fuse relatively late and in the lateral wall of the skull (the pterion region), the parietal and zygomatic bones join to separate the frontal bone above from the sphenoid bone. Common to find the frontal-sphenoid contacted in Alouatta and Ateles.

What nickname does Paranthropus boisei go by?

Known as the "nutcracker man", mainly because he possesses the largest cheek teeth and the thickest dental enamel within the whole hominin group, and it's robust cranium and mandible appeared to be built to resists the stress associated with heavy chewing. For these reasons it has been widely considered to be a hard-object feeder, specialising on nuts and seeds, or on roots and tubers.

What does Tabun B-Type Layer consist of?

Known mainly by the use of unidirectional, convergent Levallois cores for promulgation of broad based triangular points

What locomotory behaviours do Gorillas exhibit?

Knuckle walking.

What is the timeline for Neanderthal fossil discoveries in Europe?

Krapina, Moula-Guercy, La Ferrassie, La Chapelle, El Sidron, St. Cesaire, Vindija.

Baboons

Largest among all cercopithecines. Are sexually dimorphic in body size, in many species, females are only half the size of males. Are characterized by long molars and broad incisors. Their canines are very sexually dimorphic and the long anterior lower premolars form a sharpening blade for the dagger-like canines. Have long snouts, long mandibles and pronounced brow ridges. Their limbs are nearly equal in length. They live in forests and savannah of sub-Saharan Africa. They are extremely eclectic feeders and can eat fruits, roots, tubers, leaves, gums and also small mammals, invertebrates and insects. Normally live in large socially complex multi-male troops.

Gigantopithecus

Last early Asian miocene ape. Appeared during the Miocene, surviving until 100 thousand years ago. First discovered by Ralph Von Kownigswald, who found a fossilized tooth in a pharmacy in Hong Kong. Named it Gigantopithecus blacki. Searching additional pharmacies he found 3 more teeth and learned they had probably come from Guangxi in the far south of China. Ape has been described solely from fossil teeth and jaws. But assuming that they have the same proportion of tooth size and body mass as living apes, these remains suggest a body mass of over 400kg. Resulting in the largest ape and primate that has ever lived. Some speculate that the Yeti inhabiting the Himalayan region, also known as the Abominable Snowman is a present-day specimen of the extinct Gigantopithecus.

Dichromatic Vision

Lemurs and lorises have this type of vision. Results in very poor contrast. They can differentiate blues and greens but not red.

The external occipital protuberance

Lies on the ectocranial midline where the occipital and nuchal planes meet. It is highly variable and heavier and more prominent in male individuals.

How does Life Histories influence Social Structure?

Life history traits are characteristics or developmental stages that typify members of a given species and influence potential repoductive rates. eg. length of gestation, length of time between pregnancies (interbirth interval), period of infant dependency and age at weaning, age at sexual maturity and life expectancy. Have important consequences for many aspects of social life, can also be critical to species survival.

Thorax

Like a basket or cage composed of cartilage and bone. Attached dorsally to the vertebral column, protecting and enclosing principal organs of circulation and respiration, the heart and lungs. Is the base to which the upper limbs are attached. Major bones forming the thorax are: the sternum, and the 12 ribs on each side. The upper seven ribs on each side connect, via cartilage, directly with the sternum, and are sometimes called true ribs. Ribs 8-10 attach to the sternum indirectly, also via cartilage, and are sometimes called false ribs. The last 2 ribs, 11 and 12, have short cartilaginous ends that lie free in the sides of the body wall. Also know as floating ribs.

Where were Neanderthals found?

Lived in Western Eurasia for more than 200,000 years and disappeared during the last glacial period around 30,000 year ago, after the colonization of Europe by anatomically modern humans which took place around 40,000 years ago. This means there is an overlap of time to 10,000 years where the 2 hominin species could have coexisted.

Foramen magnum

Located in the base of the skull. It is a large opening in the occipital bone through which the spinal chord passes to become the medulla oblongata.

Broca's area

Located in the left frontal lobe in the motor cortex immediately adjacent to a region that controls the movement of muscles in the face, lips, larynx and tongue. When a person is speaking, information is sent to Broca's area, where it's organised specifically for communication. Then it's sent to the adjacent motor areas, which in turn activate the muscles involved in speech. We know that Broca's area operates this way because when it's damaged, speech production is impaired, even though there's no muscle paralysis. Paralysis occurs only when nearby areas that control facial muscles are damaged, not when the damaged, not when the damage is confined to Broca's area.

Wernickle's area

Located in the left temporal lobe. In an association area that lies near structures involved in the reception of sound. A lesion in Wernicke's area doesn't impair hearing, but it severely affects language, comprehension. In turn interferes with speech production because auditory information that is related specifically to language is sent from Wernicke's area to Broca's area by way of a bundle of nerve fibres connecting the 2 regions.

Polymorphisms

Loci with more than one allele. Polymorphisms can be expressed in the phenotype as the result of gene action (as in ABO), or they can exists solely at the DNA level within noncoding regions.

What was discovered by Louis Leaky in 1960 along with the remains of Homo habils in the Olduvai Gorge in northwestern Tanzania?

Louis Leaky and his team also discovered the first stone tools associated with Homo habilis remains and the presence of larger brains that australopiths.

What is the tooth comb found in Strepsirrhini formed by?

Lower incisors and canines.

What is the name of the most representative and most famous specimen belonging to Australopithicus afarensis?

Lucy. A set of skeleton remains from a single individual discovered by the team of Donald Johanson in Hadar (Ethiopia) and dated to 3.2 mya. Probably a female. Long upper limbs suggests that this species was able to climb on trees. Short, broad upper limbs suggest that this species was able to climb on trees. Her short, broad pelvis, combined with angled-in thigh bones indicate an efficient bipedalism. This hypothesis was strengthen by the discovery of hominin footprints in Laetoli (Tanzania), preserved in hardened volcanic ash that given their age of 3.6 mya. These footprints are very similar to those of small modern human beings that have been attributed to Australopithicus afarensis, because they were found near fossil remains of this species.

Foraging in Primates

Major aspect of foraging strategy shows variation in locomotion. No other order shows the diversity of locomotor habits seen among primates.

The tarsus

Makes up the posterior half of the foot. It contains several bones called tarsal. Most of the body weight is primarily borne by talus and calcaneus.

Paleogene Period

Marks the beginning of the Cenozoic Era. During this period the continents drifted farther apart, heading toward their modern positions. The beginning of the Paleogene Period was very warm and moist compared to today's climate. Much of the Earth was tropical or sub-tropical. By the end of the Paleogene, during the Oligocene Epoch, the climate began to cool down. This period saw the rise of the mammals, with the first appearance of primates, whales, elephants and bats.

Exogamy

Mating pattern whereby individuals obtain mates from groups other than their own.

Endogamy

Mating with individuals from the same group.

Lamellar Bone

Mature Bones and both compact and trabecular bones are made of this type of bone.

What measurements give the best estimate of body size and by whom?

McHenry in 1988 used femoral measurements, such as the transverse and anteroposterior diamets of the shaft just below the lesser trochanter. The product of these 2 dimensions gives an estimate of the cross-sectional area of the shaft. He then compared the femoral cross-sectional area with body weights in great apes and humans, finding a high interrelation between these 2 variables, with a coefficient of correlation of 0.94.

Vicariance

Means the splitting of a single continent in this context.

Macaques

Medium sized cercopithecines and are relatively generalized in many anatomical features. They have a moderately long snout, high-crowned molar teeth with very low cusps. Limbs are more slender than those of African baboons and more robust thatn those of the smaller guenons. Macaca has the widest distribution of any non-human primates. They occupy a wider range of habitats and climates than any other non-human primates. They can be arboreal and terrestrial. All live in relatively large, multi-male social groups, with troops of some species containing 50 or more individuals.

Purgatoriidae

Member of the Plesiadapiform family. Has the oldest recognized archaic primate: Purgatorius. Been about the size of modern rats. At least 2, but possibly 4 species lived in the American Northwest during earliest Paleocene about 65 mya. Evidence of a radiation of this kind, most likely indicates an origin in the late Cretaceous - 71-65 mya. Postcranial material from Garbani Channel in northeastern Montana - dated to 65 mya, reveals arboreal adaptation within the feet.

Plesiadapidae

Member of the Plesidapiform family. Among the more successful members. Chipmunk to groundhog-sized mammals with large incisors similar to a rodent. Incisors did not continuously grow and did not self-sharpen though. Suggests they used their incisors for a purpose other than gnawing - possibly vegetative diet of leaves with supplementation of fruit. Died out during the early Eocene.

Carpolestidae

Member of the Plesidapiform family. Name means fruit stealer. Common during the Paleocene in North America to Asia. Mouse to rat sized, exhibit the typically enlarged incisors seen in these early groups. Also have specialised dental traits that allow them to efficiently process fibrous vegetation as well as nuts and insects. Known mainly from fossilised teeth and jaws, but a almost complete skeleton was discovered in Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming. Estimated at 3.5 ounces, size of hamster, post cranial anatomy reveals many traits adapted to highly arboreal environment - opposable grasping big toes with nails instead of claws. No adaptations for leaping, though it was almost certainly a terminal branch feeder.

Haplorhines

Members of the primate suborder Haplorhini, includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes and humans

Strepsirhines

Members of the primate suborder Strepsorhini, which includes lemurs and lorises

Class 3 of Angle's Classification of types of malocclusions.

Mesiocclusion. The dental relationship in which the mandibular arch is anterior to the maxillary arch in one or both lateral segments; the mandibular first molar is mesial to the maxillary first molar.

Communication through displays.

More complicated, frequently elaborate combinations of behaviours. eg. exaggerated courtship dances of many male birds, often enhanced by colourful plumage, are displays. Chest slapping and tearing vegetation are common gorilla threat displays. Angry chimpanzee, with hair on end, may charge an opponent while screaming, waving its arms, and tearing up vegetation.

When does hunting behaviour appear?

More sophisticated hunting behaviour is associated only with the later forms of Homo. Cooperative hunting is common in chimpanzees but without the use of hunting tools.

Fossil KNM - ER 60000 mandible

Morphological features of the mandible and the mandibular fragment (KNM-ER 62003), such as the presence of small incisors and a dental arcade short anterioposteriorly, are consistend with the arcade morphology in KNM-ER 1470 and KNM-ER 62000. Suggests that these new fossils likely belong to the species Homo rudolfensis.

What is usually used to support the replacement model?

Most anthropologists use the fossil evidence. It is further strengthened by studies on human DNA that greatly extended the interpretations of the latter phases of human evolution. The analysis of the mitochonrial DNA and of the Y chromosome, found the greatest diversity among contemporaneous African populations.

Diurnal primate vision

Most have colour vision and there is a diversity in the colour vision abilities found among different species and among individuals within the species.

Limb proportion in bipedal primates

Most have relatively longer legs than arms.

Potassium Argon dating

Most important chronometric technique used to date early hominins involves potassium-40 (40 K) which has a half-life of nearly 1.3 billion years and produces argon-40 (40 Ar). That is, half the 40 K isotope changes to 40 Ar in 1.3 billion years. This method has been extensively used in dating materials between 5 to 1 million years ago, especially in East Africa, where past volcanic activity makes this dating technique possible.

Where have most of the Levantine hominin fossils been uncovered?

Most of the Levantine human fossils have been found in Israel and Palestine.

When does the endocranial morphology develop?

Most of the endocranial shape differences found in Neanderthals and modern humans develop postnatally. Around the time of birth, modern humans and Neanderthals have similar endocranial sizes and shapes, with Neanderthals only being slightly more elongated than modern humans. After the constraints on neonatal shape and size imposed by the shape of the birth canal of the female pelvis are relaxed, the 2 species develop along different pathways. The difference between the developmental patterns of modern humans and Neanderthals is most prominent directly after birth, when the shape of the vault is extremely sensitive to the tempo and mode of brain growth.

How do fossils form?

Most of the organism remains do not preserve after death. Only a small percentage of species has been preserved in the fossil record. If an organism dies in a place where decomposition cannot occur, then its body may be preserved as a fossil. This process is called fossilization. Specific environmental and physical conditions are necessary for them to form. Bacterial decay important role in decomposition of organic materials. Strongly influenced by environmental conditions. If death in high temperature, high availability of oxygen and high humidity, its body will rapidly decompose as these conditions promote bacterial decay - not good for fossilisation. If organism dies in cold, low humidity and low availability of oxygen, the preservation of body increases. Also affected by predators and scavengers - destructive agents preventing the preservation of organism remains. Diagenetic processes - any chemical, physical or biological changed undergone by an organism after death can alter and prevent fossilisation.

How does Activity Patterns influence Social Structure?

Most primates are diurnal, but galagos, lorises, aye-ayes, tarsiers and New World owl monkeys are nocturnal. Nocturnal primates tend to forage for food alone or in groups of 2 or 3, and many avoid predators by hiding.

Limb proportion in quadrupedal primates

Most quadrupedal and arboreal primates have either longer arms relative to their legs, or arms and legs of equal length.

What morphological characteristics are in debate around the mandible Tabun C2?

Most workers consider this specimen fully Neanderthal-like, according to some scholars it more closely resembles the Skhul Qafzeh hominins. Due to the mandible showing a significant chin development, these scholars believe that Tabun C2 should be classified with the Skhul/Qafzeh hominin groups. However a morphometric analysis separates Tabun C2 from Near Eastern and European early Homo sapiens, resulting dentally closer to the other Near Eastern Neanderthals.

How was the reconstruction of Neanderthal diet and ecology performed?

Mostly based on the analysis of faunal assemblage, stone tool technology and isotopic signatures. However, the methods used for the reconstruction of Neanderthal diet are characterised by some limitations. In particular, the bone preservation is more effective than those of plant remains, giving the impression that meat was the primary food source. For this reason, the study of archaeological records tends to underestimate plant consumption and to overestimate animal consumption.

Where is Mount Carmel and what sites are associated with it?

Mount Carmel is a coastal mountain range in the northern part of Israel, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea towards the southeast. Along the slopes of Mount Carmel, Garrod's team found numerous rock shelters at el-Wad, el-Tabun and Es Skhul. She found human remains from the Middle Paleolithic times in el-Tabun and Es Skhul.

Joints

Movements at the joints are controlled and limited by the shapes of the articular surfaces and by ligaments that bind joints together, preventing dislocations.

What are the Neanderthals associated with?

Neanderthal remains are almost always associated with the Mousterian industry.

Discuss what aspect of Neanderthal culture is unique to this species (except for modern Homo sapiens)

Neanderthals buried their dead. Their burials included grave goods like animal bones and stone tools. They placed the bodies of their dead in a flexed position. The Shanidar Cave, the pollen analysis of one of the burials revealed some flowering plants. Some anthropologists argued that the remains of these flowers indicate a mortuary ritual. While burial may be intentional, the purpose behind it may have been to deter predators from the area of occupation or to deal with pollution.

What does the close analyses of the post-cranial skeleton of the Skhul/Qafzeh group compared to Near Eastern Neanderthals show in relation to their body shape?

Neanderthals show a cold-adapted body morphology more similar to the European Neanderthals. The Skhyl/Qafzeh group share more similarities with sub-Saharan African modern humans, suggests that the evolution and emergence of modern humans occurred in the equatorial Africa.

Vindija Cave

Near Krapina in Croatia. A fossil site of Neanderthals. The remains were dated to between 42,000 and 32,000 years ago.

What are the costs of developing large brains?

Neural tissue is very "expensive" to maintain, in terms of energy costs. It required a large number of calories, and every increase in the number of neurons will have a metabolic cost. In order to develop large brains, hominin species must decrease the caloric demands of some other tissues, or evolve a way to acquire calories more efficiently.

What was discovered to prompt the rethinking of "Out of Africa" hypothesis?

New hominin fossils have been found at Dmanisi in Georgia and have been dated to 1.75 mya. This brought to a complete rethinking of the first "Out of Africa" hypothesis, moving back the first migration out of the African continent around 2 mya. Although the cranial fossils found at Dmanisi show some similar features with Homo erectus, they also show many primitive features that closely resemble the earliest Homo. These finding led to hypothesize that the first hominins to leave Africa were not Homo erectus, but small bodied size forms that may have been either australopithecines or, more likely, an unknown species of Homo, similar in appearance to Homo habilis.

Homo ergaster locomotion

Newly found hominin footprints found in Kenya and dated to 1.5 mya, show essentially a modern humanlike anatomy, with a relatively adducted hallux, medial longitudinal arch, and medial weight transfer before push-off.

Homo rudolfensis

No post-cranial elements have been discovered and assigned to Homo rudolfensis. But other mandibles, found in Malawi have been assigned to this species. They are more squared with large molars characterized by complex crowns and roots.

Precambrian

No rank in the geological time scale. Refers to the time from the formation of the Earth itself to the start of the Cambrian Period. Originally defined as the time that predated the emergence of life in the Cambrian Period. Earth began earlier and that fossilised organisms became more and more abundant throughout the Precambrian time.

Where are primates located?

Non-human primates are found naturally on the 5 of the 7 continents. There are no living primates in Australia or Antarctica. Although they occupy only marginal areas of Europe (Gibraltar) and North America (Central America and southern Mexico) they were formally much more widespread on both continents. Only a few species live in temperature areas, where the winters are cold, such as Nepal and Japan. The vast majority of primate species are found in tropical climates of Central and South America, Africa and Asia.

Class 1 of Angle's Classification of types of malocclusions.

Normal occlusion or neutrocclusion. The dental relationship in which there is a normal anteroposterior relationship of the jaws, as indicated by correct interdigitation of macillary and mandibular molars, where the paracone occludes with the buccal groove of the lower molar.

Where does the glacial periods of the Pleistocene mostly affect?

Northern latitudes, Europe, Asia and North America. Temperatures dropped dramatically, the snow falling enormously increased and the ice accumulated causing advance of large ice packs. At southern latitudes as in Africa, the rainfalls decreased and the climatic conditions resulted in more ariditiy.

Australopithecus locomotion

Not fully bipedal. The morphology of their pelvic bones, together with the valgus knee and a relatively robust calcaneus suggests that these forms could walk bipedally while on the ground, other ape-like features as the presence of curved fingers and toes, small femoral heads and long ala of the ilia, indicated greater amount of time engaged in climbing and suspensory behaviours.

What is the Nuchal Torus?

Nucha, meaning neck. A projection of bone in the back of the cranium where neck muscles attache. These muscles hold up the head.

Cranial capacity of modern H. sapiens (older than 8,000 years)

Number of Specimens: 11 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 1,490 Range (cc): 1,200 - 1,600 Estimated EQ: 5.27

Cranial capacity of Archaic H. sapiens

Number of Specimens: 18 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 1,330 Range (cc):1,100-1,586 Estimated EQ: 3.52

Cranial capacity of H. neanderthalensis

Number of Specimens: 19 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 1,445 Range (cc): 1,200 - 1,750 Estimated EQ: 4.04

Cranial capacity of A. afarensis

Number of Specimens: 2 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 450 Range (cc): 400-500 Estimated EQ: 1.87

Cranial capacity of H. erectus

Number of Specimens: 22 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 1,003 Range (cc): 650-1,251 Estimated EQ: 3.27

Cranial capacity of A. africanus

Number of Specimens: 7 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 445 Range (cc): 405-500 Estimated EQ: 2.16

Cranial capacity of A. robustus and A. boisei

Number of Specimens: 7 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 507 Range (cc): 475-530 Estimated EQ: 2.50

Cranial capacity of H. Habilis

Number of Specimens: 7 Average Cranial Capacity (cc): 631 Range (cc): 509-775 Estimated EQ: 2.73-3.38

How does Diet influence Social Structure?

Nutritional requirements of animals are related to body size and BMR, all 3 have evolved together. When studying the relationships between diet and behaviour, they consider the benefits in terms of energy (calories) derived from various food items against the costs (energy expended) of obtaining and digesting them. While small bodies primates focus on high energy foods such as sugar-containing fruits or protein sources, larger ones don't necessarily neet to, at least not to the same degree. Eg. gorillas eat leaves, pith from bamboo stems, and other types of vegetation. These food have less caloric value than fruits, nuts and seeds, but they still serve these animals well because gorillas tend to spend much of the day eating and they expend a great deal of energy getting food. Colobines (and some other monkeys) are primarily leaf eaters, - fairly large bodies, evolved elongated intestines and pouched stomachs that enable them, with the assistance of intestinal bacteria, to digest the tough fibers and cellulose in leaves. At least 2 lanur sp. that have evolved a duplicate gene that produces an enzyme that further helps with digestion, isn't found in other primates - probably occured after colobines and cercopithecines last shared a common ancestor.

Human Locomotion

Obligate bipedalism. Walking cycle is characterized by 2 distinct phases: the stance phase and swing phase including the midstance phase and the toe-off . The vertebral colum is positioned vertically and it has a distinct "S" shape that is formed by the primary curvatures (the thoracic and sacral curvature) and by 2 and opposite secondary curvatures (in the cervical and lumbar regions). The second curvatures help to bring the center of the trunk's mass anteriorly, closer to the body's midline and above the feet.

When was the emergence of true obligate bipedal locomotor behaviour?

Occurring between 2.5 and 1.8 mya and it associated with the appearance of the genus Homo.

Notharctids

Of of 3 major adapoid families. Includes genus Cantius. Earliest notharctid.

What did Graves and her team in 2010 find with the Turkana Boy's hypothetical growth curves?

On basis of a series of hypothetical growth curves, Graves and her team (2010) recalculated adult stture for the Turkana Boy, suggesting that growth in this specimen would have been completed by 12.3 years of age. As a result, they obtain an adult atature of the Turkana boy can have significant implications for evolutionary scenarios involving early genus Homo.

Omomyidae

One of the 2 families of Eocene Primates. Also known as Tarsiiformed. Considered to be ancestral to modern Haplorrhines. Characterised by short faces, large orbits with a narrow gap between the eyes, large brains and by tubular ectotympanic bones. Dental formula is more similar to anthropoids that to tarsiers: 2.1.3.3. or 2.1.2.3.

Adapiformes

One of the 2 families of Eocene Primates. Considered to be ancestral to Strepsirrhines. Show forward facing eyes, post-orbital bar, large brains, reduced snouts and vertical incisors. Well preserved post-cranial skeletons show nails rather than claws, flexible limbs, long tails, opposable thumbs and big toes.

Discuss the cranium found at Petralona in Greece

One of the most complete skull, belonging to this species. it shows a combination of primitive and derived features similar to other specimens of the same period. It has been dated to between 400,000 and 300,000 years ago.

How do we explain the decrease in EQ of modern humans when compared to the latest Pleistocene forms?

One possible explanation is the decrease in brain size was related to a generalised gracilization of the body structure. Some argue that this could be related to sampling bias toward larger males. Although Neanderthal and modern human brains are similar in size, their overall shapes is quite different.

Visual Predation Theory

Orbital convergence, grasping hands and feet, reduced claws were adaptations for the nocturnal foraging for fruit and insects on terminal branches in the shrub layer of the forest. Characteristics observed in terrestrial predators such as large cats. The weakness in this theory lies in the fact that prosimians, considered to be closer to the ancestral form of all primates, exhibit lower reliance on visual information for locomotion and predation; rather, they emphasize olfactory and auditory cues in the pursuit of prey.

Clones

Organisms that are genetically identical to another organism. The term may also be used to refer to genetically identical DNA segments, molecules, or cells.

How many genera of Eocene primates have been discovered?

Over 60. Mostly grouped into 2 families: Omomyidae and Adapidae.

Jurassic Pangaea

Pangaea continued to split apart, with Africa that moved further away from South America, and India started to move towards Asia, while North America continued to rotate away from Africa. The climate was mostly warm and humid with lush and green vegetation. This period was mainly dominated by dinosaurs, and it is also known as "golden age of dinosaurs". The Jurassic also saw the origin of the first birds, including the well-known Archaeopteryx.

Homininae

Part of the Hominidae taxon. Includes chimpanzees and bonobo (Panini) and humans (Hominini).

Gorillinae

Part of the Hominidae taxon. Includes gorillas.

Ponginae

Part of the Hominidae taxon. Includes orangutans.

Siamang

Part of the Hylobatid family. Are distinct from the other apes because of their vocalisations. Their incredible loud voice is amplified by a conspicuously large larynx sac, which can be inflated like a balloon.

Gibbons

Part of the Hylobatid family. Gibbons have short snouts and shallow faces, large orbits with protruding rims and a wide interorbital distance. Are outstanding among living primates in their limb proportions. Have longest forelimbs relative to body size of any living primate. Have long, curved, slender digits on their hands and feet as well a long muscular pollex and hallux.

Daubentoniids

Part of the Strepsirrhini family. Are constituted only by one species that is probably the most diverse primate species, also known as aye-aye. The aye-aye is nocturnal animal characterized by a bushy tail, enormous ears and by a greatly reduced dental formula. The most distinctive feature of its dentition is the presence of a pair of large, ever-growing rodent-like incisors. The skull has a relatively large, globular braincase compared to other lemurs. The auditory bulla is similar of those found in lemurids and indriids. The aye-aye has relatively large clawed digits on both hands and feet and the third digit of each hand is extremely long and slender. They have a limited diet consisting of fruits, seeds, insect larvae and flowers, most of which are obtained through the use of their gnawing teeth and probing finger.

Lepilemurids

Part of the Strepsirrhini family. Characterized by the absence of the upper incisors, large digital pads and large caecum. Often locally abundant in all types of forest. Prefer vertical postures with a leaping locomotor behaviour. Mostly nocturnal and folivorous. Unable to digest cellulose, but have intestinal bacteria that are able to break down the tough cellulose. Has been reported to reingest its feces for a second pass through the digestive system.

Indriids

Part of the Strepsirrhini family. Have a reduced dental formula with only 2 premolards and only 1 incisor in each quadrant of the mandible. They are specialized leapers with very long hindlimbs. Their digestive tract has an enlarged caecum and large intestine. They feed on leaves, fruits, bark and flowers. Within this family Avahis are nocturnal, and Sifakis and Indris are diurnal.

Lemurids

Part of the Strepsirrhini family. Lemurids are typical Malagasy lemurs with dental formula: 2.1.3.3. Tympanic ring lies free within the auditory bulla. Mostly diurnal animals or cathemeral, that live in groups and do not build nests.

Lorises

Part of the Strepsirrhini family. Nocturnal that have a dental toothcomb, the grooming claw on the second digit and a flared talus. Have cranial features that distinguish them from Lemurids. In the ear region the tympanic ring is fused to the lateral wall, rather than being suspended within the bulla. Live in tropical forests of Central and West Africa and in Southeast Asia. They are best known for their slow, stealthy habits. Have small ears, their forelimbs and hindlimbs are more similar in length, and they lack long tails. They are nocturnal, eating both plants and very small animals.

Galagos

Part of the Strepsirrhini family. Nocturnal that have a dental toothcomb, the grooming claw on the second digit and a flared talus. Have cranial features that distinguish them from Lemurids. In the ear region the tympanic ring is fused to the lateral wall, rather than being suspended within the bulla. Primarily leapers that live in many areas, from dry, thorny scrub to evergreen tropical rainforests of Africa. They are nocturnal and they can eat fruit, gums, and insects.

Cheirogaleids

Part of the Strepsirrhini family. Smallest and probably most primitive of the Malagasy families. They are nocturnal and build nests. Dental formula 2.1.3.3. Tympanic ring lies free within the auditory bulla. The females have 3 pairs of nipples and usually give birth to twins.

The Spinal cord

Part of the central nervous system. It is connected to the brain and it is surrounded and protected by the bony vertebral column. Its primary function is to transmit the neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

The brain

Part of the central nervous system. It is located in the skull and is important because it includes all the higher nervous centers. Made of 3 parts: the brain stem, the cerebellum and the cerebrum.

What are Sulci?

Part of the cerebrum in the brain. They are depressions in the surface of the brain that form a complex arrangement of grooves. They divide the surface of the brain into a series of thick bands - called gyri.

What are Gyri?

Part of the cerebrum in the brain. They are the series of thick bands that divide the surface of the brain.

Nonrandom mating

Pattern of mating in which individuals choose mates preferentially, with mate choice based on criteria such as social status, ethnicity, or biological relationship. In nonrandom mating, an individual doesn't have an equal chance of mating with all other individuals in the group.

Primate hands

Pendactyl - possess 5 fingers. They have nails instead of claws. Palmar surface of primate hands and feet are covered with friction pads, a special type of skin covered with dermatoglyphics and sweat glands. Possess elaborate anatomy and structure of the pollex (thumb) allow complex movements associated with grasping. Grasping or prehensile ability of primate hands varies significantly also with the degree of opposability of the thumb. Partially rotating the thumb and pressing it forcefully towards the fingers provides a secure grip for hanging on branches and for manipulating small objects. All primates (except humans) have prehensile feet as well. But few have the high degree of thumb opposability and strength typical of humans.

K-selected

Pertaining to K-selection, an adaptive strategy whereby individuals produce relatively few offspring, in whom they invest increased perental care. Although only a few infants are born, chances of survival are increased for each one because of parental investments of time and energy. Birds, elephants and canids (wolves, coyotes and dogs) are examples of K-selected nonprimate species.

Acheulian

Pertaining to a stone tool industry from the Early and Middle Pleistocene; characterized by a large proportion of bifacial tools (flaked on both sides). Acheulian tool kits are common in Africa, Southwest Asia, and western Europe, but they're though to be less common elsewhere. Also spelled Acheulean.

Aurignacian

Pertaining to an Upper Paleolithic stone industry in Europe beginning at about 40,000 ya.

Reproductively isolated

Pertaining to groups of organisms that, mainly because of genetic differences, are prevented from mating and producing offspring with members of other such groups. For example, dogs cannot mate and produce offspring with cats.

Fitness

Pertaining to natural selection, a measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals. Fitness can be measured by an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation compared with that of other individuals. Ther terms genetic fitness, reproductive fitness, and differential net reproductive success are also used.

Autonomic

Pertaining to physiological responses not under voluntary control. An example in chimpanzees would be the erection of body hair during excitement. Blushing is a human example. Both convey information regarding emotional states, but neither is deliberate and communication isn't intended.

Polygynous

Pertaining to polygyny. A mating system in which a male mates with more than one female. This is the most common mating pattern found in mammals, including most primates.

R-selected

Pertaining to r-selection, a reproductive strategy that emphasizes relatively large numbers of offspring and reduced parental care compared with K-selected species. K-selection and r-selection are relative terms, eg. mice are r-selected compared with primates but K-selected compared with insects.

Plio-Pleistocene

Pertaining to the Pliocene and first half of the Pleistocene, a time range of 5 to 1 mya. For this time period, numerous fossil hominins have been found in Africa.

Magdalenian

Pertaining to the final phase of the Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry in Europe.

Ecological

Pertaining to the relationships between organisms and all aspects of their environment (temperature, predators, nonpredators, vegetation, availability of food and water, types of food, disease organisms, parasites, etc.)

Phase 1 of the power stroke cycle of mastication

Phase 1 is the opposing molar crests tend to slide past each other and the trapped food is exposed to a shearing action. At the end of Phase 1, food is compressed (crushing) between basins and cusps of molars.

Phase 2 of the power stroke cycle of mastication

Phase 2 is an anterior-medial movement, where the lower molars move out of occlusion. During Phase 2, food is processed by grinding through the contact between the lingual slopes of the mandibular molar cusps and the buccal surfaces of the maxillary molar cusps, which act as a "pestle and mortar". The chewing cycle terminates with the jaw opening.

Grooming

Picking through fur to remove dirt, parasites, and other materials that may be present. Social grooming is common among primates and reinforces social relationships.

Absolute dating methods

Place events in their chronological order with reference to a universal time scale.

Lower molar cusps

Placed symetrically about the crown midline. In some molars, the fissures forming the main cross in the central fossa meet at precisely the same point (the + pattern). In the 'Y" pattern, there are 2 meeting points connected by a short length of fissure, so that lingual and distal arms meet at one point, and buccal and mesial arms meet at the other. In the "X" pattern, the lingual and mesial arms meet at one point, whilst the buccal and distal arms meet at the other.

Linnaeus taxonomic classification in relation to race

Places humans into 4 separate categories. Assigned behavioural and intellectual qualities to each group, with the least complimentary descriptions going to sub-Saharan Africans. This ranking system was typical of the period and reflected the almost universal European view that Europeans were superior to everyone else.

Vocalisations in primates

Play a major role in primate communication. Eg. bark of baboon that has just spotted a leopard, unintentional startled reactions. Chimpanzee food grunt - heard only in specific contexts, in this case the presence of foods. Vocalisations inform others of the possible presence of predators or food.

Breeding isolates

Populations that are clearly isolated geographically and/or socially from other breeding groups.

Territories

Portions of an individual's or group's home range that are actively defended against intrusion, especially by members of the same species.

Humerofemoral Index

Provides an estimate for the positional behaviour of a species. The index is the length of the humerus divided by the length of the femur, multiplied by 100. The higher the index value, the longer the arms and the more likely a primate is to be arboreal. Most arboreal primates have ratios close to 100. Humans average a lower ratio at approximately 71.8.

Irregular Bones

Possess a complex shape and thus cannot be grouped in other categories. Belonging in this group: vertebra, some facial bones, pelvic girdle and the mandible.

What morphological adaptations are exhibited in Neanderthals associated with climates?

Possess a distinctive craniofacial and postcranial morphology that has been associated with cold climates characterizing the Pleistocene glacial times in Europe. Direct associations between Ice Age climates and Neanderthal forms have been proposed: large noses and large paranasal sinuses, big brains and robust, muscular bodies with barrel chests and short limbs may have been thermal adaptations to harsh glacial conditions. These features, taken individually may overlap the range of variation seen in living people, but taken together appear only in this species.

Brain of Australopithecus africanus

Possess a small brain, estimated in 450 cm3, but the skull was more rounded with small brow ridged and a reduced facial prognathism.

What method would you use to determine the age of Australopithecine remains?

Potassium-argon dating

What did the study on molar macrowear of Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens, were compared with the molar macrowear of modern hunter-gatherers with known dietary habits?

Previous studies assumed taxon-specific dietary specialisations, this study suggests that the diet of both Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens is determined by ecological conditions. Neanderthal and early Homo sapiens that lived in cold environments show a strong similarity with the significant consumption of high proteind meat resources. On the contrary, Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens that Lived in temperate habitats (characterised by deciduous forests) and along the Mediterranean coastline are more similar to hunter-gatherers with a mixed diet, showing a high dietary variability, which included animal proteins and plant foods.

How are primates characterized?

Primates are characterised by an extensive variation in life history patterns. Modern humans, are characterised by an extensive adolescent length if compared to great apes. A second aspect that differs between humans and non human primates is the occurrence of a rapid acceleration in the growth velocity in the skeleton in the former. This acceleration is called adolescent growth spurt. In contrast to humans, other primate species have no acceleration in skeletal growth, or they may have a very small acceleration in growth.

Primate Vision

Primates rely extensively on vision. Easy to see when comparing skull characteristics of a dog, cat and a macaque. The orbits of the macaque and the cat are bigger than the dogs. The dogs orbits are mostly facing laterally, in cats and macaques there is a progressive realignment of the visual axes of the orbits from laterally facing to anteriorly facing lines of sight. This is called orbital convergence and allows with different degrees, the stereoscopic vision.

Concept of Species and Classification

Proposed by John Ray (minister educated at the Uni of Cambridge. Recognized groups of plants and animals could be differentiated from other groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce fertile offspring. Placed such groups of reproductively isolated organisms into species. Also recognized that species frequently share similarities with other species and grouped these together in a second level of classification called genus.

The Shoulder girdle

Provides support and articulation for the humerus and anchors a variety of muscles. It embraces the thorax posteriorly, laterally and anteriorly, providing a platform for movements of the upper limbs. It consists of the clavicle and the scapula.

What is the chronological order of the following primates: Proconsul, Gigantopithecus, Purgatorius and Adapis.

Purgatorius, Adapis, Proconsul, Gigantopithecus.

Procunsul was a primate associated with what type of locomotor behaviours?

Quadrupedal locomotor habits

Who discover when the first use of fire was undertaken and when was this first useage dated to?

Recent analysis conducted in South Africa by Michaeol Chazan from the University of Toronto, dated back the use of fire to at least 1 mya.

Ceboidea

Recently divided into 3 families: Cebidae, Pithecidae and Atelidae.

What did Clive Finlayson and his team do in 2006.

Redated the statigraphic layers of Gorham's Cave at Gibraltar, showing that the Neanderthal occupation persisted until 28,000 years ago. The Gorham's Cave could represent the latest survival of Neanderthals. The southernmost extreme parts of Europe were affected by a less severe climate fluctuations, and probably this allowed the formation of isolated glacial refuges capable of providing greater and variable food sources, prolonging the Neanderthal survival.

2 groups of Primates

Redivided into 2 groups: Strepsirrhini and Haplorrhini.

Calibrated relative dating techniques

Refer to methods that are correlated to an absolute chronology. Somewhere in between relative and radiometric methods.

Postcranial

Referring to all or part of the skeleton, not including the skull. The term originates from the fact that in quadrupeds the body is posterior to the head; the term literally means "behind the head".

Orthograde

Referring to an upright body position. This term relates to the position of the head and torso during sitting, climbing, etc. and doesn't necessarily mean that the animal is bipedal

Polytypic

Referring to species composed of populations that differ in the expression of one or more traits.

Unaltered preservation

Refers to fossils that did not change their structure and composition after death. Can further recognize different ways that fossils can form such as mummification, refrigeration, amber and tar impregnation.

Bipedalism

Refers to locomotion on 2 legs. All modern humans are fully bipeds. Balance is crucial. In part of the walking cycle, the biped must balance on 1 leg while lifting the other foot off the ground and swinging it forward.

Radiometric dating

Refers to the age estimation of an object by determining the relative proportions of particular radioactive isotopes present in a sample. Radioactive isotopes of certain elements are unstable, and the decay to form an isotopic variant of another element. Since the rate of decay follows a predictable mathematical pattern, the radioactive material serves as an accurate geologic clock. With a constant rate of decay, there will be a characteristic time at which half the atoms of the original isotope have decayed, this is the half-life of the element. Original radioactive material is called the parent. The stable product is called the daughter. The rate of decay is described by the half-life of the isotope, which can be also defined as the average time an atom of a radioactive element remains in the parent state. When the half-life has elapsed, half the parent element will have decayed into the daughter element.

Biostratigraphy

Refers to the correlation and determination of relative ages of the different sedimentary layers by using the fossil assemblages contained within them. Index fossils become extremely important. This technique was significantly important in cross-correlating the ages of various sites in southern, central and eastern Africa.

Biological continuum

Refers to the fact that organisms are related through common ancestry and that behaviours and traits seen in one species are also seen in others to varying degrees. When expressions of a phenomenon continuously grade into one another so that there are no discrete categories, they are said to exist on a continuum. Colour is one such phenomenon.

What is the mesial aspect?

Refers to the side surface closest to the middle line of the face.

Habitual bipedalism

Refers to those animals were bipedalism is assumed on a regular basis but it is not the only form of locomotion.

Obligate bipedalism

Refers to those animals where bipedalism is the only form of locomotory behaviour, because other forms of locomotion are impossible.

Altered preservation

Refers to those fossils where their original composition has been altered by chemical and physical changes. Such as Permineralisation, petrification, dissolution and carbonisation.

Uranium series dating

Relies on radioactive decay of short-lived uranium isotopes, as thorium-230 (230 Th) and uranium-234 (234 U). Usually applied to chemically precipitated calcium carbonate, which occurs in stalagmitic layers, travertines and lacustrine limestones. This dating technique has an approximate range of 350,000 years.

Thermoluminescence dating

Relies on the principle of radiometric decay as well. Stone used in tool manufacture invariably contains trace amounts of radioactive element, such as uranium. When the stone is heated, certain particles trapped within it are released. When the stone is heated, certain particles trapped within it are released. As they escape, they emit a dull glow known as thermoluminescence. After that, radioactive decay resumes within the fired stone, again building up electrons at steady rate. This technique is generally used by archaeologists to date ceramic pots from recent sites, but it can also be used to date burned flint stones from early hominin sites.

Uranium Series Dating

Relies on the radioactive decay of short-lived uranium isotopes.

Empirical

Relying on experiment or observation; from the Latin empiricus, meaning "experienced".

The origin of human language and in particular the question of whether or not Neanderthals were capable of language/speech.

Remains an area of great controversy. 2 voice producing structures located in the neck are the larynx and the pharynx. In mammals, the position of the larynx is either high up in the neck allowing the animal to swallow and breathe at the same time, or it is positioned low in the neck causing the air passages to close during swallowing. Humans possess the latter position, while all other mammals and infant humans have a larynx posisioned high up. Some anthropologists argued that Neanderthal throats would not have been well suited for the production of the vowels a, i and u.

What is the date assigned to human remains found at Mladec in Czech Republic?

Remains found belong to several individuals and has been dated to 31,000 years ago.

Replication process

Replication begins when enzymes break the bonds between bases, throughout the DNA molecule leaving single bases exposed. Bases then attract unattached DNA nucleotides that have been made elsewhere in the cell nucleus. 2 previously joined parental nucleotides serve as models or templates.

Femur-stature ratio

Reported by Feldesman et al. this ratio is given by the maximum femur length, multiplied for one hundred and divided by the living statures taken from different human populations. The stature will be obtained by multiplying the maximum femur length for one hundred and by dividing it with the femur-stature ratio. The relationship between stature and long bone length may differ among populations, and consequently, population specific regression equations are often used for individuals from different populations. Recovery of fossil specimens with smaller body sizes, out of the range of modern human reference samples and with clearly distinct body, further complicated attempts at stature reconstruction.

What is the oldest hominin fossil that has been discovered so far?

Represented by a single skull found at the site of Toros-Menalla in Chad. This discovery is unique for several reasons. Firstly, found in a very arid zone within the Southern Sahara Desert, over 2,000 km away from the nearest site yielding hominin fossiles. Secondly, age estimates suggest a date between 7 and 6 mya, representing thus the oldest hominin fossil. Based on several anatomical features the team led by Michel Brunet identified this fossil as a new species, placing it in a new hominin genus: Sahelanthropus tchadensis.

What is an example of Paleolithic art?

Represented by small sculptures, or figurines, known as Venus, generally portraying voluminous women where certain parts of the human anatomy are exaggerated. They were probably used as fertility symbols.

What is the Oldowan stone technology?

Represented by the cache of the earliest stone tools discovered in Africa and dated to about 2.6 mya. It represents the simplest stone tool technology found on the earliest Stone Age sites in Africa. They have been mostly created by the earliest members of the genus Homo, as Homo habilis.

Gametes

Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) developed from precursor cells in ovaries and testes.

Which of these features characterize the skeleton of Ardipithecus ramidus? High bicondylar angle, Strong longitudinal arch, Realigned hallux or Rigid and flat foot?

Rigid and flat foot

What does Ruff indicate when analyzing limb proportions in modern and fossil homininds.

Ruff showed that tropical populations have relatively longer limbs than higher latitude populations, supporting the Allen's rule in humans. Equatorial populations have longer tibiae relative to femora than the higher latitude samples, consistent with relative limb lengthening in warmer climates among living humans. Homo ergaster has a very long tibia relative to his femur length, indicating relatively long lower limbs. Neanderthals instead, have very short relative tibia lengths, indicating relatively short lower limbs.

Volkmann's Canals

Run perpendicular to the haversian canals, interconnecting the latter with each other and the peiosteum, creating a network that supplies blood and lymph to the cells of long bones.

Climate characteristics of Middle Pleistocene

Saw a progressive expansion of wooded vegetation that culminated aorund 3.6 mya, with the emergence of the genus Australopithecus.

What were the initial beliefs in regards to the lineage of Homo?

Scientists initially believed that the early foms of Homo evolved into Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster). However, because Homo ergaster coexisted with Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis and other australopith forms, some researchers hypothesize that other early forms of Homo gave origin to Homo ergaster, and probably also to the Dmanisi hominin fossils.

Midstance phase

Second stage in human walking cycle. It is the point where the body is directly over the weight-bearing foot. The body carries its forward momentum from the midstance phase over the leg, at which point force moves medially over to the ball of the foot. At this point, strong muscular contraction of the plantar-flexors results in the ball of the foot pushing against the ground and eventually lifting away from it as the body continues to move forward.

Introns

Segments of genes that are initially transcribed and then deleted. Because introns are not expressed, they aren't involved in protein synthesis.

Exons

Segments of genes that are transcribed and are involved in protein synthesis. (The prefix ex donotes that these segments are expressed.

Population Genetics Research model

Selection of population (frequently an isolate) - collection of samples (blood or swabs from inside mouth) - Analysis of specific gene patters; loci and alleles determined from expressed phenotype (as in ABO) or directly at DNA level (as in microsatellites) - Calculation of allele frequencies in population - Determination of evolutionary status using Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium formula = Null hypotheses; population in equilibrium at loci tested; no evolution OR Population not in equilibrium; population is evolving - Evolutionary process explained by natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and/or mutation.

Displays

Sequences of repetitious behaviours that serve to communicate emotional states. Nonhuman primate displays are most frequently associated with reproductive or agonistic behaviour; examples include chest slapping in gorillas or, in male chimpanzees, dragging and waving branches while charging and threatening other animals.

What are the similarities between the fossils of Homo erectus found in Zhoukoudian and the ones found in Java.

Skulls with thick bones, a sagittal keel and a protruding face.

Distinguishing features between Old World Monkeys and Apes

Seven characteristics separate them. Old World monkeys are characterized by a narrow nose, apes are not. Braincase of OWM is relatively small, apes are larger. OWM narrow palate and bilophodont molars, apes have broad palates and simple molars. OWM have long trunks and long tails, apes have no tails, short trunks and long arms.

What are the locations from the Late Pleistocene that yielded human fossil remains of Homo sapiens?

Several Late Pleistocene localities have yielded fossil remains. The most significant is the Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian and Ordos in Mongolia. The fossils from these Chinese sites are all fully modern, and probably less than 40,000 years old.

What characteristic are associated with Neanderthals?

Several distinctive anatomical features. The skull is elongated presenting a low forehead and a flat vault. The face shows prominent browridges, a large nasal cavity, and large and usually heavily worn frontal teeth. In the mandible the chin is absent (or weakly developed), and a retro-molar space behind the third molar is visible. Have a distinctive craniofacial and postcranial morphology that has been associated with cold climates characterising the Pleistocene glacial times in Europe. The large noses have been associated with advantage to helped warm the air before it entered the lungs so that they were able to keep their bodies warm. But new researches showed that the ecogeographical patterning of the nasal aperture in recent humans would predict instead that Neanderthals should exhibit reduced nasal breadth dimensions, suggesting thus that the large noses of Neanderthals were not a cold adaptation.

What are the characteristics of the Dmanisi crania found on the site of Dmanisi in the Republic of Georgie?

Several individuals found. Age dated to 1.81 mya. Similar to Homo erectus - long, low braincase, wide base and sagittal keeling. Different - specimen 2700, less robust and thinner browridge, a projecting lower face, relatively large upper canine - reminiscent of smaller early Homo specimens from East Africa. Cranial capacity small at 600 cm3.;

Foot phalanges

Share a common basic design with hand phalanges. Except for the great toe, each toe has 3 phalanges: proximal, middle and distal.

The Shearing process of the chewing phase

Shearing is the force which causes the sliding of opposing parts of the teeth in a direction almost parallel to their planes of contact.

Short Bones

Show a cube-shaped form, of nearly equal length and width, as the carpal and tarsal bones.

Discuss the diet of Neanderthals that lived in relatively warm environments.

Show a high dietary variability including animal proteins and plant foods.

Lower premolar crowns

Show comparatively high disparity in buccal and lingual size, with the buccal cusp dominating the lingual cusp in height and area. They can also be 3-cusped. Have comparatively weak median grooves, and are more circular in occlusal outline. Have normally a single conical root, of round section.

Asian Colobine monkey

Shows a great diversity and abundance. Nasalis larvatus or proboscis monkey lives in Borneo and shows a large sexual dimorphism. Males are almost twice the size of females, and have an enormous pendulous nose. The most common, most diverse, and most abundant are the langurs that are characterized by a slender body with a long tail. They live in multi-male groups. Rhinopithecus or golden monkey, which is probably the largest of all colobines are characterized by a short-turned-up nose, a bluish face and long, shaggy hair. They have long tails, relatively short limbs and short digits. They live in mixed broadleaf conifer forests and coniferous forests at the elevation of 1,500 to 3,500 meters, of Vietnam and China.

Ardipithecus ramidus

Shows a mosaic of primitive and derived features that suggests the use of various locomotory behaviours. While the anterior position of the foramen magnum, together with the short and wide ilium suggest habitual locomotory habits, upper and lower limbs of similar length, long and curved fingers, flat and rigid foot including a divergent hallux, clearly indicating that Ardipithecus ramidus retains the ability to climb trees.

Describe the diet of the Middle Paleolithic Mousterian stone tool deposits of a Quina in France.

Shows evidence of plant processing.

Dental microwear analysis of P. boisei

Shows low microwear texture complexity and low to moderate anisotropy values, suggesting a diet dominated by foods with fracture properties similar to those eaten by the gracile australopithecines.

What does the Cranial capacity study based on geometric morphometric analysis of endocranial morphology.

Shows the encephalization in Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens was reached through different trajectories. Neanderthals share a common endocranial model, while involved a relative reduction of the length and width of the occipital lobes, a vertical development, an enlargement of the frontal breadth, and the shortening of the parietal cord. In comparison with Neanderthals, modern humans show a similar allometric pattern, but the trajectory is shifted toward a larger amount of parietal development.

Inferior view of the skull

Shows the remaining bones of the skull, like the vomer and the palatine bones.

Significant increase in cranial capacity of Homo species

Significant increase in cranial capacity, which was accompanied with the increase in body size. Homo habilis had a large cranial capacity variation, comprised between 510 - 720 cc. H. rodolfensis had larger cranial capacity. Great and significant increase in cranial capacity only occurred with the emergence of H. erectus/ergaster, where the cranial capacity reached the average value of 1250 cc in the later forms of this species.

Mitosis

Simple cell division; the process by which somatic cells divide to produce two identical daughter cells.

Cylindrical Model

Simplest possible geometric model of the human body that incorporated both size and general shape characteristics is that of a cylinder. Using a equation for a cylinder, it can be demonstrated that in order to maintain the same body surface area/body mass ratio with changes in height, breadth must remain constant. In order to change this ratio, absolute breadth must change. Predicts that within a similar temperature zone variation in height should be accompanied by little or no variation in breadth.

What are the contemporaneous human fossil sites found in Europe and when are they dated to?

Site Atapuerca in Spain. In Ceprano in Italy dated to between 1.2 to 0.78 mya.

Homo erectus discovery at Ngandong

Site dated to 70,000 - 40,000 ya. In Java. Indicates very late survival of Homo erectus in Java.

Homo erectus discovery in Zhoukoudian (China)

Site dated to 780,000 ya. Large sample; most famous Homo erectus site; shows some Homo erectus populations well adapted to temperate (cold) environments.

Primate adaptations to diet

Size is basic aspect of anatomy and plays important role in its ecological adaptations. Diets are closely linked with body size. Primates need a balanced diet (energy and nutritional requirements). Insectivorous primates are relatively smaller than folivorous primates. Smaller frugivorous species tend to supplement their diet with insects, and larger frugivorous species supplement their diet with leaves.

Australopithecus sediba

Skeletal remains found in South Africa in 2008. Shows postcranial features that fall within the Australopithecus range, with a mosaic of primitive and derived features, indicating that this species could walk upright and climb on trees. Some derived features of the ilium, as the increased buttressing, and the reduced distance between the sacroiliac and hip joint, anticipate the reorganisation of the pelvis and limbs seen in Homo erectus.

Guenons

Small forest monkeys of sub-Saharan Africa. Range in size from 3-9kg. Is a moderate amount of sexual dimorphism. All have sexually dimorphic canines, relatively narrow molar teeth, short snouts, longer hindlimbs than forelimbs, and long tails. Are predominantly frugivorous and insectivorous. Most species live in single-male groups.

Amino Acids

Small molecules that are the components of proteins.

Burins

Small, chisel-like tools with a pointed end; thought to have been used to engrave bone, antler, ivory or wood.

Bonobos

Smaller than chimps. with a darker face, a more gracile skull, more slender limbs and longer hands and feet. No sexual dimorphism in the dentition and limb skeleton. Compared to chimps, adults skulls is strongly reduced in size, the body trunk is somewhat reduced and hind limbs are not reduced at all. Have a relatively restricted distribution in central Africa south of the Zaire River where they live in a more forested environment than do most other chimps. Travel on ground mainly by knuckle walking and feed both on the ground and in trees. Move through trees climbing and swinging. They can occasionally walk bipedally. They eat mostly fruit, pith and leaves, as well as occasional small prey. Normally seen in small groups of four to 5 individuals. They can be considered as the happy and friendly version of the chimp. Many friendly interactions between bonobos frequently involved sexual behaviours. This includes all possible combinations with males and females, males with males, females with females and even infants with adults. Often adopt a "missionary" posture during copulation. Behaviours alleviate the stress and competitiveness in the group.

Smell in primates

Smell in mammals is the dominant sensory mode but primates use vision so the physical features related to smell are reduces in size. They have a reduced snout and the area of the brain related to vision is much larger than that area in a dog. Primates use vision and touch to explore their environment.

What is the debate about classification of Sahelanthropus tchadensis based around?

Some anthropologists believe that the small canine teeth are sometimes observed in Miocene apeas, especially in female individuals. Also they state that the foramen magnum is positioned toward the back, an intermediate position between that of a quadrupedal ape and that of a bipedal hominin. And therefore believe that it is a fossil ape and not a hominin form.

Quarternary Period

Some considered the Quaternary as part of the Neogene Period, while many others insist to consider the Quarternary a different and separate period. The continents achieved the present position. There were strong climatic changes during this period, with alternate glacial and interglacial phases. This determined the emergence of the megafauna, as the wooly rhinoceros, bison, cave bears and wooly mammoth. The emergence and evolution of early humans in Africa.

Grouping

Some primatologists consider Platyrrhini and Catarrhini at the parvorder level, while for other primatologist these 2 groups should be considered at the infradorder level.

When did the distinction between Catarrhines and Platyrrhines occur?

Sometime during the Oligocene.

Enzymes

Specialized proteins that initiate and direct chemical reactions in the body.

Australopithecus bahrelghazali

Specimen consists of a mandibular fragment and isolated teeth discovered in Chad dated about 3.8 mya. Little is known about this species.

Ribosomes

Structures composed of a form of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein. Ribosomes are found in a cell's cytoplasm and are essential to the manufacture of proteins.

Molecules

Structures made up of two or more atoms. Molecules can combine with other molecules to form more complex structures.

Principle of Original Horizontality

States that beds of sediment deposited in water form as horizontal (or nearly horizontal) layers due to gravitational settling. Allows us to easily detect unnatural degrees of tilt and infer that they have been disturbed since their formation.

Principle of Superposition

States that the oldest layer lies at the bottom and the youngest layer lies at the top. This principle allows us to piece together the succession of fossil life that defines the geological time scale.

How does Strategies influence Social Structure?

Strategies are behaviours that increase individual reproductive success. They also influence the structure and dunamics of primate social groups. Accustomed to using the word strategies to mean deliberate schemes or plans purposefully designed to achieve goals. In the context of nonhuman behavioural ecology strategies are seen as products of natural selection,a nd no conscious planning or motivation is implied.

Hormones

Substances (usually proteins) that are produced by specialized cells and that travel to other parts of the body, where they influence chemical reactions and regulate various cellular functions.

Describe the Neanderthal diet

Suggests that Neanderthals probably did, to some extent, exploit broader, more diverse food types. Highly variable diet with both plant and animal proteins that changed significantly between different climates.

Adapoidea

Superfamily of Euprimates. Include more than 35 genera. Most primative of euprimates. Recognisable by denition. Primitive dental formula - 2.1.4.3. provide generalised baseline from which many later, more derived varieties of dental specializations could evolve. Divided into 5 families - based mostly on biogeographical distinctions. Most prominently notharctids of North America and adapids of Europe.

Relative dating methods

Tells us if one thing is older or younger than something else, but not by how much. Simplest method is stratigraphy that is based on the principle of superposition of Steno where the lower layers are considered to be older than the higher ones as they were deposited first in the sedimentary rocks. It is possible to reconstruct the original sequence of strata so they can be used for relative dating.

Dominance hierarchies

Systems of social organisation wherein individuals within a group are ranked relative to one another. Higher-ranking animals have greater access to preferred food items and mating partners than lower-ranking individuals. Dominance hierarchies are sometimes called "pecking orders".

What is the timeline for Neanderthal fossil discoveries in Southwest Asia

Tabun C, Shanidar, Kebara, Amud.

Taphonomy

Taphos meaning "tomb". The study of how bones and other materials came to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils. Taphonomists study the processes of sedimentation, the action of streams, preservation properties of bone, and carnivore disturbance factors.

Primate dentition

Teeth provide the basic information underlying much of our understanding of primate evolution. All have teeth in both upper jaw (maxilla) and lower jaw (mandible) and are bilaterally symmetrical. Dentition contains 4 types of teeth - from front to back: incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Dental formula for gibbons and humans: 2.1.2.3./2.1.2.3.

Frugivorous primates

Tend to have relatively simple digestive tracts without any elaboration of either the stomach or the large intestine. Have relatively large incisors for ingesting fruits and simple molar teeth with low cusps for crushing and pulping soft fruits.

What locomotory behaviours do Baboons exhibit?

Terrestrial quadruped.

What are the periods of the Cenozoic?

Tertiary and Quaternary.

What was the hypothesis proposed by Count in 1947 and later elaborated by Finlay and Darlington in 1995?

That humans have larger brains than apes or other mammals because our brains grow for longer periods of time. This hypothesis is partially true. Although a chimpanzee brain reaches 95% of adult size approximately 3/4 years of age, a human brain reaches 95% of adult size approximately 6/7 years after birth, the duration of human brain growth is complicated by an even longer period of body growth. Consequently the combination of a more prolonged period of brain growth combined with a slower rate of body growth results in a higher brain-size to body-size ratio is adult humans than in chimpanzees.

What did Pusey and colleagues in 1997 demonstrate in regards to highranking females and their offspring?

That offspring of highranking female chimpanzees at Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania had significantly higher rates of infant survival than those of lower-ranking females. Their daughters matured faster, which meant they had shorter interbirth intervals and consequently produced more offspring.

The presence of long upper limbs in the earliest hominin forms suggests what?

That they were able to climb trees.

Describe the dentition of Old World monkeys

The 4 molar cusps are arranged into 2 transverse ridges (or lophs) perpendicular to the jaw. A condition called bilophodont. The molar occlusal surface typical of all hominoid primates the called the drypithecus pattern.

When was the American continent colonized by modern humans?

The American continent was the last to be colonized by modern humans. The traditional theory suggests that northeastern Asian modern humans migrated to North America through the Bering Land Bridge between 20,000 and 15,000 years ago.

What technology is associated with Homo erectus in the Middle Pleistocene?

The Auchelian technology changed very little during this period. The changed consist to the use of the Levallois technique, suggesting an increased cognitive ability in these human populations.

How does Basal Metabolic Rate (BMI) influence Social Structure?

The BMR concerns metabolism, the rate at which the body uses energy to maintain all bodily functions while in a resting state. It's closely correlated with body size. Smaller animals have a higher BMR than larger animals. Smaller primates, eg. galagos and marmosets, require an energy-rich diet high in protein (insects), fats (nuts and seeds) and carbohydrates (fruits and seeds). Some larger primatesm which tend to have a lower BMR and reduced energy requirements relative to body size, can do well with less energy-rich foods such as leaves.

What figurines from the Paleolithic era were found?

The Lion Man and mammoth were found in the same region, the Swabian Alb in German gave light to another extraordinary find - a nearly complete bone flute. These finds demonstrate the presence of a well-established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe, more than 35,000 year ago.

Empathy

The ability to identify with the feelings and thoughts of another individual.

What causes the differences in Homo erectus morphology

The adult weight in Homo erectus was comprised between 40 and 70 kg, while the stature varied between 150 and 185cm. This large variation was mainly due to sexual dimorphism. Moveover, with Homo erectus occurred an increased robusticity, with heavily built body, that dominated hominin evolution until anatomically modern humans.

Positive allometry

The allometric coefficient a > 1, where the organs show a higher growth rate than the body size, we have a positive allometry. An example of positive allometry in humans is the increase in legs length relative to the body size.

What did Holliday and Franciscus find in their 2010 analysis of bivariate femoral allometry in recent humans, apes, BL1 and Pleistocene hominins?

The allometric trajectory in Pan and Homo show convergence near the small body size range of LB1, such that LB1 manifests a low percentage deviation from the Pan allometry trajectory and falls well within the 95% confidence limits around the Pan individuals. In respect to femoral proportions, their finding are consistent with the prediction that hominins in the small body size range of the australopithecine "Lucy" including members of the genus Homo, will tend to possess short, ape-like lower limbs as a function of body size scaling.

Australopithecus Afarensis locomotion characteristics

The analysis of the post-cranial elements indicated a mixed pattern of locomotion. The foot and lower limbs indicates a bipedal locomotor behaviour. However, the shoulder and curved fingers suggest that this specimen was also capable of climbing in trees.

Homo habilis locomotion habits and adaptations

The anatomy of the foot, including a realigned hallux and a strong longitudinal arch indicate an efficient bipedal locomotion. Presence of an ape-like talus and intermembral proportions were ape-like and similar to Australopithecus afarensis, suggest climbing activity. This mosaic of features places Homo habilis between a habitual biped as Australopithecus and an obligate biped as Homo erectus.

Discuss the evolution of the Homo species.

The anthropologists that recognise the taxonomic status of Homo ergaster, consider this species to be the common ancestor of 2 groups of humans that took different evolutionary paths. One of these groups was Homo erectus, the other group ultimately became our own species Homo sapiens. Recent discovered fossil remains dating to 1.5 mya found in Kenya show features that had prviously only been found in Asian Homo erectus specimens, such as the ridge on the frontal and parietal skull bones. This mix of traits caused some experts to rethink about if these should be separate species.

What does Apical refer to?

The apex or root of the tooth.

What does the significant increase in EQ in Homo habilis coincide with?

The appearance of the first oldowan stone tools.

What is the occlusal aspect?

The aspect of the crown that faces teeth in the opposing jaw when the mouth closes.

Describe the structure of tooth enamel.

The basic and smallest structural units are apatite minerals known as crystallites. These crystallites are organised into more complex and larger structures known as prisms. The arrangement of enamel prisms determines the enamel types. On a larger and more complex scale, the different enamel types within a tooth define the enamel pattern. Some of these structural levels are unique to mammalian teeth and change from species to species.

What was the brain capacity of Homo erectus?

The brain capacity was comprised between 700 and 1250 cm3, probably reflecting the long timespan and body size characterising this group. The brain size in Homo erectus is larger than those of early Homo. The relative brain size is the same seen in Homo rudolfensis and Homo habilis. Relative brain size of Homo erectus is considerably less encephalised than later members of genus Homo.

How is brain mass estimated from the endocranial cavity?

The brain mass is estimated from the endocranial volume by regression equations that related volume to mass, and corrected for the presence of thier tissues and fluids in the braincase.

Discuss the Neanderthal brain size.

The brain size is actually larger than in modern humans. Contemporary Homo sapien brain size has an average capacity of 1300 to 1400 cm3, while in Neanderthals it was about 1500 cm3. But brain size does not indicate that Neanderthals were more evolved than us. Brain size is usually related to body size, and it can also be influenced by climatic conditions, with larger brains found at the northern and colder latitudes.

What does the cranial cavity house?

The brain, soft tissue structures such as the meninges, blood vessels and nerves.

Neurocranium

The braincase. Is composed by the paired parietal and temporal bones, and by the single occipital, frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid bones. Finally, there are 7 more associated bones consisting of the auditory ossicles and the hyoid bone.

Cretaceous Period

The breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea continued apace. Europe, Asia, Africa and North America are all a series of islands. Marked regional differences in floras and faunas between the northern and southern continents developed. In the early phase, the temperature cooled down, with ice and snow during winters. By the late Cretaceous, there was a global warm climate. The deciduous forests and open grasses become more common, and for the first time appeared the flowering plants. The life was still dominated by dinosaurs, but new forms of life evolved, as snakes and transitional primate-like animals. The end of the Cretaceous period was marked by a mass extinction that caused the demise of dinosaurs and 25% of all marine life.

codons

Triplets of messenger RNA bases that code for specific amino acids during protein synthesis.

The calotte

The calvarium without the base.

What causes insular dwarfism?

The causes have primarily focused on the limited resource availability, reduced levels of interspecific competition and absence of predators. The presence of pygmy elephants as Stegodon on the island of Flores shows the same adaptation of insular dwarfism gives strength to this hypothesis on this hypothesis on the origin and evolution of Homo floresiensis.

Discuss the fossil finds in the Skhul Cave, Israel

The cave is located on the slopes of Mount Carmel in Israel, yielded numerous human fossil remains, probably belonging to seven adults and 3 children. These remains have been recently dated to between 100,000 and 130,000 years ago, resulting in being the oldest anatomically modern humans outside Africa. The best preserved specimen is Skhul 5, a skull of an adult male, which shows an overall modern morphology but it retains some primitive features including a marked browridge and a slightly projecting face.

Random assortment

The chance distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells during meiosis. Along with recombination, random assortment is an important source of genetic variation (but not new alleles).

Metabolism

The chemical processes within cells that break down nutrients and release energy for the body to use (when nutrients are broken down into their component parts, such as amino acide, energy is released and made available for the cells to use).

Karyotype

The chromosomes of an individual, or what is typical of a species, viewed microscopically and displayed in a photograph. The chromosomes are arranged in pairs and according to size and position of the centromere.

What supports the Multiregional Evolution theory?

The chronological scenario that uses the examination and comparisons of the lithic assemblages, faunal remains and morphological features of the Levantine hominin groups, it is thought that the Levantine Neanderthals chronologically preceded the anatomically modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh. As the Levant is an important crossroads to 3 continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Intensifying European glaciation and North African desertification may have led to periodic pulses of population movement into the Levant, resulting in increased opportunities for gene flow between Euro-African populations and the peoples of western Asia. This scenario was compatible with the existence of a single, but highly variable population model.

Social structure

The composition, size and sex ratios of a group of animals. The social structure of a species is, in part, the result of natural selection in a specific habitat, and it guides individual interactions and social relationships. It influences individual behaviour, and in many cases the distinctions between social and individual behaviours are blurred.

Biological determinism

The concept that phenomena, including various aspects of behaviour (eg. intelligence, values, morals) are governed by biological (genetic) factors; the inaccurate association of various behavioural attributed with certain biological traits, such as skin colour.

What does the mandible articulate with the skull through?

The condyle.

Neogene Period

The continents begun to crash into each other, forming the Himalayan Moutain Range in Asia, the Andean Mountains in South America and the Pyrenees and Alps in Europe. The climate was cooler and drier than today. Grasslands replaced forests. Saw a great diversification of herbivorous mammals, and the evolution of fast predators with powerful jaws and teeth. Moreover, during this period appeared for the first time apes and the earliest hominin forms.

What features do the smaller skull from East Turkana dated to 1.5 mya show?

The cranial capacity is on 691 cm3. Shows more gracile features - smaller browridges, than other East African Homo Erectus individuals, but it preserves the overall Homo erectus vault shape. Been proposed that this individual is female and the variation indicates a very high degree of sexual dimorphism in this species.

Which of these morphological features is NOT found in Australopithecus afarensis? A projecting face; parallel tooth row; long upper limbs; cranial capacity 500-650 cm3.

The cranial capacity of 500-650 cm3.

Comparison of brain capacity of between Australopithecines and paranthropine and great apes.

The cranial capacity was similar but their body mass differs. The gracile australopithecines and P. robustus the body mass was estimated between 30 to 40 kg, while P. boisei was slightly bigger. On the contrary, the body mass of the great apes is much larger and can vary between 40 and 130 kg. Thus the earliest hominin forms show higher EQs than those of great apes.

What are the characteristics of Homo erectus?

The cranium is characterised by thick cranial bone, large browridges, and projecting nuchal torus, that is a projection of bone in the back of the cranium where neck muscles attach. The braincase is long and low, with little forehead development. The cranium is wider at the base, if compared with earlier and later species. In addition, the sagittal keel, that is a small ridge from front to back along the sagittal suture, reflects bone buttressing in a very robust skull, rather that a specific function.

The calvarium

The cranium without the face.

What do the differences between speciments OH7 and KNM-ER 1470 say?

The differences are not a result of a great sexual dimorphism, but most likely, it is connected to the presence of 2 contemporaneous species of early Homo, in addition to Homo ergaster, in the early Pleistocene of eastern Africa.

What archaeological evidence has been found in association with the skeletal remains at Skhul and Qafzeh sites and is related to the emergence of modern human behaviour?

The discovery of intentional burials, including the presence of a large boar mandible in the arms of Skhul V, together with antlers of a large deer placed near the skeleton of Qafzeh 11, are considered as the oldest-known examples of grave goods.

What supports the theory that Neanderthals had complex social and symbolic behaviour found at the Cueva de Los Aviones in southern Spain?

The discovery of perforated and painted shells.

Geochronologic units

The divisions of time that divides the history of the Earth based on life forms that have existed during specific times since the origin of the planet.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code. Dna is a main component of chromosomes.

What is the earliest Homo erectus fossil?

The earliest Homo erectus fossils come from Africa and have been dated about 1.8 mya. This led many to believe that Homo erectus moved out of Africa around 1 - 1.5 mya, beginning to colonize new territories of the Asian continent.

Pre-australopith time frame

The earliest and most primitive (possible) hominins (6.0+ to 4.4 mya).

Foraminifera

The earliest forms of fishes and the earliest land plants.

What is the significance of the finds at Tam Pa Ling cave (Laos)?

The earliest presence of modern humans in Southeast Asia. A fragmented cranium was recovered in deposits and dated to between 63, 000 and 46,000 years. The study of the cranial morphological features show differences with Eurasian archaic humans and suggest that these remains belonged to anatomically modern humans.

Discuss fossil specimen D2700

The first specimen described from Dmanisi from 1991 to 2005. It was a skull, had a mosaic of derived and primitive features. The brain capacity was very small, just 600 cm3, falling within the range of early Homo, but certainly much smaller than brains of Homo ergaster/Homo erectus. The projecting face resembles those of early Homo, as the presence of large upper canines, and less robust and thinner browridges. Despite that, these fossils share also some common features with Homo ergaster/Homo erectus, as the long and low braincase, the wide base and sagittal keeling.

What are the peculiarities in Neanderthal morphology that do not fit the eco-geographic?

The ecogeographical patterning of the nasal aperture in recent humans would predict instead that Neanderthals should exhibit reduced nasal breadth dimensions. Other researchers have suggested that many aspects of the Neanderthal face are due to combinations of plesiomorphies and uniquely derived traits stemming from random genetic drift rather than to specialised adaptation to cold environments. Need to consider that Neanderthal geographic and chronological range is much wider than expected. It has been discovered new Neanderthal remains from Central Siberia, extending his range far to East. Many Neanderthal specimens lived during interglacial periods, where climatic conditions were much warmer.

Jerison's equation

The encephalization quotient (EQ) to predict brain mass from body mass was log10 BrM, that is equal to .067 multiplied for the log10 of BoM plus 2.08. From this we can calculate the EQ that is equal to BrM divided for 0.12 multiplied for BoM with the power of 0.67.

Epiphyses

The ends of the long bones are called epiphyses because they develop from secondary ossification centers of the bones.

Genome

The entire genetic makeup of an individual or species. In humans, it's estimated that the human genome comprises about 3 billion DNA bases.

Pleistocene

The epoch of the Cenozoic from 1.8 mya until 10,000 ya. Frequently referred to as the Ice Age, this epoch is associated with continental glaciations in northern latitudes.

Recombination

The exchange of genetic material between paired chromosomes during meiosis; also called crossing over.

Splanchnocranium

The facial skeleton. Consists of 14 bones, divided in paired and single bones. The paired bones are the maxillae, the inferior nasal conchae, the lacrimal bones, the nasal bones, the palatine bones and the zygomatic bones. The single bones are the vomer and the mandible.

Non-disjunction

The failure of the chromosomes to separates during meiosis. Results in one of the daughter cells receiving 2 copies of the affected chromosome while the other daughter cell receives none at all. eg. Trisomy 21

Orrorin tugenensis

The femoral and tibia remains found in Kenya and dated about 6.0 mya have been assigned to this species. Remains are also argued to indicate bipedal locomotion. This is particularly evident by the long femoral neck and broad femoral shaft that imply habitual bipedalism. Some anthropologists argue that these features are also found in many other non-human primates. The morphology of the upper limbs, including curved finger bones, are seen as adaptations to an arboreal life.

Toe-off

The final phase of the human walking cycle. Where the action finishes with a final push -off of the big toe.

What is the first scenario in relation to the dual occupation of 2 biologically distinct populations in the Levant?

The first hypothesis proposed that Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans in the Near East occupied this region in an alternating fashion, following different migration patterns caused by severe climatic fluctuations.

Immature Bone

The first kind of bone to develop in prenatal life. As growth continues, immature bone is replaced with mature bone. 2 different types of immature are identified: woven and bundled bone.

Triassic Period

The first period of the Mesozoic Era. At the beginning of this period, the landmasses were still bound together in the supercontinent Pangaea. Pangaea began to break apart in the mid-triassic, forming Gondwana in the south and Laurasia in the north. Climate was warm but for the most part, dry and the middle of Pangaea was very arid. The Triassic was a time of transition, characterised by a slow recovery in life forms after the Permian Extinction. During this period appeared the first dinosaurs, alongside the first flying reptiles, crocodyliforms, turtles, frogs and mammals.

Upper molar crowns

The first posses 4 cusps: the mesio-buccal cusp (or paracone), the mesio-distal cusp (or metacone), the mesio-lingual cusp (or protocone) and the disto-lingual cusp (or hypocone). The cusps are placed asymmetrically relative to the mesio-distal crown axis. The paracone, metacone and protocone are the largest cusps forming a triangle, while the hypocone is less prominent than the other cusps.

Proconsul

The first primate to be classified as an ape. From the Miocene Epoch. A generalised primate with quadrupedal locomotor habits. Retains monkey-like features, such as long trunks, short forelimbs and thin tooth enamel. Shares some characteristics with modern apes. No not possess a tail. Characterised by larger brains and by mobile shoulders and elbows adapted for suspension.

Proto-primates

The first primate-like mammals. Similar in size and shapes to squirrel and tree shrews. Based on fragmentary fossils, it is hypothesized that these animals were adapted to an arboreal life-style. Appear during the Early Paleocene (about 60 million years ago). Discovered in North America and in Europe. Belong to a group Plesiadapiforms. The taxonomy of this group is still debated. Show similarities with Primates, also show several primitive features that closely resemble the living tree shrews. Orbits still directed laterally rather than be oriented frontally for a 3D vision as in primates today and lack of the post-orbital bar. They possess long snout and small brain, relying thus more on the olfactory system rather than on the visual system. They are characterised by the presence of claws and by the absence of adaptations for fast leaping as we see them in modern primates and were not capable of moving as quickly through the trees. Finally, they possess a unique characteristic with enlarged incisors rodent-like.

What are the 2 main hypothesises associated with the Chatelperronian Lithic Industry technology?

The first suggests that Neanderthals independently developed this sophisticated stone tools. The second suggests that the Chatelperronian was the result of the acculturation of Neanderthals by modern humans.

Nuchal Plane

The flattened area of the occipital bone posterior to the foramen magnum, to which neck muscles attach. Differs in bipeds and quadrupeds.

What did the analyses of the skeletal elements of the foot of Homo floresiensis reveal?

The foot was exceptionally long relatively to the femur and tibia, proportions never documented in hominins but seen in some African apes.

Rosalind Franklin

The fourth member on the team who discovered the structure of the DNA molecule in 1962.

Explain the thermoregulation adaptation that have evolved to facilitate increased cranial morphology?

The frequency of emissary veins that pass through the skull changes in the different hominin forms. The frequencies of the parietal and mastoid emissary foramina increased dramatically as brain size increased from Australopithecus africanus to Homo sapiens. If one views the emissary veins that penetrate these foramina as a "window" into a wider network of cranial veins, it appears the cranial radiator increased in complexity as brain size increases during the course of hominid evolution. According to the radiator hypothesis, evolution of the cranial radiator released a thermal constraint that previously kept brain size within ape ranged. Since larger brains are associated with greater cooling needs, they were selected for in conjunction with elaboration of a vascular mechanism for keeping brain temperature within safe limits. The human brain as a radiator that prevents overheating.

Paranthropus australopith species

The genus was characterised by large premolars and molars and by massive skull crests for the attachment of powerful chewing muscles.

How do the muscles and skeletal structures function during bipedal locomotion?

The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles originate on the dorsal side of the ilium and insert on the greater trochanter of the femur. Their actions are critical to propulsion and stability while walking. With the rotation of the ilium, the gluteal muscles in humans repositioned and thus act as pelvic abductors. The contraction of the gluteal muscles during walking tilts the trunk toward the leg in contact with the ground, providing greater stability and balance. The sacrum articulates with the last lumbar vertebra and with the sacroiliac joint of the pelvic bone. In contrast with chimpanzee the sacrum is narrow and long, in humans it is wide and short. Sacroiliac joint in chimpanzees is small, while it is large in humans. These size differences are related to the different patterns of weight transmission through the pelvis during quadrupedal and bipedal locomotion.

Adaptations of feet in bipeds.

The hallux (or big toe) is enlarged and brought in line with other toes. Humans have short and less curved phalanges, while great apes have curved fingers. Robust size of the human calcaneus provides stability and helps to absorb the high forces encountered during the heel strike. Development of distinct longitudinal arch in human feet, helping to absorb shock, distributing body weight and adding propulsive spring.

What are the details surrounding the remains found at Lake Mungo, Australia?

The human remains have been dated to 30,000 to 25,000 years ago. Both LM1 and LM3 crania were described as small and gracile. Based on morphological differences with the remains from Kow Swamp, and together with the analysis of mitochondrial DNA extracted from fragments of LM3's skeleton, some anthropologists believed that human occupation of Australia was the result of the migration of 2 genetically and culturally distinct groups of people.

Last Common Ancestor (LCA)

The hypothetical species that was the last to exist before it speciated into the myriad of sister orders related to primates. Often difficult to pinpoint morphologically since it doesn't yet have the shared derived traits found in the crown group. Final evolutionary link between two related groups.

Describe the interglacial period of the Pleistocene.

The ice sheets retreated due to increase of temperatures. The areas that once supported tundra were covered by forests and at the southern latitudes, characterised by wetter conditions, the vegetation turned into deciduous and evergreen woodlands.

Describe are the types of occlusion?

The incisal edges of the upper anterior teeth overlap mesially with the incisal edges of the opposing lower anterior teeth. The anterior dentition is characterised by different types of occlusion, which are classified based on the vertical and horizontal overlap between maxillary and mandibular opposing teeth, called overjet and overbite respectively.

How does distribution of resources influence Social Structure?

The kinds of foods and how they are found impact on the social interactions of animals. Eg. leaves are found everywhere - consumers normally socially interact while feeding, insects are widely distributed and usually fed on in isolation or with only one or 2 others. Fruits, nuts and berries occur in dispersed trees nad shrubs, most efficiently exploited by smaller groups of animals, so large groups frequently break up into smaller subunits while feeding. Such subunits, may consist of one-male-multifemale groups (some baboons) or matrilines (macaques). Some sp. that depend on foods distributed in small clumps are protective of resources. some live in small groups composed of a mated pair (siamangs) or a female, wtih one or 2 males (marmosets and tamarins) and their offspring.

Black and White Colobine monkeys

The largest of the African colobine monkeys. Quite robust and show a considerable sexual dimorphism. They are arboreal, eating predominantly leaves. They live in very small groups of a single adult male, one or 2 females and offspring.

Ancestral Species

The last common ancestor we share with chimpanzees. The lineage that eventually gave rise to apes and humans separated from a monkey-like ancestor some 20mya, and monkeys are still around because as early primate lineages diverged from one another, each went its separate way.

Pterion region

The lateral walls of the skull

Where does ossification begin?

The location in the tissue where ossification begins is known as an ossification center. The middle of the shaft (or diaphysis)

Balanced polymorphism

The maintenance of 2 or more alleles in a population due to the selective advantage of the heterozygote.

Protein Synthesis

The manufacture of proteins; that is, the assembly of chains of amino acids into functional protein molecules. Protein synthesis is directed by DNA.

Hardy-Weinberg Theory of Genetic Equilibrium

The mathematical relationship expressing - under conditions in which no evolution is occurring - the predicted distribution of alleles in populations; the central theorem of population genetics.

What is the maximum cranial breadth of Homo erectus compared with other Homo species?

The maximum cranial breadth is below the ear opening, giving the cranium a pentagonal shape (when viewed from behind). The skulls of early Homo and Homo sapiens have more vertical sides, and the maximum width is above the ear openings.

Sphenoid bone

The most complex bone of the cranium. It is situated between the bones of the cranial vault and those of the face. It articulates with 12 bones.

The Skull

The most complex portion of the skeleton. It houses and protects the brain. Forms the framework of the masticatory system. Is the entire bony framework of the head, including the mandible.

Natural Selection

The most critical mechanism of evolutionary change, first described by Charles Darwin; the term refers to the genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to difference reproductive success between individuals.

Homo floresiensis cranial capacity

The most peculiar features of this hominin species are represented by its small endocranial volume, and bu its short stature similar to, or smaller than Australopithecus afarensis. Using a variety of procedures, such as mustard seeds, volumetric displacement, virtual reconstruction, the endocranial volume of LB1 specimen has been estimated to range between 380-417 cc. The body mass estimations gave different results (depending on which method was used), varying between 16 and 44 kg. Depending upon the weight you give to these data LB1 either has an EQ similar to a chimpanzee or within the range of Homo erectus.

In Anterior view

The most prominent bone is the frontal, which is located at the front of the neurocranium. It articulates with the parietals, nasals, maxillae, sphenoid, ethmoid, and zygomatics. Consists of 2 general parts, one vertical and one horizontal. Superior to the frontonasal suture there is a smooth prominence called glabella. The frontal bone takes part in the formation of the eye sockets, or orbits.

Biocultural evolution

The mutual interactive evolution of human biology and culture; the concept that biology (anatomy, neurological attributes, etc) makes culture possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution; that is a basic concept in understanding the unique components of human evolution.

What is grey matter?

The nerve fibers found in the cerebral cortex (outer layer of the cerebrum in the brain).

What does the redating of Tabun specimens mean?

The new ESR chronological dates of the Tabun specimens strongly suggest that Neanderthals can be associated to both the Tabun B and C types, indicating a partial temporal overlap between the 2 populations.

Fixity of species

The notion that species, once created, can never change is diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution. A predominant view during the Middle Ages.

Reproductive success

The number of offspring an individual produced and rears to reproductive age, or an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation.

Climate changes in the Miocene Epoch

The ongoing movements of the tectonic plates altered the weather conditions, bringing to a global cooling and drying. The creation of new environments favoured the origin of new primate groups, and at the same time, fossil monkeys and strepsirrhines became relatively rare.

Pelvis of Ardipithecus ramidus

The pelvis is a mosaic of primitive and derived features. The upper part of the pelvis, including a sacroiliac joint located more posteriorly, a mediolaterally expanded ilium and the presence of the anterior inferior iliac spine suggests that these hominins were effective upright walkers. On the contrary, the lower part of the pelvis is more ape-like and it is probably related to active climbing.

Eugenics

The philosophy of "race improvement" through the forced sterilisation of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others; an overly simplified, often racist view that's now discredited. It's popularity flourished throughout the 1930's. Was seen as scientific justification for purging Germany of its "unfit' and many of Germany's scientist continued to support the policies of racial purity and eugenics during the Nazi period, when these policies served as justification for condemning millions of people to death.

Core Area

The portion of a home range containing the highest concentration and most reliable supplies of food and water. The core area is defended.

Flexed

The position of the body in a bent orientation, with arms and legs drawn up to the chest.

Locus (pl. loci)

The position or location on a chromosome where a given gene occurs. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with gene.

Heterodont dentition

The possession of more than a single tooth morphology.

What did the post-cranial elements found by David Lordkipanidze and team tell us?

The post-cranial element shows both primitive and derived features. The body size was small, similar to those of early Homo. The more redial orientation of the feet and the absence of humeral torsion were largely comparable to Homo habilis. The bodyy proportions were simila to Homo ergaster/Homo erectus and the presence of an adducted hallux and platar arch indicate that the biomechanical efficiency during long-range walking and energy storage/return during running, were equivalent to modern humans. Based on this mosaic of characteristics, it was suggested tha the first hominin species currently known from outside Africa did not possess the full suite of derived locomotor traits apparent in African Homo erectus and later hominins. According to these authors, the fossils from Dmanisi are assigned to a new species, Homo georgicus.

What does Tabun D-Type Layer consist of?

The predominant technology is one of unidirectional and some bidirectional core reduction with little if any classic radial core preparation. Blade and point dominant.

Why is the hyoid bone important in speech?

The primary role of the hyoid bone is to support the weight of the tongue, allowing people to articulate words while speaking, and enabling the production of a wide range of vocalisations. Without the hyoid bone, humans would be incapable of speech, so this bone represents a major step in human evolution.

Osteogenesis (or ossification)

The process of bone tissue formation. In embryos - leads to formation of bony skeleton. In children and young adults this occurs as part of bone growth. In adults, becomes part of bone remodeling and bone repair.

Encephalization

The proportional size of the brain relative o some estimate of overall body size, such as weight. More precisely, the term refers to increases in brain size beyond what would be expected given the body size of a particular species.

What does the study of faunal assemblages and stone tool technology evidence tell us about Neanderthal stategies?

The reconstruction of the ecology such as foraging strategies, subsistence and land-use. Recently, stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures of collagen from Neanderthal bones have been widely used for paleodietary reconstruction. All these studies support the hypothesis built on the analysis of the faunal remains, pointing out that Neanderthals obtained nearly all of their dietary proteins from animal sources, occupying the higher level of the food trophic web, similarly to the top-level carnivores of these sites.

Describe the relationship between chela and body size in male fiddler crabs.

The relationship is curve-linear, becoming linear when plotted on a log-log scale. This relationship can then be described using a simple linear equation.

Sister groups

The relationship of new clades that result from the splitting of a single common lineage.

Fluorine Analysis

The relative chemical dating methods use the chemical composition of an object to estimate its relative age. It compares the accumulation of fluorine in animals and human bones from the same site. The longer a bone lies buried, more fluorine it incorporates during fossilisation. Used successfully used with the Piltdown Man hoax, where bone fragments of orangutan and modern humans were presented as fossilised remains of a previously unknown early human. Level of fluroine in the skull and in the jawbone was significantly lower than in any other bone specimens collected from the same area. The skull and jaw clearly were not from the same time period. The associated bones from extinct animals has much older fluorine than either the jaw or the human skull.

Discuss what remains were found in the Qafzeh Cave

The remain belonged to as many as 15 individuals, wherein seven adults and several juveniles. They are quite variable in skeletal morphology. While they are all represent anatomically modern individuals, some display primitive features in cranial morphology. All of the remains appear to have been intentionally buried.

What was found in the early 80's in the Hexian County?

The remains of several individuals, showing many shared characteristics with Homo erectus from Zhoukoudian.

What was discovered about the human remains found in el-Tabun and Es Skhul?

The remains were analysed and described by Theodere McCown and Sir Arthus Keith. Initially, they were quite clear that the remains found at Tabun were similar to European Neanderthals. But they were uncertain about the taxonomic status of the skeletal remains found at Skhul, usually viewing them as somehow intermediate between Neanderthals and robust early modern humans. Their first description published in 1939, they suggested the presence of only one type of human, represented by a wide range of variation with 2 distinct extremes that were linked by intermediate features.

What did the discovery of bitter-tasting plants in the form of microfossil dental calculus in Neanderthals show us?

The researches hypothesized that these plants could have been used for self-medication, suggesting that these Neanderthals had a sophisticated knowledge of their natural surroundings, which included the ability to select and use certain plants.

What did a recent study of occlusal microwear texture confirms a variable dietary spectrum for Neanderthals, and suggests an ecogeographic variation

The results of this study reveals environmentally driven differences in the diets of Neanderthal groups. Significant differences in microwear signatures, correlated with paleoecological conditions, were found among Neanderthal groups that lived in open, mixed, and wooded environments. In comparison to recent hunter-gatherer populations with known, yet diverse diets, the occlusal molar microwear signatures of all the Neanderthal groups indicate that their diet consisted predominantly of meat. The results of this study suggest that plant foods did form an important part of the diet of at least some Neanderthal groups. Overall, the proportion of plant foods in the Neanderthal diet appears to have increased with the increase in tree cover.

Eras

The second division of geologic time and are characterised by completely different conditions and unique ecosystems.

What is the second scenario in relation to the dual occupation of 2 biologically distinct populations in the Levant?

The second hypothesis is based on the possibility that the Neanderthal specimens from Tabun and the early modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh, lived in the Levantine region during the same period of time This new scenario opens the question on the evolutionary relationship between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans and in particular about the possibility that these two different hominin species interact or compete with each other in the Near East.

Cytoplasm

The semifluid, gel-like substance contained within the cell membrane. The nucleus and numerous structures involved with cell function are found within the cytoplasm.

Lower dentition in mammals

The set of 3 major cusps (called trigonid) is turned around with the protoconid on the buccal side and the paraconid and metaconid on the lingual side.

Diaphysis

The shaft of the long bones is called its diaphysis because it is the result of the primary ossification center of the bone.

What can tooth wear tell us?

The shape of unworn teeth can suggest what a tooth is capable of processing, tooth wear can tell us how a tooth was actually used. Tooth wear is an inevitable process. When teh masticatory cycle starts, the contact with abrasive food particles and the occlusal contact between upper and lower dentition during the chewing phase, determine a loss of a superficial enamel substance and the teeth begins to wear down. Can be considered at 3 different scales: microwear, wear facet development and mesowear.

Honing complex

The shearing of a large upper canine with the first lower premolar, with the wear leading to honing of the surfaces of both teeth. This anatomical pattern is typical of most Old World anthropoids but is mostly absent in hominins.

Describe the site of Skhul

The site was divided into 3 stratigraphic units: the Layer A contained a mixed assemblage of Middle and Upper Paleolithic artefacts. Layer B contained cranial and post-cranial remains of at least 10 hominins, wherein 7 adults and 3 children. These remains were associated with numerous artefacts representing a Levallois-Mousterian industry. Layer C contained a sparse industry similar to that in Layer B.

What needs to be considered when estimating the brain mass?

The size of the animal. We note that bigger animals have larger brains, eg. the brain of the rat is much smaller than the human brain. It is important to consider how the brain scales with the body size. We must consider the allometric growth.

Describe OH 7 (the first Homo habilis specimen).

The skeleton belongs to an immature individual. The cranial capacity was deducted from the parietal bones, giving a first estimation of 674 cm3 for the adult individual. However, many scientists disagree with this estimation, providing different estimations comprised between 600-720 cm3. The small size of the post-canine teeth together with its craniofacial structure, have been considered more human-like rather than australopith-like.

Discuss the hominin skeleton that was discovered in the Cave of Kebara in 1983.

The skeleton was in excellent condition, but lacks the skull and part of the lower limbs. It belongs to an adult male, and its morphological robust features fall within the range of the Neanderthal group. Its discovery is important for 2 main reasons. 1. The pelvis of this individual is the most intact Neanderthal pelvis discovered, giving insights on the relationship between climate and body shape and on childbirth patterns in Neanderthals. 2. The discovery of the hyoid bone, a very fragile bone situated at the base of the tongue that supports tongue muscles, has been very useful for the interpretation of the origin of human language.

What age is estimated for the remains found in the Niah Cave?

This cave is located on the north coast of the island of Borneo. Gave an uncertain age estimates comprised between 45,000 and 39,000 years ago.

Describe OH 24 (the oldest fossil skull specimen of Homo habilis found at Olduvai Gorge)

The skull has an age estimation of 1.8 mya. The cranium was crushed and distorted before fossilisation was complete. The cranial capacity resulted slightly smaller than 600 cm3, and it has been attributed to its distortion. The facial size is reduced, as seen in other Homo habilis species, and it is less prognathic than what is seen in australopiths, but more pronouced than in later Homo species.

What are the similarities between Near Eastern Neanderthals and their European counterparts?

The skull is elongated and shows a low forehead and a flat vault. The face is characterised by a pronounced midfacial prognathism, prominent brow ridge, a large and usually heavily worn frontal teeth. In the mandible, the chin is absent (or weakly developed) and a retro-molar space behind the 3rd molar is visible. They differ from European Neanderthals mostly in the frequency of expression of certain basicranial traits and in the general decrease in robusticity.

What have the earliest australopith forms been assigned to?

The species Australopithecus anamensis. Fossil remains attributed to this species have been collected from 2 localities, Kanapoi and Allia Bay in northwest Kenya, and dated to between 4.2 and 3.9 mya. These fossil remains consist of upper and lower jaws, isolated teeth and some post-cranial elements as an almost intact tibia and a partial humerus. Dental remains are ape-like with large canines and parallel tooth rows, while the post cranial remains are human-like, indicating regular bipedal walking. Insufficient cranial material it is not possible to estimate the brain capacity of this species. Long forearms and features of the wrist bones suggest that these individuals probably climber trees as well. Based on this combination of primitive and derived feature, Meave Leakey and his team assigned these remains to a new australopith species.

Quadruped skeletal aspects

The spine of a chimp or gorilla, shows a typical "C" shape composed only by the thoracic and sacral curvature. Their spines help to bring the center of gravity right through their back to the ground, balancing their weight over 4 legs. When they stand upright, they must bend their knees to avoid falling forward. This is because the C shaped spine tends to put the center of gravity in front of its feet.

What does the fossil record represent?

The strongest evidence supporting the African origin model. The oldest fossil remains assigned to anatomically modern humans, have been found in Africa and dated to about 200,000 years ago. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils found outside of Africa and the Levantine region are dated to between 50,000 and 40,000 years ago.

What were the results of the 2010 Svante Paabo's lab from Max Planck Institute of draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome.

The study determined that some mixture of genes occurred between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans and presented evidence that elements of their genome remain in that of non-African modern humans. This suggests that gene flow between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens probably occurred in the Middle East before their expansion in Eurasia.

What did a study in 2007 by Smith et al of dental incremental features study and indicate?

The study focused on incremental features in early Homo sapiens juvenile from Jebel Irhoud in Morocco and dated 160,000 BP, showed a similar tooth development to European children at the same age. This extended period of development, and by implication childhood, implies the advent of corresponding social, biological and cultural changes necessary to support highly dependent children with prolonged opportunities for social learning in early childhood.

Paleoneurology

The study of brain evolution through the analysis of brain endocasts to determine endocranial traits and volumes. Study the overall shape of the brain and identify the location of specific external features of brain anatomy, such as gyri and sulci location.

Human osteology

The study of human bones. Bones resistant to many kinds of decay they form a long lasting record.

Behavioural ecology

The study of the evolution of behaviour, emphasizing the role of ecological factors as agents of natural selection. Behaviours and behavioural patterns have been favoured because they increase the reproductive fitness of individuals (ie. they are adaptive) inspecific environmental contexts. Behaviours have evolved through the operation of natural selection.

Population genetics

The study of the frequency of alleles, genotype and phenotypes in populations from an microevolutionary perspective.

Population Genetics

The study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes and phenotypes in populations from a microevolutionary perspective.

What climatic conditions did modern humans from the Qafzeh Cave experience?

They experienced more arid conditions than that of the Amud cave. It is also suggested that this site was surrounded by open habitats characterised by an Irano-Turanian phytogeographic zone. Some rain fell throughout the year, with the occurrence of sparse woodland in the region.

Explain the talonid basin in mammalian lower dentition

The talonid basin develops posteriorly and it is formed by 3 cusps; the buccal hypoconid, the lingual entoconid and between them, the hypoconulid. When upper and lower teeth meet in chewing, the protocone of the upper tooth occludes with the talonid basin of the lower tooth. This arrangement of trigon and talonid basin is called tribosphenic. It is still found unmodified or only slightly modified in some mammals - eg opossums. From it, we can derive the structure of most other mammalian teeth.

Semiorder

The taxonomic category above suborder and below order

What did Svante Paabo's lab from Max Planck Institute in 2010 announce in relation to Neanderthal genomes?

The team measured the genetic proximity of Neanderthals to pairs of modern humans from different continents. They found that Neanderthals are genetically closer to non-Africans than to Africans. They share more derived alleles with Europeans and Asians than with Africans. Individuals in Eurasia today carry regions in their genome that are closely related to those in Neanderthals and distant from other present-day humans. Between1 and 4% of the genomes of humans in Eurasia are derived from Neanderthals. This suggests that gene flow between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens probably occurred in the Middle East before their expansion in Eurasia. This scenario apparently fits with fossils and stone tool data from the Levantine caves of Skhul, Qafzeh and Tabun. This new genetic data opens new scenarios on the interpretation of the evolution, coexistence and dispersion of human groups in the Levantine region.

Stratigraphy

The theoretical basis for stratigraphy was established by Nicholas Steno - worked on the formation of rock layers and the fossils they contain, introducing the basic laws of stratigraphy that continue to be used today by geologists and paleontologists.

Uniformitarianism

The theory that the earth's features are the result of longterm processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past. Elaborated on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and greatly contributed to the concept of immense geological time. Had previously been proposed by James Hutton in the late 1700's.

What did a team of archaeologists led by David Lordkipanidze in 1991 find?

They were excavating beneath the ruins of a medieval castle near Dmanisi in Georgia, and they found some hominin fossils dated about 1.77 mya. This was a big surprise for the paleoanthropologists of that time, because these fossils were in the wrong place and in wrong time. This lead to a rethinking of the first hominin migration out of Africa, and it still remains a puzzle in the complicated human evolutionary lineage

Gene Pool

The total complement of genes shared by the reproductive members of a population.

The Carpals

The true wrist. Is composed of 8 short, cubical bones, each with a unique, diagnostic shape. Bones are arranged into 2 irregular rows, the proximal and distal row.

Dyzigotic Twins

The two eggs, or ova, form two zygotes, hence the terms dizygotic and biovular. Fraternal twins are, essentially, two ordinary siblings who happen to be born at the same time, since they arise from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm, just like ordinary siblings.

Upper canine crowns.

The upper canines are stouter and broader than lower.

What are the variation of bi-iliac breadth in regards to the cylindrical thermoregulatory model?

The variation in bi-iliac breadth relative to stature among living humans supports the predictions of the cylindrical thermoregulatory model. Within similar temperature zones, populations of different average stature vary relatively little in average absolute bi-iliac breadth. Therefore, they become taller they also become relatively more linear. Populations living in different temperature zones exhibit large systematic differences in absolute bi-iliac breadth: those in progressively colder climate have progressively wider bodies than those in warmer climated, regardless of stature.

Catastrophism

The view that the earth's geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. Cuvier promoted this view, especially in opposition to Lamarck.

Bone Marrow

There are 2 types, red and yellow. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue that produces red and white blood cells. During growth, it is progressively replaced by yellow marrow in most of the long bones. The yellow marrow is a reserve of fat cells.

Locomotor aparatus in Hominins

There are different locomotor apparatus in modern Homo sapiens, in early hominins and ingeneralized Miocene hominoids. The quadrupedal locomotor behaviour seen in Miocene hominoids evolved in bipedal locomotion in early hominins that were still capable of climbing in trees. Only in the later forms of Homo bipedal locomotion became highly efficient.

Why is Oreopithecus bambolii's locomotor habits controversial?

This Late Miocene European hominoid Oreopithecus bambolii was partially bipedal. It is controversial as the long forelimbs and flexible shoulder joints indicates adaptations to vertical climbing and suspensory behaviour.

What was found in the Qafzeh Cave?

This cave is located approximately 30km away from Skhul, Israel. A large human fossil sample was recovered from here. The remains have been dated to beween 100,000 and 90,000 years ago. They have been attributed to at least 20 individuals. These fossil remains are definitely modern, but some individuals are fairly robust.

What happened around 2 million years ago after the migration and colonisation of the Asian and European continents?

These human populations evolved into a group that is generally known as Archaic Homo sapiens. This group evolved parallel in Africa, Europe and Asia in a period of time comprised between 600,000 and 130,000 years ago. Several fossils belonging to this group have been found in Ethiopia, Zambia and South Africa.

What experiment did Gunz and his team work on in regards to cranial capacity?

They analysed brain development in Neanderthals and modern humans. They use virtual endocasts applying geometric morphometric methods. They found that the globularisation phase seen in the neurocranial development of modern humans after birth is absent from Neanderthals. Both Neanderthals and modern human neonates have relatively elongated braincases at the time of birth, but only modern human endocasts change to a more globula shape.

When did the early members of the genus Homo appear and where?

They appeared in Africa around 2.5 million years ago. Anthropologists are still debating on the existence of one or more species of Homo during this phase of our evolution.

What are the major cusps of the first lower molar?

They are characterised by 5 major cusps: mesio-buccal cusp (or protoconid), mesio-lingual cusp (or metaconid), disto-lingual cusp (or entoconid), centro-buccal cusp (or hypoconid) and disto-buccal cusp (or hypoconulid)

What dentition do mammals have?

They are characterised by a heterodont dentition. They possess more than a single tooth morphology. They need to maintain a high metabolic rate and therefore need contant nourishing. The evolution of a new type of dentition associated with a new kind of jaw function allowed a more complete and effective exploitation of the environment's resources. And therefore mammals could exploit food resources that were not available to their reptilian predecessors. Can have very different shapes and sizes.

What are hominins characterised by?

They are characterised by a mosaic of features as bipedal locomotion, dental morphology, large brains and tool making behaviour.

What are Retzius lines?

They are long-period incremental features in enamel that represent the position of the developing enamel front at successive points of time. When they reach the tooth surface thy are called perikymata.

What has the small size of the brain of fossil material from Liang Bua allowed some researchers to argue?

They argue that the human remains belonged to Homo sapiens individuals who manifested microcephaly, an neurodevelopmental disorder. Based on small brain size and other primitive features, some anthropologists believe that the hominins from Flores represent a local, highly interbred Homo sapien population in which a mutation for the Growth Hormone receptor has occurrred.

What did a team of Spanish paleontologist discover in 2008 in Atapuerca in Spain?

They discovered and described a new hominin specimen that has been dated to 1.2 mya. This makes it the oldest human fossil found in Europe. The fossil find shows that members of our genus, Homo, colonized this region far earlier than many experts had though. They hypothesized that the first hominins migrated out of Africa about 2 mya, reaching Europe not long after. Based on this, the team believes that the fossils found at Dmanisi may have evolved in this European human population.

Discuss the skeletal remain from Kow Samp

They display a general robusticity, and some authors described some archaic features, such as receding foreheads, heavy supra-orbital tori and thick bones, as the survival of Homo erectus features in Australia. Other researchers argued that this morphology was a result of artificial cranial deformations.

When did the first Neanderthal features emerge?

They emerged in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene, becoming more evident through time, until the appearance of full Neanderthal morphology

What cranial and postcranial features are exhibited by the hominin remains from Skhul and Qafzen?

They exhibit all the post cranial and derived cranial features associated with Homo sapiens. The skulls have a short base and a high braincase. The brow ridges are less pronounced and the forehead is tall. The skull is characterised by a rounded occipital bone and a flat midface with a small nose. No retro-molar space is visible in the mandible and there is a partial development of the mental eminence They do still see some "archaic" characteristics that resemble the European Neanderthals, especially in the Skhul group. The most preserved specimen, Skhul V, shows an underdeveloped mental eminence, prominent browridges, a prognatic low face and a distinct retromolar space.

What is the debate surrounding Louis Leaky and his teams discover in 1972 at Koobi Fora in Kenya?

They found a new hominin skull that has been dated to about 1.9 mya. Because of this age estimation, the skull has been put in the same chronological time of Homo habilis, scientists believed that this skull belonged to this species. However, this skull shows a much larger cranial capacity, estimated in 750 cm3. the mandible is more squared and teeth are larger than in other Homo habilit specimens. The browridges are reduces and the face is large and flat. When the specimen KNM-ER 1813 was discovered, scientists initially believed that the strong differences found between these 2 specimens was mainly due to a marked sexual dimorphism, with KNM-ER 1470 being the male of Homo habilis. Today most scientists accept this skull to belong to a new species, Homo rudolfensis.

What did Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford find in Kenya and dated to about 6 million years ago?

They found what was surely a biped as a new fossil fragment. It was placed in a new genus and new hominin species: Orrorin tugenensis.

What function do incisors perform?

They function as cutting or shearing tools during mastication. Incisor crowns are flat and blade-like. They have normally one root with flattened sides.

Discuss the diet of Neanderthals that lived in Northern and colder latitudes.

They had a more restricted diet suggesting a significant consumption of high protein meat resources.

Where have other early modern human remains from Africa been found?

They have also been found in South Africa at Klasies River Mouth and at the Border Cave, with dating estimated between 120,000 and 80,000 years ago.

What is the date of the earliest stone-tools that have been discovered in Africa?

They have been dated to about 2.6 mya.

Why are archaeological remains from Levantine region important?

They have brought to light numerous human fossil remains from the Middle Paleolithic deposits. They have been attributed to 2 morphologically different groups that were found in association with a similar lithic industry: Neanderthal type identified with the remains from Tabun, Amud and Kebara and an anatomically modern human type associated with the specimens from Skhul and Qafzeh.

What does the dental information tell us about the geographical region of Neanderthals?

They occupied a variety of different geographical areas (from Europe to the Near East) at different chronological times, facing different climatic conditions, which determined the presence of different environments. New evidence supports the idea that Neanderthal living in different environments may have exploited different food sources. In this study molar microwear of Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens, were compared with the molar macrowear of modern hunter-gatherers with known dietary habits.

How does the re-dating of Tabun specimens affect the previous theories about the origin and dispersion of modern humans?

They radically change the previous theories indicating their existence in Western Asia long before their appearance in Europe, and supporting the model of a recent African origin for Homo sapiens. There is no genetic continuity between modern humans and Neanderthals.

What did Dean Falk and her team work on in regards to cranial capacity?

They reconstructed the virtual endocast of LB1, comparing it with those of great apes, H. erectus, H. sapiens, a human pygmy and a human microcephalic. Their result indicate that the LB1 specimen does not represent a case of human microcephalism or human pygmy, but it resembles those of H. erectus, although the brain/body size ratio scales like that of an australopithecine

What are some common affiliative behaviours?

They reinforce bonds between individuals, promote group cohesion, minimize actual violence and defuse potentially dangerous situations. Include reconciliation, consolation and simple amicable interactions between friends and relatives. Most such behaviours involve various forms of physical contact such as touching, hand holding, hugging and grooming. Physical contact is one of the most important factors in primate development and is crucial in promoting peaceful relationships and reinforcing bonds in many primate social groups. Grooming is one of the most important of these behaviours.

What do the cranial remains of D2280 and D2282 from Dmanisi found from 1991-2005 show?

They show similar features with Homo ergaster and larger cranial capacity estimated in 750 cm3 that led to assign this fossil to Homo eregaster/Homo erectus.

What do the hominin remains found at Dmanisis show in regards to cranial capacity?

They show small cranial capacities that fall within the range of Homo habilis and Homo erectus. But the cranial morphology closely resembles those of Homo erectus. According to some scientists, the large cranial capacity variation exhibited probably demonstrated the existence of different species. But most anthropologists argues that this variation could be related to a great sexual dimorphism.

What did Dunbar and Shultz suggest about evolution of larger brains?

They suggest that the particular demands of the more intense forms of pair bonding was the critical factor that triggered the evolution of large brains. Individuals living in stable social groups face cognitive demands that individuals living alone do not. In anthropoid primates average group size increases with relative neocortex volume.

What explanation did Lieberman and Shea offer in relation to the mobility patterns of the Skhul/Qafzeh and Near Eastern Neanderthals?

They suggested that early modern humans practiced a strategy of circulating seasonal mobility, while Neanderthals from the same region were more residentially mobile. They argued that these behavioural contrasts, as already proposed by Trinkaus, may be related to come of the morphological differences between Near Eastern Neanderthals and the hominins from Skhul and Qafzeh.

Describe the hunting patterns of Neanderthals

They were active hunters, preferring large herbivores from open environments. The protein from plants shows they were an insignificant part of the Neanderthal diet.

What age is estimated for the remains found in the Tianyuan cave?

This cave is located very close to the Zhoukoudian cave. The fossil remains uncovered here have been dated to around 40,000 years ago.

What age have the human remains from Pestera cu Oase in Romania been dated to?

This cave site was discovered in 2004. They have been dated to between 40,000 and 35,000 years ago. This represents one of the oldest Homo sapiens found in Europe. Although these remains are quite robust, these individuals are similar to later modern specimens, showing a chin and a canine fossa.

Describe Kabwe

This group is characterised by large brains, relatively flat faces and massively built bodies. The Kabwe skull has a cranial capacity of 1280 cm3. It is characterised by primitive and derived traits. The prominent browridges, the law vault and the marked occipital region is less angulated, the cranial vault bones are thinner and the cranial base is modern. The date of this specimen is uncertain, but it is believed to be of Late Pleistocene, between 300,000 and 130,000 years ago.

What is the Mousterian industry.

This new technology was part of their successful adaptation to hunting and gathering, especially in subarctic and temperate environments of Europe during the cold Pleistocene glacial periods. It was characterised by the progressive reduction in the use of large core tools, such as hand axes and specialised flake tools. These tools were used for skinning and preparing meat, hunting, woodworking and hafting.

How is the Tabun Cave analysed?

This site has been divided into 6 major archaeological units, from Layer G (at the bottom) to Layer A (at the top). Tabun C2 belongs within Layer C, the stratigraphic position of Tabun C1 is uncertain. Garrod assigned it to Layer C but because it was near the top of the layer, it could be intrusive from the overlying Layer B. A minor position argued that Tabun C1 could have originated in Layer D.

What was found at the site of el-Tabun

This site is located just 160m south of the Skhul cave. It contains abundant Lower and Middle Paleolithic artefacts. Faunal remains as well as some well=preserved hominin remains were found in the upper part of the section. The most preserved specimen belongs to an adult Neanderthal female (Tabun C1). It consists of a near complete skeleton, intentionally buried, similar in many respects to the Neanderthals of Western Europe. Several other isolated teeth and a mandible (Tabun C2) whose taxonomic affinities are still debated.

Discuss the archaeological site from Monte Verde in Chile

This site is thousands of km away from Alaska, demonstrated that humans occupied this area around 15,000 years ago. This suggests that the first Asian immigrants arrived by the different path from the one traditionally assumed (the Bering Strait) or arrived much earlier that previously thought.

What date is assigned to the Homo erectus site of Ceprano in Italy?

This site may be the best evidence of Homo erectus in Europe. Provisional dating suggested a date between 900,000 and 800,000 ya.

How was the 2007 study by Smith et al of dental incremental features undertaken?

This study was facilitated by the application of high-resolution x-ray synchroton microtomography, allowing an accurate nondestructive estimation of the age of death of fossil specimens. From this information it is possible reconstructing the timing of tooth eruption, duration of crown formation, and scheduling of life history.

Angiosperm radiation theory

This theory says that the adaptive radiation primates occurred with the radiation of angiosperms that offer new opportunities and an unexplored niche. The early primates were omnivores that were able to feed on objects such as fruits, flowers, gums, nectars, and insects. The stereoscopic vision evolved to discriminate between food items at low levels of light and handling them would have necessitated better hand-eye coordination. Problems with this theory come from that angiosperms first appear in the fossil record millions of years before the first primates and that orbital convergence and the correlated neurological specializations occurring with are not found in the early Paleocene primates.

Explain the biped locomotion theory pertaining to overheating

This theory suggests that bipedal locomotion evolved to avoid overheating. According to this hypothesis, bipedal hominins expose only 7% of its surface to sunlight. Whereas quadrupeds expose 20% of their surface to the sun. Therefore hominin bipeds dissipate heat faster than a quadruped because they stand slightly taller above the ground. This thermal advantage would have been greater at noon, a time of the day where most animals are not active. Additionally, the earliest hominins found are associated with a forested environment and not with open and dry habitats. Animals adapted to hot and dry environments show slender body morphology, whereas the short legs, wide hips and robust upper bodies of australopiths do not facilitate heat dissipation.

What did micro and macro dental wear on Near Eastern Neanderthals indicate about their diets?

This wear further confirmed that the Near Eastern Neanderthals used a variety of food sources including plant and animal materials. These results also suggest a similar use of the environment by Near Eastern Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens.

Sesamoid Bones

Those skeletal elements embedded with a tendon, and are usually related to joint surfaces. Found on the palmar surface of the hand or in the knee cap (or patella).

Climate characteristics of the Pliocene

Time of drying and cooling resulting in grasslands replacing forests to a view of a much more complex mosaic environment with forests receeding and advancing cyclically.

When are the earliest hominin forms dated to?

To around 7.0/6.0 million years. And evidence suggests that large brains and tool-making behaviour were not the first hallmarks of the hominin lineage.

Replicate

To duplicate. The DNA molecule is able to make copies of itself.

What is the pelvic adaptation for human bipedalism?

To maintain balance, the human pelvis shows a basin shape with a short, wide and curved ilium. In chimpanzees the ilium is long, flat and narrow. Modern humans are characterized by a large acetabulum to accommodate a large femoral head that supports the increase in body weight passing through the hip during locomotion. The human pelvis shows a prominent anterior inferior iliac spine, that are excellent anchors for some of the muscles used during bipedal walking. Bipedal humans have rotation of the ilium with the iliac blades now oriented anteroposteriorly.

Anthropological perspective

To understand human beings and how our species came to be by broadening our viewpoint through time and space.

Prism cross-striations of teeth

Tooth enamel is characterized by a prismatic structure. Under transmitted light microscopy of ground sections, are visible structures known as prism cross-striations. These internal features represent short-period incremental features in enamel running at right angles to enamel prisms. The distance between adjacent cross-striations yields the daily rate of enamel secretion.

What else tells us about the diet of Neanderthals?

Tooth wear analyses demonstrated that Neanderthals had a strong eco-geographic dietary variation. The existance of microfossil plant remains trapped in the dental calculus of some Neanderthal individuals, represents the first direct evidence of dietary intake of plant foots in tehis species. This study also suggests that some of these plants were cooked.

What is the most phylogenetically closest mammal to Primates?

Tree shrews

What are primates most closely related to?

Tree shrews, dermopterans (flying lemurs), rodents and lagomorphs (rabbits and hares). The latest primate classification trends is to classify in a manner that best reflects evolution, geography and physical biochemical factors. Divided into 2 sub orders: the prosimians and the anthropoids.

True or False. In most primates, males do have larger brains than females.

True

True or False. Paranthopus robustus and Paranthropus boisei lived contemporaneously with Homo erectus.

True

True or False. The cranial capacity of Ardipithecus ramidus was no larger than a chimpanzee's?

True

Why do many primatologists think is the primary benefit of dominance is increased reproductive success of high ranking animals.

True in most cases, but there's good evidence that lower-ranking males also mate successfully. High-ranking females also have higher reproductive success because they have greater access to food than subordinate females. Therefore they obtain more energy for the production and care of offspring.

True or False. Callithricines have claws on all digits with the exception of nails on the hallux?

True.

True or False. The hyoid bone is the only bone that does not articulate with another bone.

True.

True or False. Did a study by Smith and his team that compared tooth development in a juvenile sample from the Middle Paleolithic (including Neanderthals) show a more rapid growth of tooth crowns than modern humans, resulting in significantly faster dental maturation?

True. Middle Paleolithic Homo sapien juvenile showed a greater similarity to recent humans. These findings were consistent with recent cranial and molecular evidence for subtle developmental differences between Neanderthals and homo sapiens.

What are the different modes of fossilisation?

Unaltered preservation and altered preservation.

Colour vision

Unique primate characteristic compared to most mammals. Evolved relatively early, as seen in fish, reptiles and birds, the first mammals were nocturnal species, and the ability to see in low-light conditions was a premium, rather than the ability of seeing colours. The first mammals lost their colour vision. Primates have re-evolved colour vision. Primates can be nocturnal and diurnal. In nocturnal primates the retina, a delicate multilayered, light-sensitive membrane lining the inner eyeball and connected by the optic nerve to the brain, is mostly constituted by rods, that are a type of cells very sensitive to light but do not distinguish colour. In lemurs and lorises, the retina contains an extra layer that reflects lights, the tapetum lucidum. This layer seems to reduce visual acuity but enhances the ability to see at night by "recycling" incoming light. In other nocturnal primates as tarsiers and aotus, that lack of tapetim lucidum, adopted a different strategy evolving enlarged eyes and a fovea. Made possible by the cone cells in the retina. The perception of light relies on the presence, in cones and rods, of specialized proteins called opsins.

Knuckle walking

Unusual form of quadrupedalism characterizing gorillas and chimpanzees/ Rather than support their forelimb on the palm of the hand (like most primates) or on the palmar surface of their fingers (like many baboons) they support it on the dorsal surface of the third and fourth digits of their curled hands.

Limbs of Ardipithecus ramidus

Upper and lower limbs are of similar length, as those of quadruped primates. The feet shows a mixture of derived and shared features that are unique among primated. The hallux is highly diverent and not alligned with the other toes, suggesting that this species was an able climber. Foot lacked many features that have evolved for advanced vertical climbing and suspension in extant chimpanzees. Shares some features with quadruped monkeys, such as the absence of the longitudinal arch and the presence of a prominent os peroneum. Still unclear how this foot morphology is functionally related to bipedal locomotion.

Upper incisor crowns

Upper crowns show a more distinct shovel-shape; they are longer than broad, and are markedly asymmetrical. Their roots are stout and rounded triangular in sections.

What is the distinctive feature that marks the divergence between hominins and apes.

Upright walking. At the beginning, scholars believed that the evolution of man was significantly marked by brain expansion and tool-making behaviour.

Molecular Anthropologists

Use proteins, genes and even genomes to test hypotheses regarding the relationships within the primate order. Use DNA sequences to make inferences as to how long ago primate species shared a common ancestor.

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating

Used on dental enamel of animals. Similar to TL dating as it's based on measuring trapped electrons.

What are some submissive behaviours used by primates?

Used to indicate submission, reassurance, or amicable intentions. Most primate crouch to show submission, and baboons also present or turn their hindwuarters toward an animal they want to appease. Reassurance takes the form of touching, patting, hugging and holding hands. Grooming also serves in a number of situations to indicate submission or reassurance.

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)

Uses the sample principle of trapped electrons as TL. To date an object it is measured the change in the magnetic field (or spin) of the atoms. Since the magnetic field progressively changes with time in a predictable way as a result of this process, it provides another atomic clock. ESR has a time range of 300,000 years and it is preferably used to date calcium carbonate in limestone, teeth and shells.

What was found by the study done by Argue and his team on Homo florensiensis?

Using cranial and postcranial metric and non-metric analyses concluded that it is unlikely that Homo florensiensis is a microcephalic human, and it cannot be attributed to any known species, supporting its attribution to a new species. From this bivariate plot we can see that modern humans, including African pygmies and Andaman Islanders cluster together, separating from the apes and other hominid species. The Minoan microcephalic individual is on the edge of the range of Homo sapiens, while Homo floresiensis is outside the range of Homo sapiens, while Homo floresiensis is outside the range of Homo sapiens and separated from the 2 microcephalic individuals.

Jungers reconstruction of stature of A. afarensis specimen, Lucy.

Using predicting equations based on the relationship between femur length and stature witin a sample of bonobos and modern human pygmies. He provided 3 formulae for estimation of the stature of small-bodied hominins. This, for example, is the least square regression he used.

How did researchers study the Neanderthal brain size at birth?

Using virtual reconstruction. They found that Neanderthal brain size at birth was similar to that in recent Homo sapiens and most likely subjected to similar obstetric constraints. But a new study suggests that Neanderthal birth canal shape is different from those of recent humans, suggesting that they had a different and primitive birthing pattern.

What are some specific examples of Paleolithic art sculptures?

Venus figurines, the Lion Man, mammoths, and ivory sculpture, the oldest zoomorphic sculptures in the world dated to 33,000 years ago.

What locomotory behaviours do Lemurs exhibit?

Vertical clinging and leaping

Ethmoid bone

Very light and spongy. It is located between the orbits, centered on the midline. It articulates with 13 bones.

Relativistic

Viewing entities as they relate to something else. Cultural relativism is the view that cultures have merits within their own historical and environmental contexts.

Anthropocentric

Viewing nonhuman organisms in terms of human experience and capabilities. Emphasizing the importance of humans over everything else.

Ethnocentric

Viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one's own culture. Ethnocentrism often causes other cultures to be seen as inferior to one's own.

How has TM 266 been classified

Virtual reconstruction has been performed finding that although the cranial shape shares some primitive features with chimpanzees, it is overall most similar to Australopithecus, confirming that it is a hominin. However, the unique and shared characteristics within the hominin group is the bipedal locomotor behaviour. Because no post-cranial remainds have been found, it is difficult to establish if this species was a habitual biped.

How does Human Activities influence Social Structure?

Virtually all nonhuman primate populations are now impacted by human hunting and forest clearing. These activities severely disrupt and isolate groups, reduce numbers, reduce resource availability and eventually lead to extinction.

Dorothy Garrod

Was a pioneer prehistorian and directed the excavations at Mount Carmel in the former Palestine between 1929 and 1934. Her team found human remains belonging to Neanderthals and modern humans. She was the first woman that ever held a position of professor at the University of Cambridge. Her works was a major landmark in the archeological field contributing in understanding the prehistoric sequence in the Levant region.

Discuss the partial and well-preserved skeleton of Neanderthal found at Kebara in Israel.

Was dated to about 60,000 years ago. Important for 2 main reasons. The pelvis of this individual is the most intact Neanderthal pelvis discovered giving insights on the relationship between climate and body shape and on childbirth patterns in Neanderthals. The discovery of the hyoid bone, very fragile bone situated at the base of tongue that supports tongue muscle, has been very useful for the interpretation of the origin of human language.

Describe the Bodo cranium.

Was recovered in 1976 in the Middle Awash valley in Ethiopia. It is one of the most complete skulls from this period found in Africa - Archaic Homo sapiens. Its age is estimated to be 600,000 years old. Its cranial capacity has been estimated to be 1300 cm3. The cranium has cut-marks suggesting intentional defleshed by other hominins. Still not clear the meaning of these cut-marks. Because of the lack of the cranial base, some researchers suggested the removal of the brain through the foramen magnum, associating it to cannibalism.

Chatelperronian lithic Industry

Was the earliest industry of the Upper Paleolithic. Containing sophisticated blade tools, more advanced that the traditional Mousterian tools.

How can tooth wear be identified.

Wear facets and mesowear are visible to the naked eye or at low magnification, while microwear is visible only under microscope. Density, pattern and orientation of microscopic scratches and pits that cover the tooth surface yield information about diet. The density and size of the microwear features reflect the toughness of food. Eg. primates that eat hard objects usually show large pits on their molars, while folivores tend to have relatively more scratches than pits on their molar.

Permian Period

When all the world's landmasses joined together into a single supercontinent, known as Pangaea. During the early Permian the polar regions were still covered with deep layers of ice. Towards the middle of the period the climate became warmer and milder, and this tendency continued through to the late Permian. Reptiles spread across continents. About 90% of Earth's species become extinct due to volcanism in Siberia. This period marks the end of trilobites, ammonoids and most fish.

Hominin dental comparison

When compared with earlier hominin taxa, both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens have extended the duration of dental development. This period of dental immaturity is particularly prolonged in modern humans.

Cretaceous

When primates began to diverge form closely related mammalian lineages.

Bicondylar or Valgus angle

When the femur is angled from the hip into the knee, with the result of bringing the knees closer together, placing the feet directly below the center of gravity. Seen in modern humans in relation to bipedal locomotion.

What is the trigon arrangement in dentition?

When the highest cusp of the upper tooth occluded with the space between adjacent lower teeth and functions as a shearing end.

Swing phase

When the leg is off the ground in the walking cycle. After the stance and mid-stance and toe-off phases. The leg is now off the ground and in the swing phase, with the knee and hip both bent as to keep the leg off the ground as it swings forward to make the next heel-strike.

Stance phase

When the leg is on the ground in the walking cycle. Begins with heel-strike, as the foot strikes the ground. The knee is fully extended and the foot dorsiflexed. This results in the heel striking the ground well before the rest of the foot. The foot then plantar flexes, and typically force is transmitted through to the substrate along its lateral border.

Bilophodont Molars

Where 4 molar cusps are arranged into 2 buccolingual folds.

What else has been found associated with Middle Pleistocene humans near Schoningen in Germany?

Wooden throwing spears have been found associated with remains. They are dated to 400,000 years ago. These completely preserved hunting weapons are oldest in world, and they changed the traditional hypotheses on hunting capabilities of these early humans.

In fish, is the brain stem the largest part of the brain?

Yes

Are modern humans the only species to be fully bipedal?

Yes, among living primates, modern humans are the only species to be fully bipedal.

What was found at Atapuerca site?

Yielded more recent hominin remains that Homo antecessor. These dating analyses of these remains gave an age estimation fo 600,000 to 530,000 years old. More than 4,000 fossil fragments have been found at this site, probably belonging to 28 individuals. This site is one of the richest hominin fossil sites in the world. The descriptions of these remains indicate an early Neanderthal-like pattern, with arching browridges, projecting midface and other features. Some remains show signs of cannibalism, with cut marks and other evidences of butchering and defleshing.

How is the reasearcher Zollikofer related to the Sahelanthropus tchadensis fossil?

Zollikofer and his team corrected the primary distortion characterising this fossil and suggested that this specimen was bipedal. They focused on the analysis of the basicranium, showing that the angle between the foramen magnum and the orbital plane of the TM 266 is similar to that in humans and in later biped hominins, such as Australopithecus afarensis.

Conditions of the Hardy-Weinberg theory of genetic equilibrium

a. The population is infinitely larger - eliminated the possibility of random genetic drift - changes in allele frequencies due to chance. b. No mutation: no new alleles are being added by changes in genes. c. no gene flow: no exchange of genes with other populations that could alter allele frequencies d. natural selection isn;t operating; specific alleles offer no advantage over others that might influence reproductive success. e. Mating is random; nothing to influence who mates with whom; all females are assumed to have equal chance of mating with any male, and vice versa.

When did Eukaryotic cells appear?

approximately 1.2 billion years ago.

Modern Homo Sapiens characterists

between 4 mya and 0.5 mya Locomotion: Bipedal; shortened pelvis, body size larger, legs longer, fingers and toes not as long. Brain: greatly increased brain size, highly encephalized Dentition: small incisors, canines further reduced, canine/premolar honing complex absent, molar tooth enamel caps thick Toolmaking behaviour: stone tools found after 2.6 mya. increading trend of cultural dependency apparent in later hominins.

Cenozoic era

broad time period during which most of the primate evolution has unfolded. Divided into 7 epochs, oldest - Paleocene (65mya begins)

How is it theorised that the American continent was colonized?

he traditional theory suggests that northeastern Asian modern humans migrated to North America through the Bering Land Bridge. Due to low sea levels caused by the last glaciation, the Bering Land Bridge connected eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska.

Where was the first Homo heidelbergensis fossil found.

in 1907 near the village of Mauer in Germany, not far from the town of Heidelberg, a robust human manidle was found. This mandible showed a mixture of primitive and derived features. The teeth were small and modern human like, while the absence of chin, the braod ascending branches were primitive. Based on these anatomical features Otto Schotensack named it as Homo heidelbergensis. This mandible is the holotype specimen of theis species. It has been dated to between 600,000 and 400,000 years ago.

The cranium

is the skull without the mandible.

When did life begin on Earth?

more than 3.5 billion years ago in the form of a single-celled organism, today bacterial and blue-green algae.

Miocene (generalised hominoid) Characteristics

older than 20 mya Locomotion: Quadrupedal, long pelvis, bracchiation, suspensory locomotion. Brain: Small compared to hominis, large compared to other primates, fair degree of encephalization. Dentition: Large front teeth (incl. canines), molars variable depending on species, some have thin enamel caps, others thick enamel caps Toolmaking behaviour: unknown, stone tools, probably had capabilities similar to chimpanzees.

Facultative or occassional bipedalism

refers to those animals that assume bipedalism on a temporary basis in order to perform a particular function. Eg. Chimpanzees can walk on 2 legs for carrying objects with their hands.

Early Homo

the First members of our genus (2.0+ to 1.4 mya).

How is the relationship between metabolism and allometry expressed?

y=a*mass (superscript)b, or in its logarithmic form: log y = log a + b (log mass), where y is the physiological variable of interest, a is the intercept and b is the mass exponent.

What is the allometric equation?

y=bx to the power of a. this non-linear relationship can be converted in the logarithmic form by the equation: log y = a (log x) + log b. Where x is the body size, y si the size of the organ or trait, log b is the intercept of the line on the y-axis and a is the slope of the line (or allometric coefficient).