exam 2

Brown's Stages of Development - Stage II

27-30 months Modulations of meaning (grammatical morphemes emerge)

Brown's Stages of Development - Stage III

31-34 months Major elements of simple sentences are rearranged into different sentence modalities, such as questions, imperatives, and negatives

Brown's Stages of Development - Stage IV

35-40 months Complex sentences: Preschooler begins to embed the elements of one sentence within another

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Regular Plural Inflection)

4th grammatical morpheme mastered

Word-Finding Assessment in Single Word Naming Contexts

Two normed referenced measures developed to assess a learner's Word Finding skills in single word naming tasks are the Test of Word Finding- Second Edition (TWF-2) (German, 2000) and the Test of Adolescent and Adult Word Finding (TAWF) (German, 1990). These tests require the learner to retrieve target words in several single word naming contexts, using accuracy and response time to define Word Finding difficulties. They provide guidelines for analyzing student response errors, and include a comprehension assessment of target words that were named incorrectly. The latter assessment helps examiners differentiate between students whose naming errors are due to general vocabulary deficits from those students who have Word Finding problems in the presence of good comprehension of the target word.

While Intervening School-Age Children 3. Go Meta

"Meta": Higher level of awareness -- Metalinguistic awareness -Essential for learning to read. Examples: >A beginning reader ---- notice word boundaries >Develop letter-sound correspondences >Talk/Think about which printed form represents what word(s) or meaning

three basic ways to make sentences more complex

(a) noun phrase elaboration, (b) verb phrase elaboration, and (c) conjoined and embedded clauses.

Word Finding

-"An impaired ability to generate a specific word that is evoked by a situation, stimulus, sentence context, or conversation." (Owens, 2014) úChild understands word but has difficulty retrieving it -Characteristics >Frequent pauses, repetitions, circumlocutions, fillers, non- specific words, frequent pronouns, high usage of clichés -Students challenged with Word Finding have difficulty retrieving words in the presence of good comprehension of the words that they are unable to find. They appear not to know answers when in reality they know, but are unable to express their knowledge. These students may exhibit problems retrieving specific words in single word retrieval contexts and/or in discourse.

Teach specific words

-"Elaborated exposure" -Discuss semantic features & relations -Define -Use appropriately in all modalities- L, S, R, W >Read, spell: Students need a solid knowledge of word form for future meaningful "encounters" -Connections between words and topics (e.g., through semantic webs) -Provide explanations of words -Have students restate in their own words -Have students discuss the new terms with each other -Return to the words over time

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Third Person Present Tense Singular Inflection)

-10th grammatical morpheme mastered: >e.g., She hops

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Irregular Third Person Present Tense SingularInflection)

-11th grammatical morpheme mastered: >e.g., He has; He does...

Word frequency lists

-1200 Most common English words >the, of, and, to, a, in... -Academic Word List -General Service List (2000 most "useful" words in English)

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Uncontractible Auxiliary)

-12th grammatical morpheme mastered -In the form of am, is, was, were, are. -The helping verb in a sentence with another main verb -NOT permissible to use the contracted form due to sentence position or tense. >It was burning.

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Contractible Copula)

-13th grammatical morpheme mastered -In the form of am, is, was, were, are. -Serve as the MAIN verb -Permissible to use the contracted form

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Contractible Auxiliary)

-14th grammatical morpheme mastered -In the form of am, is, was, were, are. -The helping verb in a sentence with another main verb -Permissible to use the contracted form e.g., It is burning: It's

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Prepositions)

-2nd grammatical morpheme mastered: In -3rd grammatical morpheme mastered: On

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Irregular Past Tense Verbs)

-5th Grammatical morpheme mastered -Past tense may be expressed lexically through words such as ate, sat, and ran. >Because each word is different they are called irregular past tense verbs

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Possessive Inflection)

-6th grammatical morpheme mastered >Ex. /-s/ (Pat's car) >Ex. /-z/ (The man's coat.) >Ex. /-Iz/ (The dish's design.)

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Uncontractible Copula)

-7th grammatical morpheme mastered -Copula >Occurs in the forms - am, is, are, was, were >Serve as the MAIN verb. >Uncontractible copula ->NOT permissible to use the contracted form due to sentence position or tense. ->e.g., It was hot

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Articles a and the)

-8th grammatical morpheme mastered -Require a substantial amount of experience to fully master

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Regular Past Tense Inflection)

-9th grammatical morpheme mastered -Verbs may be inflected with the regular past tense inflection -ed

Implicit Approaches 5. Combined Grammar Facilitation Approaches

-A combination of the methods discussed above. -Modelling with evoked production together with recasting has been shown to be effective for generalization of newly learned grammatical rules to spontaneous discourse and for increasing grammatical accuracy and range.

Why is it hard to work on vocabulary?

-Academic vs. conversational vocabulary >Everyday speech consists of only 5,000- 7,000 words. >Around 55,000 words for printed school English (Chall, 1987; Gunning, 2004) -Too many words! >450,000 words in English >TD avg. vocabulary growth = 2,000 to 3,000 words per year >Only 400 words a year are directly taught by teachers. -Learning a definition ≠ knowing a word >Teaching definitions doesn't necessarily increase use of the target words in writing or comprehension of text that includes targets

Teach word-learning strategies

-Activate background knowledge -Context -Recognizing word parts -Finding definitions

Morphosyntax and Semantic Growth

-Advanced morphology allows the expansion of both lexical and syntactic skills >Inflectional morphology is acquired early and well established by 6 to 7 years old >Most rapid growth in derivational morphology occurs between 4th and 8th grades >More sentences with elaborated phrases and later developing subordinate clauses ->Noun and verb phrases get longer (Nearly all of her old classmates attended the reunion; He might have been walking along the path) ->Adverbial clauses - because, therefore, if, although, when, before ->Relative clauses - who, that, which (later on: whose, whom, in which)

Other non-standardized means

-Artifact analysis: We can use their actual written products to look at many of the areas we have spoken about (knowing that there are differences between spoken and written language) -We can also use curriculum based materials in our assessment

Morphosyntax - Written and Spoken Language Connections

-As children age, the relationship between oral and written language changes -Some later developing forms primarily occur in writing -Students without language impairments often have more complex language in written forms as opposed to oral language -In students with language disorders >Grammatical limitations are particularly evident in written language

Basic Sentence Structure 1. Declarative Sentences

-Assert some information -Earliest utterances with falling intonational contour & accompanied by gestures to direct attention (pointing as they say Doggy) may be declaratives

Advance in Syntax 2. Hierarchical Syntactic Relationships

-At about 2 years of age, 3 and even 4 word utterances begin to appear -Hierarchical sentence structure: certain words may be more closely linked and may relate as a unit under the overall sentence organization >Recombinations: result of preschoolers combining utterances from levels that occurred previously, resulting in a single, longer utterance

Complex sentence development: milestones

-Average sentence length rule of thumb: >In oral productions, roughly corresponds to chronological age up to age 10 (i.e., average sentence length for a 9-year-old should be approximately 9.0 words) >In writing, sentences a child writes should be at least as long, on average, as spoken sentences by the age of 12. -Written sentences should begin to sound distinctly written (using structures that would sound odd if spoken) by age 10. -Relative clauses are good markers of developmental (or intervention) growth.

Using Brainstorming

-Brainstorming about a new word - e.g., habitat -The words the students come up with could be categorized (e.g., places, opposites, emotions, antonyms) -Scaffolding the student to move into new directions -Make connections among words and topics (e.g., schema, guess topic, synonyms, antonyms, categories,...) e.g., long line, waitress, table, order, appetizer, steak, fully cooked, dessert, yummy, check, tip. -Use both spoken and written contexts -Ask students to discuss the words to refine/elaborate and expand understanding. For example: >Tree diagrams >Multiple meaning >Expose the student to the words in varying contexts -Return to the words periodically

Using mini-lessons-themes

-Brief lessons embedded in a larger purposeful activity >For example - if you are teaching terminology - you may want to begin with a mini-lesson that shows how communication breakdowns through non-specific word choices impact communication -Think about relevancy - happening in the student's life, classroom -You can also teach words within thematic units

Choosing Tx Targets

-By school-age "children produce and comprehend the vast majority of basic morphological, phrasal, clausal, and sentential syntactic patterns found in their native languages." -One of the areas to focus on is the languagethat is necessary for success in spoken and written language academic discourse

Semantic Mapping

-Children think about words regarding a familiar topic >Activate what students already know -SLP helps children group the words into categories >Ask students to restate the description, explanation, or example in their own words,

Morphosyntax and Language Impairment Characteristics

-Children with language disorders use complex sentences but they use less of them and with more grammatical errors >This is also the case with children who have autism in relation to length and morphosyntax -Errors are common in both spoken and written contexts -Less sophisticated language in written contexts >Typically developing children - show opposite -Spoken language forms may continue to be used in writing as opposed to more complex literate language -Difficulty understanding and expressing language with complex syntax -Potential problem areas: Comprehension >understanding passive sentences >relative clauses >certain adverbial conjunctions (e.g., because, so, after, although, unless) >questions >passives >negatives -Potential problem areas: Expression >Limited variety of verb forms >Inconsistent use of bound morphemes >Limited ability to generalize the forms to new word roots or to applicable grammatical cases >Combining utterances into complex sentence ->Less elaborated forms ->Low percentage complex sentences are used

Basic Sentence Structure 4. Imperatives

-Commands or requests with no expressed subject -Each carries an applied subject, as in (You) Pass the butter. -Present in children by 3 years

Conjoined and Embedded Clauses

-Complex sentences are formed by embedding nominal and adverbial clauses in main clauses. >Nominal clauses can be object clauses (e.g., "John thinks he's getting an A in the class") or >Relative clauses ("John, who is tall, is getting an A in the class"; "Mary wants the book that I read"). >Adverbial clauses, also called subordinate or dependent clauses, modify independent clauses (e.g., "They walked to the beach because there was no parking"; "If you build it, he will come"). -Compound sentences are formed by conjoining clauses by the coordinating conjunctions and, but, and or

While Intervening School-Age Children In Sum

-Consider the whole activity >Developmentally appropriate and interactive -Activities will need to revolve around print and academic curriculum in some way >Intervention should be embedded within larger, meaningful contexts/activities -Need to teach students to be meta (metalinguisitcs) -Repeated opportunities, implicitness, explicitness, learner characteristics, etc. -Incorporate appropriate scaffolds

Basic Sentence Structure 6. Complex Sentences

-Consists of an independent or main clause (a subject or predicate than can stand alone) with a dependent or subordinate clause embedded in it -Subordinate clauses: dependant or secondary clauses meaning that, their only purpose is to supplement or clarify the main clause -E.g., The boy who has red shoes took my candy. -Subordinating conjunctions link a main clause and a subordinate clause. A C-unit includes the main clause with all subordinate clauses attached to it. The following are examples of subordinating conjunctions: >Early Development: because, that, when, who >Later Development: after, before, so (that), which, although, if, unless, while, as, how, until, as__as, like, where, since, although, who, before, how, while -Relative pronouns -that, who ,whom, whose, which

Basic Sentence Constituents 1. Noun Phrase Elements

-Count and Mass nouns >Count nouns: Nouns that represent items that can be counted as individual units. E.g., spoons, trees ... >Mass nouns: Nouns that express items perceived as integral wholes that cannot be divided. E.g., hair, milk, water ... -Noun Phrase: Contains at least one noun, called the head word. -Noun Phrase Elaboration >e.g., qualify, specify, or quantify a noun

Basic Sentence Constituents 3. Reflexive Pronouns

-E.g., myself, yourself, himself, herself, themselves, itself -Later elementary grades

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes

-Each of the morphemes appeared in Stage II -Brown ranked the overall order of mastery among the grammatical morphemes by his 3 subjects

Basic Sentence Structure 3. Negatives

-Express nonexistence, disappearance, cessation, rejection, prohibition, & denial -Earliest form of verbal negation, No!, appears in the single-word stage

Informal Assessment Methods

-Expressive syntax/morphology >Spontaneous language sampling (aka Language Sample Analysis - LSA) Sample collection >Transcription >Analyzing language samples ->T-unit length (equiv. to MLU) -->one main clause with all subordinate clauses attached to it ->Subordination Index ->Syntactic/morphological forms ->Complex sentence analysis ->Error analysis ->Analyzing disruptions

Basic Sentence Structure 2. Interrogative Sentences (questions)

-Forms that request confirmation, denial, or information -Tag questions >e.g., "We are ready, aren't we?"

Planning Intervention with the IEP

-IEP required by law -Family & school participation and signature -Regular education teacher must be part of the intervention team. -Modifying classroom and/or test environment

Implicit Approaches 2. Imitation

-Imitation approaches usually involve the adult providing a non-verbal stimulus (e.g. a picture) and a target form, which the child then imitates, receiving reinforcement for correct productions. The adult model and reinforcements are gradually reduced until the child produces the target in response to the non-verbal stimulus only. -You could use techniques such as partial imitation rather than have the student imitate the whole model

What to Assess?

-Inflectional morphology - What 4 functions do these serve? > word endings that denote tense/time, number, possession, and comparison -Derivational morphology > Affixes that change meaning and grammatical category of words > Prefixes, Suffixes -Sentence length via MLU -Complex sentence formulation and comprehension: > frequency of complex sentences-by age 5, 20% of sentences contain embedded or conjoined clauses > type of complex sentences > use of specific conjunctions- at least 6 different types (should not rely on 'then' and 'and' ) -> variety of conjunctions - but, as a result of, because, even though, although, ...

Clinic Example - Sentence Combining

-Inserting adjectives and adverbs >The girl drank lemonade. > The girl was thirsty. > The thirsty girl drank lemonade. -Producing compound subjects and objects >The book was good. > The movie was good. > The book and the movie were good. -Producing compound sentences using conjunctions (for example: and, but) >The weather was perfect. > The girls were playing soccer. > The weather was perfect, and the girls were playing soccer.

Eliciting Language Samples

-Interview format -Leading questions -Conversation - less complex language than narratives -Narrative language samples are more appropriate for school-aged children -Expository language samples with older school-age children and adolescents -You will also want to compare spoken and written language

Language Development in Adolescence: Syntax

-Intrasentential growth >Increases in length longer sentences used for different purposes (narrative, cause-effect, conflict resolution, persuasion) >More morphosyntactic marking >Increased density of grammatical forms, particularly in persuasive contexts >Increased use of subordinate and coordinate clauses >Increased sophistication of connectives to link sentences >Increased cohesion between sentences

Considerations for Assessing Older Severely Affected Students at the L4L Stage

-L4L: Students who are beyond the developing language phase, with skills above Brown's stage V. >Kindergarten - 5th/6th grade (Age 5-12) -Use chronologically age-appropriate materials -Evaluate functional needs (e.g., literacy); earlier developing morphological and syntactic skills may be significant areas of concern still -Address literacy needs of students using AAC >Consider voice-output devices, or applications for AAC

Non-standardized Assessments Areas to assess

-Lexical diversity -Lexical specificity -Correct/Incorrect usage -Abstract words (not concrete words) such as those used in academic contexts -Figurative language -Word finding -Semantics beyond the word level >Following complex directions, prepositions, conjunctions, negatives, passives -Relational words

Vocabulary Issues

-Limited vocabulary is a hallmark of language learning disability and a serious obstacle to critical literacy skills. -Since vocabulary is learned first indirectly, then directly, students may have a small number of words at their disposal due to a disability- or due to a lack of instruction.

Brown's Research Design

-Longitudinal study of 3 preschool-age children called Adam, Eve, & Sarah -Data were collected using transcription of spontaneous conversations in each child's home -Eve moved away after 1 year; Adam and Sarah were followed for another 4 years

Outside - In Strategy

-Look at the outside of the word first (e.g., the prefixes and suffixes) -Can teach prefixes and suffixes by looking at words that have the students group them) -Then the main part of the word

Dynamic Assessment

-Looking at what students do when they approach a word they do not know -Provide scaffolds (prompts) in assessment ---ZPD -Within the context of Curriculum Based Approach (CBA)

Brown's Study and Stages: 2 years

-Most utterances are 2 words long -Preschooler begins to produce 3-word utterances

Basic Sentence Structure 5. Passive Sentences

-Noun and subject phrase is passive and acted on by the noun object phrase >Ex. The house was painted by the man are difficult for younger preschoolers to comprehend -They are not produced correctly until they are school age

Vocabulary Tiers

-One way of organizing and choosing words for vocabulary instruction in academic contexts -Tiers do NOT correspond directly to difficulty but are based on frequency and utility in & across contexts -Beck, McKeown, & Kucan (2002) advocate a "tiered" approach to vocabulary instruction >Level 1 - Basic vocabulary >Level 2 - Functional/General academic vocabulary >Level 3 - High Academic vocabulary (subject specific/related)

Standardized Tests

-PPVT -EOWPVT -ROWPVT -DELV -TLC -Components of omnibus tests: TACL, CASL See SLP comprehensive assessment card for full description

Meta-Linguistic Methods 3. Increase Syntactic Complexity

-Phrase manipulation: NP elaboration, VP elaboration, Adverbial use ... >It was ____ hot. -Sentence manipulation. Examples: >Scrambled sentences: book, library, I, to, the, go, out, check, want >Use connectives etc.

Importance of Vocabulary

-Plays a critical part in learning to read -Helps students make sense of the words they see by comparing them to the words they have heard -Is one of the building blocks of reading >Phonemic awareness; phonics; fluency; vocabulary; text comprehension -Is used to think. >The more words we know, the finer our understanding of the world (Stahl, 1999).

Two distinct profiles of spontaneous language differentiate children with Word Finding difficulties

-Profile 1: adequate language productivity (defined by the number of sentences and words produced) with high incidence of Word Finding behaviors, and -Profile 2: low language productivity, with either low or high incidence of Word Finding behaviors.

While Intervening School-Age Children 2. Integrate Oral and Written Langauge

-Provide both the oral and written opportunities >The role of oral language in the acquisition of literacy ->Oral language demands of classroom discourse ->Oral language lays the foundation for acquiring literacy. ->Integrate oral and written language activities >Literacy socialization ->e.g., parent-child book reading; Watching TV shows to provide literacy socialization in the form of information about letter sounds; etc. -Narrative activities

Brown's Book -- A First Language

-Roger Brown (1973) -A First Language: The Early Stages -Conducted landmark study in children's development of grammatical morphemes

Vocabulary Instruction For Reading Comprehension

-SLPs select simple text related to upcoming unit -Teach the vocabulary within the context of the text -Increase the difficulty of the text - ensuring that it is related

Meta-Linguistic Methods 4. Structural Scaffolds Embedded within an Intervention

-Setting up the environment to aid child in successfully performing the target skill -Can include visual supports -Predictable, routinized activities with clear steps -Remember, keep activities motivating and interesting

Symptoms of Semantic Impairment

-Small vocabularies -Over reliance on high-frequency, short words -May be due to reading difficulties because many school- age children acquire words via reading -Excessive reliance on non-specific words (e.g., stuff, thing) -Difficulty with more complex semantics: e.g., multiple word meanings (e.g., fly, pupil), relational words(e.g., because, for, behind, except), abstract words (e.g., freedom, charity, love, justice) -Word finding -Difficulty with semantics beyond the word level: figurative language (metaphors, similes, etc.), following complex directions, producing narrative, integrating information across sentences -Overextensions and/or under extensions

What does Research Tell Us?

-Some vocabulary is learned indirectly -Some vocabulary must be taught directly -Poor vocabulary is a hallmark of language, literacy, and/or cognitive disabilities

Formal Methods of Assessing Morphosyntax: Standardized Tests

-Standardized tests document the degree to which a student performs significantly below peers; may form part of eligibility assessment >Comprehensive test batteries are often used to identify broad areas of strengths and needs -Important to assess the relationship among syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic language deficits

Steps for Assessing Word Finding Difficulties and Diagnostic Instruments

-Step 1. Conduct Formal Assessment of Word Finding Using Standardized Tests Developed Specifically to Assess Word Finding -Step 2. Assess Student's Word Knowledge -Step 3. Follow Up with Informal Assessment Procedures and Diagnostic Teaching

The Myth of Age or Grade Level Vocabulary

-Students do not learn vocabulary words based on their age or their grade. -They learn words based on their experiences.

Who may have word finding difficulties?

-Students who have specific learning disabilities (LD) -Students who have reading difficulties -Students who have specific language difficulties (SLI) -Students who have fluency difficulties -Students who have known brain pathology -Students who have attention difficulties and/or are hyperactive (ADHD)

Summary of Explicit Approaches

-Studies of metalinguistic approaches indicate that they can be effective for school-aged children with language impairments, including those of secondary age and those with receptive language difficulties. -While implicit approaches (e.g., recasting, focused stimulation) have been documented to be effective for preschool, explicit approaches (metalinguistics) are most promising for school-aged children (Ebbels, 2014).

Meta-Linguistic Methods 1. Teach Advanced Morphology

-Support for spelling and reading comprehension -Practice both saying and writing the grammatical markers in appropriate contexts >Clinic example: Do NOT always trust what your client can say!!!

Using curricular materials

-Targets should be meaningful -Can probe a text for words that may be problematic -Can speak with teachers about words to use -Look at more than nouns (e.g., spatial terms, temporal terms, relational terms, connective terms)

Implicit Approaches 3. Elicited Production

-Targets: Regular third person, regular plural -s. -Hierarchically arrange levels of support: >Cycle 1: Forced choice (e.g., "The lamb follows Mary to school, or chases Mary to school?" "The man jumps or runs?)" >Cycle 2: Cloze tasks. (e.g., "If Mary had more than one lamb, she would have two ____. "; "What does the man do? He ____ [jumps]") >Cycle 3: Preparatory sets: The clinician provides syntactic organization/indirect model for client to use target and then gives the client a turn to form his/her own similar production. (e.g., "The song tells us what Mary's pet lamb looks like. Tell me about Mary's lamb. ")

Metalinguistic approaches

-Teaching strategies for learning new words -These are the types of things we do as good readers without thinking about it

The 14 Grammatical Morphemes (Present Progressive Inflection)

-The 1st grammatical morpheme mastered (-ing) -Indicates an action that is ongoing

Implicit Approaches 1. Modeling/Focused Stimulation

-The child is not required to respond, merely to listen to examples of the target structure. - Modelling approaches direct the child's attention to the stimuli but do not give explicit guidance on which particular featuresto attend to.

Letter Scramble

-The first word in each expression below is a color. The second word, when unscrambled, completes a common term associated with the color. Discuss the meaning of each expression. For example. WHITE + ELSA = WHITE SALE

semantics

-The study of the meaning of words and word combinations. -Lexicon is the mental dictionary

Students with special needs, or at risk, often do not learn words indirectly because...

-They don't engage in conversation as often -They don't alert to new or interesting words -They often don't listen carefully when read to -They usually don't read on their own

Using a dictionary

-This not the preferred method, but... -You need to show the students how you figure out the meanings of word -You can keep a dictionary: model how it's used, how to use word parts, explain different aspects of the dictionary -Model glossary use -Combine with other approaches

Typical Development

-Throughout school-age and into adolescence there is development in comprehension of: > literate verbs (e.g., interpret and predict) > textbook terms (e.g., invertebrate and antecedent) > adverbs of magnitude (e.g., slightly and unusually) > adverbial conjuncts (e.g., meanwhile and conversely) > sarcasm based on its linguistic aspects and intonation (see the image) >slang terms• ->complex proverbs, ->metaphors Proverbs: e.g., "Opportunity did not knock until I built a door". "A bad workman always blames his tools". ->Metaphors: e.g., "He's a walking encyclopedia" -Developing expression of: > infrequently occurring idioms (e.g., to vote with one's feet) > ambiguous messages > abstract concept words (e.g., courage and justice) -Older children should be able to: >Describe sensory experiences ->Any activity that encourages children to use their senses is a sensory activity. >Describe the location, time >Describe entities including shape, size, number, substance (e.g., metal, wood), condition >Use relationship words such as comparisons (e.g., as big as) and qualifications (e.g., nearly, not quite) , etc. >Use verbs describing actions, states (am, is, are), and sensory processes (e.g., feel, hear), etc. >Use words to help discern causation and motivation

Conducting an error analysis of morphosyntax

-Transcribe the language sample -Note the grammatical errors that occur -Make a list of those -Are they used in every obligatory context? Is there some percentage of correct usage? -Once proficient, clinicians can also make a list while listening

While Intervening School-Age Children 1. Deliver Services within the Curriculum

-Under IDEA regulations, SLPs no longer work separately on a set of language goals and activities they develop on their own. -Language activities are drawn from the general education curriculum >Within curricular contexts >Clinic examples: word list in reading; use of students' reading material

Ways to Assess

-Using formal measures > Standardized tests -Using informal measures > Criterion-referenced tasks -Using language samples > Examining how the language is used > Using quantitative measures -Dynamic assessment > What does the student do when they approach a long or complex sentence they do not know

Non-Standardized Receptive Measures

-Using receptive non-standardized measures (these are generally receptive) >Having the student perform tasks >Ask the students questions about the vocabulary in common classroom materials >Look at the words students need to know to perform classroom tasks successfully >Interview family, staff, child >Analyze work samples (more expressive - written -Vocabulary Depth - Looking at how well a student knows words - Imagine the word "prairie" for a 3rd grader living in Portland

Be word detectives --Meaning from context

-Using words around the unknown word to derive meaning (sentence level) -Using information within the story/text to understand the unknown word (discourse level) -Using word level information - morphophonemic cues, morphological analysis - to understand the unknown word (word level) **This helps in that process of teaching students to be "word detectives"

Vocabulary Instruction: Important points

-Vocabulary is learned primarily through indirect means with typically developing children >Engaging in oral conversation in classrooms >Listening to others read (by adults or peers) >Reading independently and extensively -For students with semantic issues: >Will need to teach directly >Will need to teach strategies to figure out the words

Intervention principles

-We need to consider the activity >Many (not all) activities will revolve around print in some way -We need to consider scaffolds -Need to consider metacognition/metalinguistics -Repeated opportunities and explicitness

Model self-talk about word meanings and forms

-We need to teach metalinguistic skills (e.g., how to make connections between words, etc.) -Can model how to chunk words into roots, morphemes (affixes, suffixes, etc.) -Could also teach word origins in the later grades -Self-talk is a way of working on those metalinguistic skills

Adolescents with Language Disorders

-Weak language skills during early school years form an unstable foundation for advanced language required by more intense demands of the secondary curriculum -May not receive any special support, but still have language weaknesses that impact academic and social function -At risk for low self-esteem

Using language samples

-You can use a language sample to look at student use of negatives, conjunctions, word choice, misuse of words, etc. >Look for lexical diversity (Robertson, 2007; Owens, 2010): The more varied a vocabulary a language sample possesses, the higher lexical diversity. ->Number of different words used (NDW) ->Total Number of Words (TNW) -Lexical diversity (cont'd) >Type Token Ratio (TTR) ->The ration of different words (types) to the total number of words (tokens) = NDW/TNW ->Calculation example: https://www.sltinfo.com/type-token-ratio/ ->A low TTR may be indicative of a preponderance of "empty" words (e.g., thing, one)

Basic Sentence Structure 7. Compound Sentence

-contains two or more independent clauses (simple sentences) conjoined by a coordinating conjunction ;they have two or more subjects and predicates. >Coordinating conjunctions - These conjunctions link two main clauses which should be separated/segmented into two utterances that can each stand alone. Common coordinating conjunctions include: and, but, so (but not "so that"), and then, then, however, nevertheless... >Examples: The boys wanted to play football, but it was too hot. I wanted some ice cream, so I bought some at the store.

Brown's Stages of Development - Stage I

12-26 months Individual words and semantic roles combined in linear simple sentences

Behavioral Issues Intervention

1. 3-step thinking-out-loud process -Tell client explicitly what strategy will be developed, why it is important, and what procedures will be used -The clinician thinks out loud to demonstrate how the strategy is accomplished -The clinician has each client model this thinking out-loud process. 2. Social story: written individually for children -Descriptive sentences: Identify a problematic social setting -Directive sentences: what should do -Perspective sentences: internal states of others

How to treat Morphosyntax?

1. Implicit Approaches 2. Explicit Approaches

Four Types of Vocabulary

1. Listening 2. Speaking 3. Reading 4. Writing

Components of Vocabulary Intervention

1. Teach Specific words 2. Teach word-learning strategies

Semantic Relations Between Clauses

1. Temporal ("Eat dinner and go to sleep.") 2. Causal ("Go to store and buy shoes.") 3. Conditional ("Eat dinner, go outside.") 4. Epistemic ("I think draw pink.") 5. Notice-perception ("Show me how to do a somersault.") 6. Specification ("I have a dog and it's brown.") 7. Adversative ("The girls sit here and the boys sit there.")

Word Finding Assessment in Discourse

Although Word Finding assessment has focused primarily on single word naming contexts (convergent naming), it is also important to evaluate student's Word Finding skills in the discourse context. In an analysis of a student's Word Finding skills in discourse, examiners focus on the student's language productivity and the incidence of Word Finding behaviors in their narratives (German, 1987, German & Simon, 1991). The Test of Word finding in Discourse (German, 1991) assesses children's Word Finding skills in narratives.

Assess Student's Word Knowledge

An assessment of a student's Word Finding abilities is primarily an evaluation of the student's oral language skills. However, it is critical to differentiate between vocabulary difficulties that are due to difficulties in learning meanings and building semantic networks and vocabulary difficulties that are due to word retrieval problems. Assessing a student's word knowledge can help in this differential diagnosis. Therefore, a measure of a student's word knowledge should be part of the evaluation to identify Word Finding difficulties.

Brown's Study and Stages: 18 months

Begin to combine words into 2-word phrases

Basic Sentence Constituents 4. Adjectives and Noun Suffixes

Between 3 & 5, most preschoolers understand and begin to use comparative & superlative inflectional suffixes, -er and -est

Brown's Stages of Development

Brown summarized the developments that seemed to characterize each level of development in 5 stages

Basic Sentence Constituents 5. Verb Phrases

By 5 years, children have mastered most of the forms in the English verb system

Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL)

Can be used to assess Lexical/Semantic: Knowledge and use of words and word combinations

TACL- Test for Auditory Comprehension of Language

Can be used to assess Vocabulary: The meanings of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and of words that represent basic precepts and concepts.

Brown's Stages of Development - Stage V

Conjoin sentences: Utterances are coordinated, combining the content of 2 sentences into one

Providing print and technological supports

Create a picture, pictograph, or symbolic representation of the word -Graphic organizers - using visual supports - children with LLD have difficulty organizing relationships between words (Venn diagram, Word line) -Use word cards - these help students become more engaged in learning activities -Computer software - Kidspiration, Inspiration, Wordle.net, Wordsift.com

Give Word Definitions

Different levels of "knowing" involved in lexical acquisition: -2 points: Have an accurate superordinate term and describe the word with one ore more accurate characteristics (X is a Y that Z) -1 point: Have an accurate superordinate term but does NOT describe the word accurately (X is a Y) -0 point: No accurate superordinate term or accurate description -EBP >Provide a definition and a lexical contrast to establish a more detailed understanding and longer retention of new words

Advance in Syntax 1. Linear Relationship

Earliest multiword utterances (e.g., two wordutterances) are characterized as expressing linear semantic relationships

Follow Up with Informal Assessment Procedures and Diagnostic Teaching

Finally, formal test results are best interpreted when integrated with informal analysis and observations of a student's Word Finding skills across the day. With regard to the former, examiners can follow up standardized assessment with informal diagnostic procedures to clarify formal test results. -Picture naming -Sentence completion -Naming an object form given description -Naming the category of a groups of objects etc.

How Children Learn Vocabulary

First indirectly: >Conversations with adults >Listening to stories read by adults >Reading extensively on their own >We call it "picking up words" Next, directly: -Word consciousness >An interest in knowing more about words, which is essential to vocabulary growth (Stahl, 1999). >Clinic: Encourage students to play with words -Specific word instruction >Consistent direct instruction -Word learning strategies -Intensive work >Wide ranging experiences -Repetition and review >Sufficient number of exposures -Active engagement

Semantic integration and inferencing

Focus: the ability to synthesize ideas from linguistic units §e.g., prediction activity -"Rachel loves fruit very much. For examples, she likes apples, bananas, grapes, ytomoas, strawberries. " -Rachel does not like vegetables.

Hierarchical Sentence Structure

Recombinations Mommy + eat eat + cookie __________________ Mommy + eat + cookie

Basic Sentence Constituents 2. Pronouns

Group of forms (he, she, they) that can replace nouns or entire noun phrases

A few more considerations regarding choosing vocabulary for intervention

In other words...choose words to get the most "mileage" from your vocabulary intervention Literate Lexicon

Characteristics of effective vocabulary intervention (Clinical Implication)

Instruction provides both definitional and contextual information about the words to be learned as well as multiple exposures and opportunities to use them.

Conduct Formal Assessment of Word Finding Using Standardized Tests Developed Specifically to Assess Word Finding

It is the in-depth formal diagnostic assessment of Word Finding that provides the specific information needed to develop an individualized Word Finding intervention program. Formal assessment of a student's Word Finding difficulties is implemented by using a norm referenced battery of tests designed specifically to assess Word Finding. These standardized assessments should evaluate a student's retrieval skills in both convergent and divergent retrieval contexts. Assessment of student's convergent retrieval skills consists of single word naming tasks that assess the student's ability to retrieve words that satisfy specific semantic constraints imposed by a context. Assessment of a student's divergent naming skills is completed through an analysis of a narrative generated in response to a stimulus. Available normed referenced tests in Word Finding and their descriptions are described in the next section.

Characteristics of effective vocabulary intervention (Theory)

Learners are actively involved in the generation of word meanings rather than as passive receptors of information. -This includes the integration of their prior knowledge with new information as well as building semantically related categories of words and concepts

Explicit Approaches Meta-Linguistic Methods

Meta-linguistic approaches provide predominantly explicit teaching of language, often in the context of specific visual cues. Once the child has learned a new rule, some grammar facilitation methods (especially recasting) may be used alongside visual templates and explicit references to the child's errors, and more context may begin to be added. -Color coding >Color coding is frequently used in meta-linguistic approaches. -Shape coding >The use of a combination of shapes, colors and arrows to indicate morphological or/and grammatical parts.

Difficulties with Grammar Rarely Occur in Isolation

Most students who struggle with grammar often have difficulties in other areas of language and literacy, and it is these other aspects of language—semantics, pragmatics, social skills, narrative/expository discourse, phonological awareness, spelling, reading, and writing—that are typically given priority in therapy.

Implicit Approaches 4. Recasting

Recasting methods are designed to be non-intrusive conversational procedures. -The adult does not initiate teaching directly, butmanipulates play activities to increase the chances of the child using targeted grammatical forms. When the child fails to use the target form or makes an error, the adult immediately follows his or her utterance with a modified version that includes the target form (a 'recast'). -The theory behind this approach is that the child is more likely to be interested in what the adult is saying if it links semantically to the situation and the child's own prior utterance.

Meta-Linguistic Methods 2. Teach Varied Sentence Types

Requests (Mands) -General order: Two word phrases à More grammatically complete productions->Elements of social politeness -Clinicians can use modeled and evoked sentences Descriptions and comments (Tacts) -Academic performance of children with language disorders can be significantly improved with a good repertoire of tacts. -Clinicians can use modeled and evoked sentences Asking questions -A powerful tool in furthering children's education -Clinicians can use modeled and evoked sentences Develop the syntax of literate language -- Complex sentences and Compound sentences -Paraphrase "Giraffes like Acacia leaves and hay, and they can consume 75 pounds of food a day". "He has tons of stuff to throw away. "Any trip to Italy should include a visit to Tuscany to sample the region's exquisite wines." -Write

If I teach words, which ones should I pick?

Some considerations: -Frequency --> How often does the word occur? -Dispersion --> Does it occur across different subject areas? -Morphological potential --> can we use it to teach morph. awareness? Derive many words from it? -Semantic relatedness --> Can we teach it as part of a network of related words? -How important is this word to current curriculum?

Transdiciplinary Planning

Specialists, teachers, family, students

Single Word Retrieval Contexts

Students have difficulty retrieving specific words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, dates, numbers, etc. In the classroom they have difficulty responding to questions that require retrieval of specific facts. Even though they know the information, they may have difficulty relating character names, locations, dates, or other specific facts from a story. -The language patterns of students with retrieval difficulties in single word retrieval contexts are typically described with respect to their: 1) accuracy and speed in retrieval, 2) unique response substitutions, and 3) secondary characteristics.

Single Word Retrieval Contexts 2) Unique Response Substitutions

Students with Word Finding difficulties also produce unique responses when they have Word Finding difficulties. These responses usually indicate some knowledge of the target word's meaning or form (sounds). They provide insights as to potential disruption points in the lexical process that may underlie student's Word Finding errors (German, 2000; McGregor, 1997). Examples of response substitutions are highlighted in the table below. Students may produce responses in one or all of the categories indicated.

Discourse Retrieval Contexts

Students with Word Finding difficulties in the discourse context have difficulty relating experiences and events. Their discourse may be brief and/or contain a high incidence of word finding behaviors such as word repetitions, word reformulations (revisions), substitutions, insertions, empty words, time fillers and delays.

Single Word Retrieval Contexts 3) Secondary Characteristics

Students with Word Finding difficulties may also produce secondary characteristics when they have Word Finding difficulties. These secondary characteristics often indicate a learner's knowledge of a target word's meaning and/or a target word's form. Typically, two types are observed: gestures and extra verbalizations. Each is described in the following tables.

Single Word Retrieval Contexts 1) Accuracy and Speed Profiles

Students with Word Finding difficulties may be described as either inaccurate retrievers or slow retrievers or both. They may indicate one or all of the profiles below when answering questions in class or on tests that require the retrieval of single words or specific facts.

My general principle for targeting complex syntax in therapy

Target the meanings and/or functions conveyed by the syntactic structure rather than the structure itself -Relative clauses thus serve the same function as adjectives: They specify and disambiguate nouns

Scaffolds

Three forms of scaffolding in intervention: 1. Creation of optimal task conditions 2. Guidance of selective attention Highlight information 3. Provision of external support "Preps" clients for the lesson in a pull-out session

While Intervening School-Age Children 4. Preventive Intervention

Vulnerable Children

Derivational Morphology

Words combine with affixes to create new words. - modern + ize = modernize - read + able = readable - re + activate = reactivate - re + do + able = redoable

Sentence

clause that is structurally complete, as in The big boy is eating the cookie.

Object Clauses with wh-embedding

goals would focus on the meanings of the wh- words what, where, who, why, and how. Examples of these sentences are as follows: -I know what you're doing. I know where you're going. I know who you are. I know why you're here. I know how you're doing

Clause

group of words that includes a subject and a predicate, as in big boy eat

Phrases

groups of words that are structurally or syntactically related, such as big boy

Noun Phrase Elaboration

involves the use of determiners and adjectives to modify a noun (this table; my big, round, bouncy ball) and prepositional phrases and relative clauses (the girl with the red dress; the movie that I saw).

Verb Phrase Elaboration

occurs by adding auxiliaries, secondary verbs, and adverbs (e.g., She likes to walk quickly to school. He had been studying for a long time. They should have won the game.)