Exam 2

Attitudes are often influenced by behavior. Several theories have been proposed to account for WHY this influence occurs. Describe the major tenets of, distinguish, and describe the research evidence supporting and disputing the following theories: cognitive dissonance, self-perception, self-presentation. Point out when research supports one theory over another one. (NOTE: If you don't cite research you may lose up to half the credit)

- Cognitive Dissonance: Festinger/ Carlsmith - Self-Perception: Behavior causes us to infer our attitudes=attitude formation - Self-Presentation: Milgram study because they conform to look impressive in front of Milgram

Describe how it works.

- Exposure to weak counterarguments - Encouragement of Active Processing - Reinforcement of original beliefs

Felt Responsibility Effect on Dissonance

A person's sense of responsibility for their actions can amplify dissonance. When individuals feel a high degree of personal responsibility for a choice or behavior, they are more likely to experience dissonance if that choice conflicts with their existing attitudes or beliefs.

The foot-in-the-door technique

A persuasion strategy that involves getting people to agree to a small request before presenting a larger, related request. Research, such as the Freedman and Fraser study, has shown that compliance with the initial small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request. This can lead to a change in attitude, as people start to view themselves as the type of person who is consistent with their previous actions. Example: A charity organization might ask for a small donation first, and after someone agrees to that, they are more likely to agree to a larger donation request. Over time, the person may develop a more favorable attitude toward the charity's cause.

Part of Six Powers-Reward- Drug Prevention

Acknowledging reward students who participate in drug prevention events. This helps reinforce positive behavior.

What are the advantages of appealing to emotion versus reason?

Appealing to emotion can engage, be memorable, and lead to quick decisions. It's effective for overcoming indifference and connecting with values. Appealing to reason enhances credibility, leads to enduring conviction, is suitable for analytical audiences, and is preferred in formal settings. The choice depends on goals and audience.

Felt Responsibility and the Holocaust

As Jews in the Holocaust felt a shared responsibility within their group or society. This diffusion of responsibility could have lessened their personal sense of guilt.

What is attitude inoculation?

Attitude inoculation is a persuasion that strengthens existing beliefs by weak arguments.

Are attitudes good predictors of behavior?

Attitudes can be predictors of behavior, but the relationship between attitudes and behavior is not always straightforward or strong.

The saying-becomes-believing phenomenon

Based on the theory of cognitive dissonance, which suggests that when individuals behave in ways that contradict their existing attitudes, they experience discomfort (cognitive dissonance) and seek to reduce it by changing their attitudes to align with their behavior. Festinger and Carlsmith's classic study demonstrated this effect. Participants who were paid a small amount to perform a dull and boring task subsequently reported more positive attitudes toward the task, as they had to justify their behavior to themselves. Example: If someone initially dislikes a certain type of exercise but starts doing it regularly as part of a fitness routine, they may eventually develop a more positive attitude toward that exercise to reduce the dissonance between their behavior and attitude.

Message Learning Approach- Drug Prevention

Begin by teaching students about the dangers and consequences of drug use. Use evidence-based and age-appropriate materials to educate them on the physical, social, and emotional effects of drug use

Compliance

Conforming to a request or demand while privately disagreeing.

Acceptance

Conformity involves both acting and believing in accordance with social pressure.

Obedience- Drug Prevention

Develop a curriculum focused on teaching students about the importance of obedience, self-discipline, and the long-term benefits of making obedient choices.

Two-sided appeals- Drug Prevention

Develop additional educational materials that incorporate both the negative and the positive aspects of drug use. Address common misconceptions and arguments in favor of drug use while presenting counterarguments. Also feature testimonials from individuals who have overcome addiction, emphasizing their struggles but also their triumphs and the benefits of a drug-free lifestyle.

Fundamental Attribution Error and the Holocaust

During the Holocaust, Germans may have wrongly attributed Jewish suffering to inherent trait rather than external circumstances of persecution.

Group Pressure/ Norm Formation- Drug Prevention

Encourage students to participate in small group discussions and activities where they discuss the benefits of a drug-free lifestyle. These discussions can help shape group norms against drug use.

List factors that make a source seem credible.

Eye Contact Arguing against own self-interest Speaking quickly Sleeper effect Reverse sleeper effect

What implications can be drawn from this study regarding how to design election campaigns?

For the election campaign it was with Kennedy and Nixion and people had thought that Kennedy one over the visual persuasion because of how he was in attraction. Whereas over the radio people thought Nixion won had won.

Compliance and the Holocaust

Germans may have complied with Nazi due to the authority and social pressure put upon them.

Counter-Arguments- Drug Prevention

Giving students counterarguments to pro-drug messages that could be encountered. This will help resilience by understanding how to respond to peer pressure.

Sherif of Norm Formation

He studied how norms get formed. He had asked subjects to estimate how fast light moved. He put the subjects in a dark room with a pin-dot of light in front of them. The outcome is we cannot tell if light moves when nothing is around it but darkness. The light was stationary but people did not know that. They developed a norm of their own and he was wondering if people in an ambiguous situation formed a pattern that would they pass on being more confident. He brought a new person to sit with the original person. He had the answers to how far the light moved. If one person answers 2 inches the next would say 4 inches. However, as the trial went on he noticed that the new person would follow the norms of the original person if they had been more confident. When the second person takes on the norm of the first person, they then take the first person out and add and third person. Then when the third person took on the norm they took the second person out and so on until he had gotten to six generations. The conclusion is when we don't know what is going on we look to others and we base our response on theirs so then we look like we know more people will follow. They tested a year later and it showed group norms still.

Normative Influence- Drug Prevention

Highlight the fact that the majority of teenagers choose not to use drugs and emphasize the norm of non-use through posters, social media campaigns, and testimonies from peers.

Attribution Effect on Dissonance

How individuals attribute the causes of their actions can impact dissonance. When people attribute their behavior to internal factors rather than external factors, dissonance is more likely to occur.

Unanimity

If everyone around you is pressuring you to do a conformity in a different direction then you are more likely to conform than if it was divided. However, if everyone is in agreement it can be harder to not fall into that conformity.

attitude potency

If something reminds you of it, or because you gained that attitude in a manner that makes you strong. Ex: Attitude towards donating food could be strong because you've used it in the past or you know someone that has.

Create a novel example (not from class or text) to illustrate. Give an example of what could be said for each step, being precise about who is saying which statemen

Imagine a Lobsterman, Nick, is committed to stop the state for restricting lobstermen. Exposure to Weak Counterarguments: He encounters a statement from a local, Emma, who suggests, "This is a waste of time. The state is trying to help the lobster population grow" Encouragement of Active Processing: Nick thinks about the importance of his work, remembering how this has been around for years and how human activities can also disrupt the population too. Reinforcement of Original Beliefs: A respected a marine biologists, presents a persuasive lecture on the impact of how this it is more then just the lobstermen by using using research and examples to emphasize the significance of human inference. This process helps Nick solidify his commitment to the lobstering community, as the weak counterargument didn't sway his beliefs.

What were the variables, how were the IV's measured, how was the DV measured? What were the results?

In the peripheral route, people rely on surface-level cues, such as attractiveness or source credibility. The independent variable (IV) is the persuasive message's quality or source credibility, and it's measured by the strength of arguments or the credibility of the source. The dependent variable (DV) is the attitude change or persuasion resulting from exposure to the message.

Conformity and the Holocaust

Individuals conformed to the anti-Semitic norms within Nazi Germany.

Insufficient justification

Involves a person engaging in behavior without a strong external reason, leading to a change in attitude to align with the behavior.

The role-playing paradigm

It involves individuals adopting a specific role and engaging in behaviors associated with that role. Studies, such as the Stanford Prison Experiment by Philip Zimbardo, have shown how taking on certain roles can lead individuals to adopt attitudes consistent with those roles. In the study, college students assigned to play the roles of prison guards or prisoners quickly developed attitudes and behaviors associated with their assigned roles. Guards became authoritarian and abusive, while prisoners became submissive and compliant. Example: An individual who initially holds egalitarian attitudes may develop discriminatory or prejudiced attitudes when placed in a role that requires them to act in a biased or discriminatory manner.

What is the role of counterarguments?

It is to give a mental defense and encourage critical thinking. Making the individuals more resistant to opposing views. This helps people become more confident in their existing beliefs.

RRT

Measuring something that isn't desirable, 100% let them know they are anonymous, flip a coin to answer a question, should be 50/50 true or false, people would lie or tell truth because they do not want to be identified with an answer, turned out to be 70/30.

A Drug Prevention Program for Teens

Message Learning Approach, Persuasion, Group Pressure/ Norm Formation, Normative Influence, Attitude, Counter-Arguments, Group Size, Part of Six Powers-Rewards, Peripheral Route of Persuasion, Conformity, Obedience, and Two-sided appeals

Sleeper effect and the Holocaust

Nazi propaganda, the initial source may not have been credible, but the repeated exposure to propaganda may have influenced perceptions and attitudes over time of other people.

Central Route/Peripheral Route of Persuasion and the Holocaust

Nazi regime employed both central and peripheral routes of persuasion, with many people relying on peripheral cues like authority and group norms to justify their actions

Attitudes and the Holocaust

Nazis systematically used propaganda to create a hostile environment towards Jews and other targeted groups.

Reinforcement of Original Beliefs

Next, individuals receive stronger supporting arguments. In this case, where the dentist provides compelling evidence about the benefits of brushing your teeth.

Post-decisional dissonance

Occurs after a choice has been made, leading to an attitude shift to reduce discomfort and reinforce the chosen option.

Insufficient deterrence

Occurs when a mild punishment or deterrent is not enough to prevent a behavior, leading to an alignment of attitude with the behavior.

Obedience and the Holocaust

Ordinary Germans may have experienced cognitive dissonance as they reconciled their pre-existing beliefs with the acts they were asked to commit during the Holocaust. To reduce this dissonance, they may have dehumanized and distanced themselves from their victims.

Group Size- Drug Prevention

Organize small group workshops or activities that encourage positive peer influence. Students can work on projects related to drug prevention, fostering a sense of belonging and commitment to a drug-free community.

Institutional authority

Originally they were told this has to be safe because Yale is doing it. So they took this out of Yale and there was no association with the institution which reduced it to 48%. But still, 5 out of 10 people were still shocking others even with no institutional connection.

Festinger & Carlsmith: How were true attitudes toward the task assessed?

Participants paid $1 experienced cognitive dissonance due to the insufficient external justification for their behavior, which led them to change their attitudes to justify their actions. This phenomenon illustrates how cognitive dissonance can influence attitudes and behavior in response to external rewards.his finding can be explained by the theory of cognitive dissonance.

Asch Group pressure

Participants were supposed to judge lines compared to a standard line. For the first few trials, everyone said the correct line so it made the real participant who was number six feel comfortable. Somewhere in there, they had the first five people say the wrong answer and they said the same wrong answer. This made the real participants question your answer because it made them feel it was hard to say the correct answer. 1-3% of the people who were given the wrong answer privately. 75% of the people conformed at least once. 37% conformed which means many conformed even when you might know the answer. We are followers as humans.

Exposure to Weak Counterarguments

People are first presented with small opposing viewpoints. For example, a dentist might hear a statement from someone who has poor hygiene, " brushing your teeth isnt that important"

Public response

People conform more when they must respond in front of others whereas when writing their answers privately

Person issues

Pertaining to the person whose behavior and attitudes are being measured such as self monitoring and self image.

Describe the Petty and Cacioppo studies.

Petty and Cacioppo are well-known for their persuasion and attitudes, which could be related to election campaigns. Petty and Cacioppo's is a theoretical framework for understanding how people process persuasive messages. They suggest two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. In the central route, individuals carefully scrutinize and think deeply about a message's content.

Physiological Arousal Effect on Dissonance

Physiological arousal, such as increased heart rate or anxiety, can intensify the experience of dissonance. When individuals are emotionally aroused, dissonance may be more salient and distressing.

Discuss the effect of temporal factors on persuasion primacy

Primacy impacts of information presented first. If you present primary first then secondary and then leave time. Responders will accept the first message.

Conformity- Drug Prevention

Promote ideas that it is 'cool' and 'normal' to avoid drugs and make responsible choices.

What is psychological reactance? Provide a concrete example of your own creation

Psychological reactance is when one is motivated to basically go against freedom that has been threatened. An example of this would be when I was younger and my dad told me I couldn't use my phone but then I just would use it more.

Principle of aggregation

Putting multiple different kinds of behavior together, if you take a lot of instances of behavior and measure you will get better measurements

Discuss the effect of temporal factors on persuasion recency.

Recency impacts of information presented last. If you present the primary first then let time pass and next present the secondary, responders will accept the second message.

Peripheral route

Relies on surface cues like celebrity endorsements or emotional appeal. For instance, choosing a product because a celebrity says it works it in a commercial.

Attitude- Drug Prevention

Teach students strategies to resist peer pressure and persuasion from those promoting drug use. Simulate scenarios where they can practice resisting pressure effectively.

Theory of Action

Telling us that attitudes aren't always going to directly lead to behavior, attitudes create behavioral intentions which leads to behavior, subjective norms what you think others think you should do

Obedience and the Holocaust

The Nazi hierarchy leveraged obedience to execute the Holocaust.

Six Bases of Power and the Holocaust

The Nazi regime exercised various forms of power, including coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, expert, and informational power to manipulate and control individuals.

Power and Persuasion and the Holocoast

The Nazi regime wielded authority and used persuasion to manipulate individuals into following their orders. People in positions of power played a critical role in enforcing compliance.

Cohesion

The closeness of a group can put more pressure on conformity than a loose group.

Describe the interaction effects of persuasion medium (written, audiotape, videotape) and message difficulty (hi or low) on persuasion outcome.

The interaction effects of persuasion medium and message difficulty on persuasion outcomes refer to how the effective the message can be influenced by the combination of the medium used and the complexity of the message. Different combinations can impact how persuasively a message is received and can vary depending on the audience and context.

Describe the message-yielding approach to persuasion.

The message-yielding approach to persuasion is a communication strategy that focuses on getting the target audience to accept a persuasive message by delivering the message that aligns with the audience's preexisting beliefs and attitudes. The ideas behind this makes the message appear consistent with the audience's current views, values, and self-concept.

Describe the overjustification effect and how it relates to self-perception theory.

The overjustification effect occurs when individuals receive external rewards for behaviors they initially engage in because they find them intrinsically satisfying. When external rewards are introduced, the intrinsic motivation for the activity can diminish. This happens because people begin to attribute their behavior to external rewards rather than to their own interest or enjoyment of the activity.

Who was more likely to favor the task, the group paid $1 or the group paid $20? WHY?

The participants who received the smaller reward of $1 experienced cognitive dissonance because they had engaged in a boring and uninteresting task for very little compensation. To reduce this dissonance, they changed their attitudes toward the task to align with their behavior. They convinced themselves that the task was actually more enjoyable than they initially believed. On the other hand, the participants who received the larger reward of $20 did not experience the same level of cognitive dissonance because their external reward was substantial enough to justify their behavior. They did not need to change their attitudes because the external justification was strong.

What would the reverse sleeper effect be? Give an example.

The reverse sleeper effect is when a highly credible source's message loses its persuasive impact over time. For example, a business had a skincare line people initially were convinced people to buy because it was good but nothing to say it was paraben and cruelty-free, but then a new brand surfaced being cruelty-free, causing them to discredit their products over time.

What are the 6 bases of power?

The six base powers are reward, coercive, reference, legitimate, expert, and informational Ex: As a child provider, I have some powers such as reward, coercive, expert, and information. When a child is acting well or has a good day when they normally don't we can reward them by telling them or their parent that. An example of coercive in my job is taking away toys or rewards they get when they don't have appropriate behavior which can influence them to change their behavior. An example of an expert is having the knowledge the kids don't of what is right and wrong and how to fix and dictate that. An example of informational can be when having to tell parents about information within our program that we have their child that they either are not aware of yet or never knew.

Describe the sleeper effect in detail. Give an example.

The sleeper effect is when a message from a less credible source initially has little persuasive impact, but over time, its influence grows. For example, American Eagle publishes a story putting a negative light on Old Navy with questionable credibility. Initially, readers discount the story, but as they forget the source, the information influences their opinions over time.

Group Size

The smaller the group such as 3-5 people will conform. More than five it can be hard to increase conformity.

Strength of Self-Concept Effect on Dissonance

The strength and stability of an individual's self-concept can influence how they experience dissonance. People with a strong and consistent self-concept are more likely to experience discomfort when their actions conflict with their self-concept.

Milgram's obedience experiment

There were two participants one was a confederate of the study and they did a study where they tried to see if punishment or reward affected studying. Participants would take a draw on who the learner and teacher were. It was rigged and the real participant was always the teacher. Every time the learner was wrong the teacher was supposed to shock them. 15 volts of electricity was the test and every time the learner was wrong the teacher had to increase the shock. However, the learner had to follow the script and had to tell the teacher to stop because of a heart condition and then especially "pass out." The learner was just acting and had no shock. No matter if the teacher wanted to stop the experimenter had to keep telling the teacher to keep going. 67% of participants went to XXX. They thought the teacher would quit if the learner was saying they were hurting but they continued to keep going. They used the attribution error blaming people's behavior on how they are. Blamed teachers for saying they were evil.

Victim

They measured the distance of the learner and teacher and when they were in the same room they had a lower amount of obedience. This ended in 40%. Then they told the teacher they had to actually push the learner's hands down on the shock plate. This also reduced the obedience because they were placed to face. This ended in 30%.

Encouragement of Active Processing

They then critically evaluate the weak arguments. The dentist reflects on why brushing your teeth might be crucial for being healthy.

Be sure to include LaPierre's study (methods, findings, significance).

They traveled with a Chinese couple throughout their journey across the United States, visiting various hotels, restaurants, and other public establishments. During their trip, they Chinese couple were served all but one estiblashment which showed discrimination. After the trip, LaPierre sent surveys to the same establishments they had visited, asking whether they would serve Chinese patrons. 93% said they would refuse service to Chinese patrons.LaPierre's study is significant because it highlights the inconsistency between people's attitudes and their actual behavior. It suggests that various factors, such as social norms, situational pressures, and fear of consequences, can lead individuals or organizations to behave differently than what their stated attitudes might suggest.

Closeness/Legitimacy of Authority

This had more impact. The authority figure mattered more than did if it was face-to-face or not. When they were told by milgrams it was 21% obedience. When Joe the file clerk had to give directions it was 20%.

What does it mean to say that you can turn a child's play into work using rewards?

Turning a child's play into work using rewards refers to the idea that providing extrinsic rewards, such as prizes, money, or praise, for activities that a child initially finds intrinsically enjoyable can sometimes lead to a shift in their motivation. This shift can result in the child perceiving the activity as work rather than play. This phenomenon is closely related to the overjustification effect, which is a concept from psychology that explores the consequences of providing external rewards for intrinsically motivated behaviors.

Peripheral Route of Persuasion- Drug Prevention

Use celebrities to deliver anti-drug messages. Celebrities can have a significant persuasive impact on teenagers.

Central route to persuasion

Using facts and information to back those up in an argumental way. For example, making a stock investment decision after research and analysis.

Persuasion- Drug Prevention

Utilize both one-sided and two-sided appeals in educational materials. Present the negative aspects of drug use (one-sided) and address common misconceptions or arguments in favor of drug use (two-sided).

Bogus pipeline

We try to convince people with machines that we can test true attitudes. Ex: Polygraph- People believe machines can tell when you lying meaning they are more inclined to tell the truth.

Other non-conformists

What reduced obedience the most was having someone else in the room who was also thought to be a teacher say no I will not continue by standing up to authority. 90% said no when someone else did it first.

No prior commitment

When having a prior commitment they can resist the conformity pressure better than one without prior commitment.

Status

When one had a higher status it showed a more impact as well.

When should a person present one side versus two sides to an issue?

When the audience agrees with your beliefs.

Can behavior influence attitudes?

Yes

obedience

acting in accord with a direct order or command

Zimbardo found in his prison simulation that: a.Men with greater intelligence were affected more by the manipulations than men with lower intelligence b.Only those men who had a predisposition toward mental illness stayed in the study c.Even with huge financial incentives, the Stanford men would not be cruel to each other d.Without any threat or explicit pressure from the experimenters, the men became absorbed in their assigned roles and acted in accord with the role

d.Without any threat or explicit pressure from the experimenters, the men became absorbed in their assigned roles and acted in accord with the role

factors that affect when people conform

group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, public response, no prior commitment

List the MEASUREMENT issues involved in enhancing the ability of attitudes to predict behavior.

principle of aggregation, bogus pipeline, RRT, theory of reasoned action, attitude potency, person issues

How were the 6 bases of power involved in the tragedy of Jonestown?

reward: a home coercive: freedom/confided them reference: told them to drink poison to die in peace legitimate: he was "father" (jim jones) informational: bible