exam 2 (chapters 3,4,5)

Minority stress theory:

suggests that having a marginalized identity, such as being transgender, carries additional social stressors that can negatively affect mental and physical health outcomes

Postmodern perspective:

suggests that knowledge isn't objective; rather, it is constructed and therefore can change as a function of time, place, or culture

Differential parental investment theory:

suggests that women's greater investment in children is due to their greater contributions to parenting through gestating and breastfeeding Evolutionary Explanations for Differences (1)

Genitoplasty

surgery on the genitals

Gender segregation:

tendency for children to segregate on the basis of actual or perceived gender identity

Heterosexism:

the assumption that others are heterosexual (at least until proven otherwise) and that it's more desirable to be heterosexual

Plasticity:

the brain's ability to change in response to aspects of the environment and learning experiences

Passing:

the degree to which a person is perceived as their* gender—usually based on gender expression and conformity to gender norms

Variability:

the degree to which the scores are spread out. Imagine a set of five scores with an average of 100. If the scores were 99, 100, 100, 100, and 101, there would be low variability.

Gender expression:

the external manifestation of a person's gender identity

Goal congruity perspective:

the idea that people want to engage in activities that meet their goals

Sexual fluidity:

the idea that sexual and romantic attraction and desire, as well as sexual orientation identity and sexual behavior, can change over time

Sexual configurations theory (SCT):

the idea that sexuality is multi-faceted, socially situated, and dynamic and can best be understood along a variety of dimensions

sex/gender binary

the idea that there are only two sexes, and that a person must be assigned a sex of either female or male that will align with a predictable gender).

Stereotype threat:

the idea that when people think their social group does poorly on a certain task (or think that others think this is true), their anxiety about confirming that stereotype can actually undermine their performance

Similarities perspective:

the idea that women and men are more similar than different (liberal feminism)

Internalized transphobia:

the internalization of negative messages about transgender people by someone who identifies as transgender

Internalized homophobia, biphobia, heterosexism, or homonegativity:

the internalization of negativity about one's sexual minority identity

Gender socialization:

the internalization of the social expectations and attitudes associated with one's perceived gender

dosage-dependent effects.

the more time spent in same-sex groups the higher stereotyped behavior.

Sex differentiation

the process of developing sex-specific characteristics, begins during the sixth week of pregnancy. A pair of sex glands, referred to as gonads, then appear, which have the potential to become ovaries (which will produce eggs and female sex hormones) or testes (which will pro-duce sperm and male sex hormones).

Gender transitioning:

the process of publicly demonstrating one's gender identity in both appearance and behavior Gender transitioning is a complex process that often unfolds over a long period and requires attention to many aspects of a person's life.

nondisjunction:

the process whereby chromosomes fail to disconnect when a cell divides a single sperm can have multiple X or Y chromosomes, and the Y chromosome can vary in size. And even after fertilization, sex chromo-somes can be lost or gained

Psychoanalytic theories

: suggest gender development is controlled by unconscious forces

Skoliosexuality

A sexual orientation in which a person experiences attraction toward non-binary-identified individuals.

Queer

A sexual orientation in which an individual does not identify with any specific sexual orientation; also an umbrella term sometimes used for those who are not heterosexual and/or gender-binary.

Pansexuality

A sexual orientation in which an individual is sexually and/or romantically attracted to all genders based on an individual's personality.

Demisexuality

A sexual orientation in which attraction occurs only when a person forms a strong emotional connection with another person.

Gender non-conforming

A term used to refer to individuals or communities who may not identify as transgender but who do not conform to traditional gender norms.

Androgynous

A term used to refer to individuals who have complete gender neutrality; they may be people whose gender identity is both female and male or neither female nor Male.

Genderqueer

An umbrella term for people whose gender identity is outside of, not included within, or beyond the binary of female and male.

Four Questions About Differences

Does everyone show this difference? Does the difference change in different contexts, or does it occur in any situation? Is the difference categorical or dimensional? What is the source of the difference?

Social construction theories:

Cultural beliefs about gender exist to uphold particular social and economic systems and inequalities.

Gender stratification hypothesis:

Differences found between women and men (especially on cognitive skills) relate to the level of gender equality in a country.

Bechdel test:

In order to pass the test, a show or movie must (a) include at least two female characters (b) who have at least one conversation (c) about something other than a man.

Biological Explanations for Differences (1)

Men and women do not seem to have clearly gender-typed brains. One belief is that women have a bigger corpus callosum, the band of fibers that connect the brain's hemispheres, and some have used this supposed difference to justify sex/gender stereotypes. However no scientific facts to support

Expectancy role value theory:

People make decisions about what activities to pursue based on (1) the expectation that doing the activity will lead to success, and (2) the value that a person puts on the activity. Centers on the notion that women and men have internalized stereotypes about how they're supposed to act

Common arguments against Single-Sex Education:

Single-sex classrooms promote stereotypical behavior. Segregation fails to create equality. They argue that the best way to eliminate sex/gender differences in educational outcomes is to allow girls and boys to work together on meaningful tasks and to train teachers to use the most effective methods to teach all people

Gender bender, Pangender, Polygender

Terms used to refer to individuals who are non-binary; they may identify with all genders.

Two-spirited

The term comes from the traditions of some Native North American cultures to describe Native people who display characteristics of both male and female genders; this is often associated with having a third gender.

Gender Reassignment surgery:

These procedures are now often called gender-confirming surgery or gender-affirming surgery. Peo-ple who believe their bodies don't represent their sex and who have a strong desire for body modification have traditionally been referred to as transsexual.

Heteroflexible

This term refers to self-identified persons (either cis or trans) who are mostly attracted to cis- or transgender individuals of the other gender but who are occasionally attracted to other individuals (e.g., cis- or transgender individuals of the same gender; those who are genderqueer).

Turner's syndrome:

a chromosomal pattern of XO children with TS have female-typical external genitalia, and although they have a uterus, they don't have ovaries. Infants born with TS are assigned F at birth, but some later identify as intersex

5-alpha reductase deficiency:

a condition in which individiuals have XY chromosomes but lack sufficient quantities of the enzyme 5-alpha reductase, so they're unable to convert testosterone into dihydrotesterone and, therefore, cannot masculinize their external genitalia in utero physicians described a group of girls who, at puberty, began to develop phalluses much like penises... They also began to speak with deep voices and grow facial hair. These individuals are typically assigned F at birth.

Androgen-insensitivity syndrome (AIS):

a condition in which testosterone is present but cannot connect with cell receptors; individuals with AIS have XY chromosomes, no female-typical internal organs, and active testes have genitals that appear female and are typically assigned F at birth

Transgender:

a gender identity and/or gender expression that doesn't conform to societal expectations for the sex a person was assigned at birth

Stigma awareness:

a heightened fear of encountering future discrimination... which can also be experienced by people with other marginal-ized identities

Disorders of sex development (DSD):

a medical term to replace intersex; some providers use "differences of sex development" to address a concern about stigma

Token:

a member of a socially marginalized group whose group makes up less than 15% of the workforce in a workplace setting

Coming out:

a process by which LGBTQ individuals accept, appreciate, and inform themselves and others about their LGBTQ identity

Medical gaze:

a process of dehumanization that occurs when medical providers treat a person's body separate from that person's sense of self

Oedipus complex:

a stage at which boys love their mothers and hate their fathers; resolved by identifying with father... named after the lead character in an ancient Greek play who unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother.

Electra complex:

a stage at which girls love their fathers, resent their mothers, and experience penis envy; resolved by accepting the inferior status of femininity

Taxonomic analysis

a statistical technique for determining whether observed groups can be classified as categorical or dimensional. If women and men are categorically different, then they're so different that they can be considered completely different groups (or classes or taxons). Accordingly, simply knowing that someone is a woman or a man would enable others to predict what that person is like on a given trait. ex: asking if they would choose bath or baseball

Intersex:

a term used to describe a wide variety of conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical features are not sex typical

Clitoroplasty

a type of surgery that reduces the size of the clitoris

Borderwork:

activities, such as teasing about cooties or playing catch games, that reinforce the borders between girls' spaces and boys' spaces

Differences perspective:

an emphasis on gender differences so that people appreciate and value women's unique experiences and attributes For example, women are seen as good commu-nicators who want intimacy and connection. These aren't negative descriptions; however, these attitudes are consistent with benevolent sexism.

Womb envy:

an envy of women's reproductive ability, which motivated men's desire to dominate women

Sexual orientation:

an individual's predisposition toward sexual and/or romantic attraction for persons of the same sex/gender (homosexual) and/or the other sex/gender (heterosexual)

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH):

an inherited condition that causes the adrenal gland to over-produce androgens, which influences fetal genetic development and can also affect development later on

Klinefelter's syndrome:

any chromosomal type that has more than one X chromosome plus one or two Y chromosomes Because of the presence of the Y chromosome, individ-uals with KS have a penis and are generally assigned M at birth. However, not all those with KS identify as male; some identify as intersex. Approximately 1 in 800 individuals assigned M at birth carry one or more extra X chromosomes

Common arguments for Single-Sex Education: :

argue that biological differences between girls and boys mean that they have different learning styles and should be educated in different ways. The second argument is that girls do better if they aren't around boys, who may dominate the classroom or receive undue attention from the teacher. The underlying idea be-hind this "girl power" argument is that a single-sex educational setting gives girls the freedom to excel in these domains without the sexism and dis-crimination that may occur in co-educational classrooms.

Gender essentialism

assumes that there is something fundamentally different about women and men

Monosexual:

attracted to only one sex/gender

Self-socialization:

children's process of looking for clues about how to behave and integrating this information into an understanding of how one actually does behave

Neurosexism:

claiming that there are fixed, biologically based differences between women and men as a means to justify or reinforce gender stereotypes... neurosexist claims are not justified by scientific fact.

Behavioral theories:

consider how aspects of the environment influence behavior, including gender development

Cisgender:

describes individuals whose gender identity conforms to societal expectations for the sex they were assigned at birth

Cognitive development theories:

emphasize that children's understanding of gender goes through stages corresponding to the development of cognitive skills For example, infants can distinguish female and male voices by 6 months of age, and female and male faces or photographs by 9 to 10 months of age

Social role theory:

emphasizes how gender roles are responses to, rather than causes of, different roles in society Also known as social structural theory Traditional roles have led to the development of cognitive and personality differences. For example, being a caregiver causes women to be more nurturing, as opposed to nurturing causing women to become caregivers.

Penis envy:

envy young girls experience when they realize they do not have a penis... She becomes angry and hostile toward her mother because she blames her mother for her "inferior" anatomy

Aromantic:

experience of little to no romantic attraction

Castration anxiety:

fear that one's penis will be cut off... According to Freud, hostility toward the father and fear of castration cause tremendous anxiety for the boy, and he eventually decides that, instead of getting rid of his father and marrying his mother, he would rather be like his father.

Gender schema theory:

focuses on how children integrate their network of assumptions about how people with different genders are supposed to think, feel, and act schemas generally involve stereotypes about what it means to behave in accordance with socially acceptable gender-aligned behaviors. As we'll see, when these schemas first develop during the pre-school years, they can be quite rigid

selection effects:

higher-achieving students are usually the ones placed in these kinds of educational settings in the first place. If they do better than those in co-ed settings, it's not clear whether this is due to single-sex education or the fact that they were high achieving to begin with.

Transitioning obstacles:

impediments outside of a person's control that influence when and if they're able to transition

Ethic of justice:

making moral judgments based on abstract principles of right and wrong

paternity uncertainty

men could never be 100% sure that a child was theirs

Gender identity:

one's understanding of oneself as gendered

Doing gender:

performing or enacting behaviors associated with a specific gender in day-to-day life rather than having a gender

Model minority:

seemingly positive stereotypes that Asian-American people are hard-working, smart, and overachieving

Binegativity:

social stigma directed specifically at bisexual people Bisexual individuals are often viewed with suspicion by both the straight and the lesbian/gay communities because of unstated assumptions that bisexual people in either gay or straight relationships will become unsatisfied and, ultimately, cheat.

Meta-analysis:

statistically combines results from a large number of studies Relies on effect size, which indicates how big or small a difference is

Meta-synthesis:

statistically combines the results of many meta-analyses

Social learning theories:

suggest that learning takes place in a social setting even when children aren't directly being reinforced or punished

Sexual strategies theory:

suggests gender differences in mate selectivity help to ensure the survival of the species Evolutionary Explanations for Differences (1)

gender bundle

suggests that aspects of sex/gender aren't necessarily ordered or connected in a meaningful way.

Attachment fertility theory:

suggests that early human survival was enhanced when women and men worked together to ensure the survival of their offspring Evolutionary Explanations for Differences (1)

Operant conditioning

suggests that gender develops when certain behaviors are reinforced and others are punished.

ambiguous loss,

the sense that they have lost a family member either physically or psychologi-cally, which leaves them grieving and searching for answers. After all, even though they still have a child, sibling, or parent, for example, they no longer have a son, sister, or mother.

Strategic essentialism:

the strategic support of gender essentialism to help support social causes that uniquely affect large numbers of women ex: women march of 2017

Sexuality shift stress:

the stressors associated with changes in sexual orientation as a function of gender transitioning

Gender constancy:

the understanding that even if a change in physical appearance takes place, a girl will still be a girl and a boy will still be a boy

Ethic of care:

thinking about how one's actions will affect interpersonal relationships and the well-being of other

effect size, or a d statistic:

this number indicates how big or small a difference is.

Misgender:

using a pronoun that doesn't accurately reflect the transperson's gender identity

Smurfette principle

was coined, in a New York Times article, to describe instances in which a single female character exists only in reference to the male characters in a book, movie, or television show

Self-fulfilling prophecy:

when expectations for how someone is going to behave actually influence their behavior, making those expectations become reality

File drawer problem:

when findings that are not statistically significant (i.e., fail to detect difference) are not reported