Exam 2 soc 110

Same-sex couples may experience an added stressor that can diminish the quality of their relationship.

Similar stressor to heterosexuals are about money, communication and other practical matters.• Added stressors are about social disapproval of homosexuality due to stigma

Alternative to family structure based on marriage and children gaining acceptance are:

Single parents cohabiting, biological parents with stepparent, parents who share custody, parents who are the same sex, and adults without children

Fatherhood bonus

The phenomenon in which men who have children have greater prospects for employment and earnings than men who do not have children, based on the assumption that fathers will be more mature

Motherhood penalty

The phenomenon in which women who have children have lower prospects for employment and earnings than women who do not have children, based on the assumption that mothers will be less dedicated, reliable, and competent employees

Same-sex unions are less sexually ________ than heterosexuals, especially for gay couples than lesbian couples.

exclusive

Cohabitation among mothers and their boyfriend

led to this family boundary ambiguity

Effects of a change in family structure can also extend to changes in other environments

like change in neighborhood, school, kin, and social networks

Researchers investigated developmental factors such as children's social and emotional adjustment, school outcomes, and romantic relationships in adolescence, as well as aspects of family life thought to support positive development. Studies reported

little or no difference between children being raised with same-sex or other types of families

Poverty is one of the most consistent predictors of childhood ______ all of which significantly reduce educational and occupational attainment in adulthood.

maladjustment, poor health, and academic failure,

The most hirable and promotable candidates are

men with children and women without children.

Parental leave is a subcategory

of Family Leave

This is because we interact more with others like ourselves in terms

of race/ethnicity, class, religion, political orientation, age. So this affects our partner choice.

Fecundity

the physical capacity to reproduce

Remarriage rate is declining somewhat, due to

the rise in cohabitation.

The new norms have changed, giving rise to the "hookup" culture.• Hooking up

Unplanned sexual relations between people who have little to no expectation that they are starting a relationship

Gay males view sexual monogamy

as less fundamental than emotional monogamy.

Others argue stepfamily abuse is not the remnant of an evolutionary drive but

it is the result of conflict over family issues.

that people living in conservative states tend to value marriage

more highly than those in other areas but also are more likely to experience social and economic stressors on making a marriage work. They also have an earlier marriages but also more divorces.

all marriages in the U.S. are a remarriage for at least one of the two people getting married

Half (50%) of

Intermittent devices like diaphragm, condom

Not reliable because of dislocation, tear, and unavailability for spontaneous contexts• Condoms effective for avoiding diseases.

Nonstandard work is related to children's odds of being

obese in the United States.

Two factors explaining the negative outcome of single-parent families are

the stigma and economic hardship

Union formation

typically begins in adolescence.

The following have been identified as personal or environmental factors related to an increased likelihood of teenage pregnancy

Low self-esteem Poverty (lack of knowledge or contraception, achieving valued status, thus motherhood as the only valued role within reach) •Substance abuse •Lack of future goals •Dysfunctional family relationships

Economics

Single-parent families have higher rates of poverty than other family structures not only because they rely on only one income but also because economically vulnerable people are more likely to become single parents.

The initial romantic relationships that form within these

networks are short-lived, but as adolescents age, their relationships become more durable and take on more mature qualities. -Functions: companionship, affiliation, to hangout with, connect to , and share with

social security

not enough adults paying SS taxes, too many elderly receiving a payments.

Employment—especially demanding or intensive work, stressful work conditions, and nonstandard schedules—can interfere with

the ability of mothers to actively manage their children's diet, activity, and sleep.

Family structure

the arrangement of a family household, as defined by the number and identities of people who live together

Total fertility rate (TFR):

the demographic calculation representing of the number of babies that a typical woman in a given population is likely to have over the course of her reproductive life

Median age at first birth

the demographic calculation representing the age by which roughly half of the population has had a child for the first time

No-difference hypothesis:

the label for the fairly consistent pattern in empirical studies that children being raised by same-sex couples do not have more positive or negative developmental outcomes than children being raised by two married biological parents

Children from low-income families often have better academic and behavioral outcomes when their mothers enter

the labor force, as long as their jobs are not low-quality.

Adoption

the process though which adults assume parental responsibilities for nonbiological children and are legally recognized as their parents

For most of U.S. history, the majority of women

were married. And the peak was 1950s where 2/3rd (67%) of females were married.

On a macro-level the pool of potential partners in community

who is available (race, age, profession, and etc.) but if a person does not want to marry, he or she won't despite the availability in the pool. That is because it is about how primed one is to marry.

Research has suggested that the children of ________ _________ have more flexible attitudes about gender roles than other children.

working mothers

Occupational autonomy

A job condition concerning the degree to which people have control /freedom over how and when they work prime them for marriage.

Cohabiting relationships are not durable. On average, they last a year, and then the couple breaks up or marries. Braking up is more

common for the couple with lower SES, while marriage is more common for the couples with higher SES.

Intergenerational cycle of poverty of single-parent families is also connected

to racial/ethnic inequality.

Sexual intercourse for those younger than 15 decline

to very few 1-in-10.

Contraception:

tools and practices to prevent a pregnancy while sexually active

The accumulation of changes in family structure poses more risks to children's healthy development than any particular family structure.

Change in family roles, routines, and economic circumstances engenders stress and distress in both parents and children

To make family leave less gender-neutral

For example, Canada has one year of protected Parental Leave for women after birth AND Family Leave policy for men and women.

Parenting is more difficult when done alone than with a partner.

For help single parents must turn to committed friends, siblings, or grandparents.

•Abortion in the U.S. is legal overall, based on ruling of Supreme

Roe v. Wade decision in 1973.

Research finds three differences between heterosexual and same-sex couples

Same-sex unions (formal or informal) tend to be characterized by a greater emphasis on equity than do formal unions between men and women related to gender-role organization due to partners being o the same gender.

Family boundary ambiguity

discrepancies in whether people in stepparent families refer to their relationships to each other using traditional family terms

It is stronger as we get older. Common grounds makes it

easier for love to grow.

Based on the data for 2013, the number of________ headed by same-sex couples is estimated to be around 726,000

households

The steady increase in age at first birth reflects changes in the economy and the growing proportion of women _______, which requires more education and career which means older parents, and smaller family size.

in the labor force

Currently, 28% of the children in the United States (nearly 21 million overall) live in single-parent families:

largely caused by divorce or births to unmarried women versus widowhood of the past.

The teen mothers would have followed similar pathways into adulthood EVEN IF

they had not had a child as a teenager. Or, children of teen mothers would follow similar developmental trajectories EVEVN IF they had been born when their mothers were in their 20s.

reason why a child in stepparent family might fare WORSE than a child raised by ____ ____ ____ is that being in a stepparent family means that a child experienced a number of changes to family structure and therefore far more stress

two married biological parents

Moynihan Report:

-The common name for a controversial government report— The Negro Family: The Case for National Action—authored in 1965 by a future U.S. senator. -It highlighted the potential role of single motherhood and out-of-wedlock childbearing in the persistent poverty of African American communities in the 20th Century.

About _____ women of diverse groups give birth in the U.S. every day.

11000

Race/ethnicity also differentiates children in terms of the family structures.

74% of White children and 85% of Asian American children live with 2 parents, compared to 1/3rd of African American children and 58% of Latino/a children

The belief that teen motherhood has negative consequences is a selection bias

Young age is not the cause of negative outcome (adjustment) for mother/child •Environmental/personal factors are the cause of negative outcome (adjustment) for mother/child

The power to control fertility not only has been a fundamental factor

in the recent decline and delay of fertility worldwide but also has had an enormous impact on the social position of women in the world.

More than 50% of adolescents in the United States have had a romantic relationship within a given year, with three fourths (75%)

of those relationships occurring among those in their late teens.

Theories about work and family roles have long been squarely focused

on gender, often in ways that reinforced traditional gender stereotypes.

Unintended Pregnancy:

-The rate of unintended pregnancies for all U.S. women between the ages of 15 and 44 is 45 per 1,000. -Majority of unintended pregnancies occur most often among race/ethnic minority women (African Americans and Latinas) compared with about 40% among white women. -The reason for this disparity is due to inequality - differential accessto health care and to accurate information about birth control.

National data have revealed that the academic functioning and mental health of adolescents is better when

their mothers hold jobs with steady pay and benefits.

The graph shows women in their mid to late 20's, who have greater freedom at work,

their odds of marriage is also greater. This dose not apply to women of other age group or men of any age group. This suggest that men have less concern about work-family tensions.

Regardless of whether someone chooses to leave the workforce or is pushed out (fired), women who take breaks from employment while rearing young children typically struggle

to make up for lost time and earnings when they do return.

dysfunctional families

describe families that did not comply to what he saw as the complementary role structure.

Homophily:

the tendency for humans to be attracted to and have more positive views of other people who are similar to them.

Abortion:

the termination of a pregnancy, primarily through surgical or medical means

In provinces where leave is not specific to fathers and in which fathers can transfer it to partners,

only 20%of fathers take it.

The single most important factor for boys and girls in the success rate of a stepparent family is the____ _____ between stepparent and stepchild.

quality of the relationship

Congress mandated an experimental evaluation of programs in sexual education and sexual health programs in Mississippi, Florida, Wisconsin, and Virginia high schools to review the effectives of sexual health education courses and abstinence-only courses. What were the findings of the evaluation?

Overall, there were no differences between the sexual health education and abstinence-only courses with regard to sexual engagement and pregnancy.

Cohabitation as a marriage substitute has ______ and the image of well-to-do urban liberals cohabiting in lieu of marriage is largely a myth.

not taken hold in America

Open adoptions

an adoption process in which adopted children and their biological parents have access to the identities of and information about each other

Number of children available for adoption has declined due to increased availability of birth control and abortion, and acceptance of having and

raising children outside marriage.

Homogamy:

the tendency for humans to marry (partner choice) and form romantic relationships with highly similar partners

Partial birth abortion:

a type of procedure in which a late-term fetus is removed from the mother's uterus intact -This is rare and is performed only when the fetus is not viable or the mother's life is in danger

For a long time, family structure did not differ substantially by socioeconomic status;

now, children from higher socioeconomic families are far more likely to live with two parents than children from lower SES.

Sterilization is the most effective:

tubal ligation - closing of fallopian tubes for women. Or vasectomy sealing off of vasa deferentia for men

Although this theory can be gender neutral but because of gender stereotypes present in American culture and inequalities in the labor market, this theory is not gender-neutral.

Gender specialization theory

Increase in women's participation in the paid labor force in recent decades has been dramatic

-African American women have had the highest labor force participation rate throughout American history. - Latinas have had lower rates than whites and African Americans. - White middle-class women have experienced the most significant increase in labor force.

About ____ of American women are involuntarily childless.

10%

the median age at first birth in the U.S. in 1970 was

22.1 for half of the females. In 2010 the media age was over 25.

Currently, __ of same-sex couples in the United States have children living with them, with lesbian couples more likely than gay couples to be parents.

27%

Remarriage rate is higher than the marriage rate:

37/1000 versus 31/1000

Of course, love and personal connection matter to marriage, but

social scientists emphasize that a number of more practical considerations also come into play.

Sexual intercourse for teens ages 15-19 slightly but

steadily declining to 47%.

Racial/ethnic disparities seen in family life are more likely to be based on socioeconomic status than solely on race/ethnicity.

Ex: African Americans socioeconomics status is different from Whites, but similar to Latino/as. Latino/as family structures is similar to Whites.

women after giving birth

-79% of working mothers are back in the labor force a year after giving birth. Due to becoming mother they take a break or "opt out" rather than actually exiting the labor force. -Most mothers work when they have children -Mothers are more likely to work when their children are older vs. young•Stay-at-home mothers are a minority (29%) of the full population. -One study had men and women keep time diaries before and after becoming parents. The data showed that women's total work time (family work + market work) goes up 3 times much as men's total work time, a difference that equals nearly 600 hours over the year.

Flexibility stigma

the vulnerability that women who use flexible schedules will be viewed as insufficiently devoted to work

Even though teen birth rates have declined steeply in the United States, a stigma surrounding teen motherhood persists due to

the widely held belief that having a baby as a teen ruins a girl's chances for future social mobility and leads to less than optimal development for her children.

Low TFR could mean that

there will not be enough workers, spenders, and taxpayers to drive the economy and not enough young adults to create population growth. U.S. is in that direction.

Types of Adoptions in the United States

-25 private international -38 private domestic -37 public foster care

Stigma:

Historically, one factor linking single-parent families to poorer outcomes for children is the stigma of single parenthood. These families see themselves as deviants from the ideal type

is it cohabitation that leads to divorce after marriage or other factors that prelude the marriage?

Conflict over gender roles and the division of household chores in cohabiting relationships that prelude the marriage, •Lack of support for cohabiting partnership •Age at which couple began cohabiting. Partnering young without sufficient maturity is problem •Different perspectives (religious and political) and values of those who chose to cohabit

This study_____ ____ attribute poverty to the harsh legacy of African American discrimination, but it did argue that single-parent families had helped to create a culture of poverty that trapped children in a cycle of disadvantage.

DID NOT

Before: marriage-divorce-remarriage-and then, perhaps redivorce

Now: cohabitation-marriage-divorce-cohabitation-remarriage

Women who delay starting a family for career reasons are often in a better financial position to find medical solutions to infertility or alternatives to having a baby.

Reasons: uterine abnormalities, low sperm production, genetic abnormalities, damage to reproductive organs due to infectious diseases, exposure to certain pollutants, obesity, delay and aging into 30s and 40s.

Teen fertility rate:

The demographic calculation representing the number of births per 1,000 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 in a given year

The benefit of delay is having more resources.

The risk side of being older parent is facing more physical challenges. Also, smaller families means less sources of future support and help.

Historically, multigenerational households were rare because of high mortality rates; as mortality rates declined, the prevalence of multigenerational households rose slightly and it did a high during WWII (25% of all household), then declined in the rest of the 20th century.

Then with the economic recession of the late 2000s, the prevalence of multigenerational families rose again, increasing by 2.4 million to a post-World War II peak (16% of all households)

Intrauterine devices (IUD), hormonal pills, patches, or injections (LARCs, long-acting reversible contraceptives)

These are effective because of durability and no need for forethought

Just as work factors into marriage, it also factors into divorce how so ?

Today, both adults in a marriage are usually employed in the paid labor force and have both work and family roles which sometimes create marital friction.

Wanted pregnancy

a pregnancy that occurs to a woman who desires to have a child (62%).

Planned pregnancy:

a pregnancy that occurs to a woman who wants to get pregnant and is not using birth control (50%)

Obesity is the one child outcome that seems to be affected by

a range of maternal work characteristics.

Cohabitation:

a romantic relationship in which partners live together but are not legally married

Latino/a children are significantly more likely than White or African American children to be raised by

a single father alone.

One of the biggest concerns—in public discussion, court cases, and among family scholars—has been about what happens to children in

families headed by same-sex partners.

TFR is determine by

marriage, contraceptive use, and fecundity

Majority of single-parent families ((87%) are headed by their

mothers

Sexual exclusivity

the degree to which partners in a couple engage in sex only with each other.

Of the 28% of the children living in single-parent families,

70% are poor and have a parent who were economically vulnerable themselves. And because poverty lowers life chances for success, then single parenthood is a mechanism for transmitting poverty to the next generation.

Delay in first birth is partially explained by the delay in marriage.

In U.S. Traditional pattern of women waiting to enter marriage before having children is becoming a thing of the past.•2010 Census show 44% of American women had had a baby by age 25 but only 38% of women age 25 had married.

However abortion is regulated by states. Although they cannot ban it but they can make it difficult to obtain by:

Setting time limits in terms of the stage of pregnancy Ban partial birth abortion Mandated abortion clinics to meet the facility standards of ambulatory care and abortion providers to have surgical privileges at a hospital, even though abortion is not a surgical procedure. This la resulted in reduction of abortion and 3/4th of abortion providers in Texas shut down.

Remarriage Rate in the United States, by Gender and Educational Attainment

Table

High TFR like the case for China could mean that already scarce resources will be spread too thin

The fear is the inability to feed and shelter everyone.

42% of American adults have a step relative -stepsibling, stepparent, stepchild

The higher socioeconomic status is associated with a lower percentage of step relative

Research has demonstrated how people perpetuate gender roles: for example

Unemployed husbands of employed wives did less housework than employed husbands. This could be due to preserving self-esteem of unemployed male partner by avoiding gender-deviant behavior.

Family and Medical Leave Act

a 1993 federal law providing limited family leave rights to some classes of workers but without the right to be paid while out of work .

Another job characteristic, nonstandard work—

a category of jobs with hours outside of normal daytime work windows, such as night work or weekend work, and/or inconsistent schedules—is a clear risk factor for divorce

Evolutionary thesis of stepparent abuse:

a contested theoretical framework suggesting that the higher than average incidence of child abuse by stepfathers reflects the evolutionary drive to remove the children of other men from competition with their own biological children

Familism

a cultural value emphasizing family ties, which is especially strong in Latin America - this explains the 2 married biological parent family as a common form. However, the slavery destabilized African American families and led to validating family forms beyond the 2 parent family, and value communal family forms with strong extended family networks that help with child care, financial support, and the supervision of children.

Stepparent family

a family structure in which one parent of either gender is rearing one or more children with a newpartner who is not the children's other parent

Single-parent family

a family structure in which one parent of either gender is rearing one or more children without a partner

Workplace flexibility

a job condition in which employees have control over where, when, and how much to work to meet performance goals

In vitro fertilization:

a laboratory technique in which a woman's egg is fertilized by a man's sperm in a glass dish and then inserted into the uterus of that woman or another woman to carry to term

For most of the 20th century, around ¾ of the children

but just over 2/3do so today. Traditional family structure is changing.

Talcott Parsons coined the term

dysfunctional families

In his 1996 book Life Without Father, David Popenoe articulates the perspective that each parent in the traditional family is considered to possess special___ ___ ___ toward a child's successful development, and those contributions are strengthened by the parent's biological ties to the child

gender-related contributions

Paid parental leave

government or workplace policies that allow mothers and fathers to take time off after having a child without loss of earnings or fear of job loss

Family leave

government or workplace policies that allow people to take time off for any family responsibility, not just after childbirth, without fear of job loss

We have the highest teen pregnancy in the developed world due to

persistent of poverty, lack of opportunities for major sections of the population, powerful cultural factors (motherhood as a value for women), and tendency to treat teen sexuality as a social problem that must be controlled rather than discussed openly.

high-quality time spent between parents and children is also among the benefits when there is

supportive employers or partners.

Replacement level:

the demographic calculation representing the number of births that are needed to replace all mothers and fathers in the next generation so that the population replenishes itself rather than shrinks

Remarriage rate:

the demographic calculation representing the proportion of marriages per 1,000 adults who have been previously married in a year

Marriage rate

the demographic calculation representing the proportion of marriages per 1,000 unmarried women, aged 15 years and older, in a year

Sporadic use of contraceptives is a major factor in

the higher rate of teen pregnancy in this country relative to that of other developed countries.

A pattern that has arisen from cohabitation research is that when cohabitation does lead to marriage,_________ a marriage not preceded by cohabitation

the marriage seems to be less likely to last than

Infertility:

the physical inability of women to conceive or to carry a pregnancy to full term or the physical inability of men to impregnate a woman

Abstinence:

the practice of avoiding sexual intercourse

In a 2006 essay published in AmericanPsychologist, Gregory Herek argued that same-sex couples' rearing of children was harmful because gay parents were denied

the right to marry and the legal, economic, and social benefits that come with marriage were integral to children's successful development outcomes.

Cohabitation in the United States strongly tends ___________________________________________ it is more likely to lead to having children outside wedlock and with multiple partners.

to be a step toward marriage and parenthood at the high end of the socioeconomic spectrum while at the low end,

Not only do couples have fewer babies, they delay -

wait much longer to have them than they did in the past

Does employment affect whether you marry?

yes

Who is counted as family according to a survey:

•An unmarried man and woman living together having a child. For most people having a child and being married was the defining factor for being a family. A married man and woman A single parent with children Same sex-couple with children Single person with a pet

The nearly 50 million Americans who currently reside in multigenerational households are split between three types:

-47% live in a home with two adult (age 25 +) generations. -47% live in a home with three or more generations of family members, including children. -6% are in homes with a grandparent generation and child generation but no one in between— arrangements often referred to as skipped-generation households .

teen birth

1970s rate was 70 births for 1000 teens-"babies having babies"• Today's rate is 24 births for1000 teens-5% of births are to teen girls. •Today, the teen pregnancy rate is at an all-time low because of: less frequent sexual activity among teens, better contraception, more pregnancy prevention programs.

Replacement level worldwide is____ so that it replaces mothers and fathers, since babes will not always survive into adulthood and have babies of their own.

2

hookups include

40% include sexual intercourse• 60% oral sex, genital touching• Part of sexual life of young adults not adolescents •More males than females have orgasm in hookups. Women have more •Likelihood of having orgasm for women is higher in the context of a relationship than a hookup but finding shows no difference for men.

Majority of Latino/as children live in 2 parent family but Like African Americans,

42% of Puerto Rican children live with a 2 parent family.

Now, less than half (47%) of U.S. females are married. The majority are college graduate:

56% are Asian American women 51% are White women 43% are Latina women 26% are African American women

The spread of regular contraception use throughout the world has been one of the major trends of the 20th century

First blocked by legal restrictions in many states that banned the sale of contraceptives as well as the federal Comstock law that criminalized the shipment of contraceptives considered immoral. But it was reversed by U.S. Supreme Court, Griswold v. Connecticut ruling in 1965.

Intensive mothering

A contemporary parenting ideology with high expectations for the physically, emotionally, and financially taxing work that women must do to be considered good mothers

Independence hypothesis

A theoretical framework articulating how paid employment increases the odds that women will not marry or divorce when they do marry - (if they are in a bad marriage)

Theory of marriage

A theoretical framework explaining that people marry based on their individual-level (micro) factors, shaping how ready they are to marry, their preferences for marriage, how attractive they are to others, and the connections between all three

Gender specialization theory

A theoretical framework positing that family stability and success are maximized when one partner specializes at home and the other at work (Gary Becker,1981)

Gender perspective

A theoretical framework positing that norms about gender and other social positions (race, class, age, sexuality, disability and other inequality relations) influence the ways men and women approach family and work roles.

Family and Medical Leave Act the policy is insufficient because:

A) The guaranteed 12 weeks' leave is unpaid. B) Requirements and exemptions leave only 20 percent of new mothers eligible. C) Some states in the United States have enacted more supportive leave policies than the federal law. Ex: California and New Jersey have enacted more supportive leave that includes sustained pay, but these policies are only a few weeks in duration.

Many countries provide up to 12 months of paid leave. The benefits of parental leave are:

A) decreases in premature birth and child mortality B) increased breastfeeding and birth weight C) benefits to parents' emotional and physical health

Reason eligible men are reluctant to take paid parental leave:

A) fear that it will affect their careers B) concern it will be seen as unmasculine C) feel that they don't need it

The effect of workplace flexibility are

A) generally healthier workplace B) increased productivity and efficiency C) reduced work-family conflict

Children typically fare better when their parents and stepparents ______ _____ rather than cohabiting.

are married

Some evidence does suggest that more control over schedules can reduce aspects of work

family conflict, such as being able to spend more time with children while not reducing work productivity. Benefits tend to be stronger for women.

The old thinking was that women working in the labor force would lower their odds of marriage by reducing their personal economic needs and also by making them less attractive spouses but

Over time, this pattern shifted as more women entered the labor force and their opportunities for earnings increased. Consequently, women's earnings now promote their marital odds

The process of union formation in young adulthood now involves much more sexual experimentation and more sexual partners during a young person's 20s than previous generations.

This is the function of delayed marriage, and social norms of sexual freedom.

Family stress perspective:

a theoretical framework positing that the disruption of multiple family structure changes over time, has the strong potential to undermine the development of children

Remarriage rates are particularly high

among men, especially highly educated men. This is due to their powerful role and tendency to benefit more from marriage than other men or women.

•Most adolescents today,

delay sex until they are partnered with someone in an official relationship and have sex only with that partner.

Studies confirmed many of the ________ _______ often thought to be associated with single parent family structure, includes problem behavior, poor physical health, low school achievement, mental health issues, and delayed cognitive growth

developmental risks