Exam 3

understanding the problem: initial state and obstacles the New York elevator problem NY elevator solution paying attention to important information Bransford & Stein, 1984: algebra and college students bus driver complicated story about people getting on and off and asked what is the driver's name

*initial state: "I need to reach Jim tonight so that we can work on our social psychology presentation, but I don't know his last name, his email, or his phone number..." *obstacles: "Jim wasn't in class yesterday, the draft is due in 2 days, the professor said she was going to be away today..." •special circumstances often require a different set of solutions than the normal one... Complaints about slow elevators ...and most of the proposed solutions were expensive -But were they really too slow? -Perhaps people just thinkthey are too slow.... -What else is there to do while waiting, except to think about waiting?!.... the solution: mirrors •the real problem wasn't the speed of the elevators, but the boredom of waiting for them.... ***defining the problem is key in problem solving— reaching the core of the problem One cognitive task (problem solving) often relies on other cognitive tasks -> ATTENTION, MEMORY, PROBLEM SOLVING often includes making a decision about which information is the most relevant... •story problems... •"train traveling north, car traveling south..." •"Sue has 15 raffle tickets that she wants to give to to 4 friends..." •algebra story problemsto college students •major obstacle: lack of attn •distracting negative thoughts persisted during the task ("I hate these algebra problems") *Effective problem solvers: •read the problem carefully •pay attention to inconsistencies •scan strategically to decide which information is most important (i.e., not a trial-and-error approach) attention is a necessary initial component of problem-solving

embodied cognition approach the two ropes problem •Other factors that influence problem-solving •Mental set •functional fixedness •gender stereotypes FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PROBLEM-SOLVING: MENTAL SET why are these numbers arranged in this order? 8 5 4 9 1 7 factors that influence problem solving-mental set, the water jar problem An unconscious tendency to approach a problem in a particular way....

We often use our own body and our own motor actions in order to express our abstracts thoughts and knowledge •Can solve problems more quickly/accurately when we move parts of our body ex) using motion to come up with the word metronome •Mental rotation problems are solved more accurately when participants are allowed to use their hands The problem: •2 cords attached to ceiling •Goal: tie 2 ends together •Obstacle: cords placed far enough apart that you cannot reach both •Participants can use other objects in the room -could save given hint People are more likely to be able to solve if they had been instructed during "an exercise break" to "move their arms in a swinging motion" --EMODIED COGNITION •Mental set •functional fixedness •gender stereotypes -all involve the overuse of top down processing MENTAL SET: using the same solution from previous problems to solve a new problem •even though asimpler methodis out there.... •closing your mind too soon... •relying too much on past experiences -> overactive top down processing Your "mental set" probably suggested to look for a mathematical solution -but the answer is language based (alphabetical) •The Water Jar Problem" (Luchins, 1942) •How do you measure out the right amount of water using 3 jars? •JAR A •JAR B •JAR C -WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW CAN HURT YOU... --try to use same mental set but doesn't work for last row so need a new solution aka mental set examples: •You're doing your statistics homework and you start a problem the same way as your instructor showed you in class.... •Your computer isn't working properly, so you restart it because that's what you usually do •Your desk lamp isn't working, so you change the lightbulb....

my-side bias knew it all along-hind sight bias hindsight bias hindsight bias study by Carli the story then memory test evidence of hindsight bias other findings of hindsight bias using

•a form of confirmation bias + overconfidence •involves confrontational, important situations •So confident in our own position, cannot even contemplate opponent's position may be at least partially correct.... • evaluating evidence through lens of your own beliefs •requires effort to overcome; use of type 2 thinking the tendency to overestimate the ability to predict an outcome which could not have been possibly predicted Hindsight: judgements about events that have already happened Hindsight bias: we say that what has happened was inevitable --Overconfidence: "I-knew-it-all-along" But this is easier when once you know how a decision has turned out! ***Problem: often includes misremembering/reconstructing the past to match our current knowledge Study by L. Carli (1999) Cognitive Reconstruction, Hindsight, and Reactions to Victims and Perpetrators -Using a hypothetical situation to test hindsight bias •Participants read a story about "Barbara and Jack" •Identical story with 2 different endings •half participants: story has tragic ending, rape •half participants: story has happy ending, marriage proposal After reading the story, participants take unannounced T/F memory test: --Some T/F questions about actual events that took place in the story --Other T/F questions about stereotypical events that did nottake place: •Either consistent with marriage-proposal scenario, e.g., "Barbara wanted a family very much" •Or consistent with rape scenario, e.g., "Barbara met many men at parties" Evidence of hindsight bias •P's asked to indicate what they would have predicted if they had not been given the outcome •Over half participants reported they "could have predicted" the version of scenario that they read... •P's answers on T/F questions conform to the version outcome they read •memory errors—intrusions-- consistent with the story ending; reconstructing the past to justify the ending! •Remember: untrue events described in questions were stereotypical •How might this explain "blaming the victim"?" --jury decision-making --medical diagnoses --business decisions

decision making vs deductive reasoning decision making bat and ball cost-Kahneman& Frederick (2002) •Part 2: Heuristics in Decision Making: Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman dual process theory dual process theory: type II 3 heuristics in decision making

"Decision-making" much different from deductive reasoning : UNCERTAINTY --No clear cut rules/conclusions --the correct decision often ambiguous --Have to take other info into account -- (vs. propositional calculus) Here is a question: A bat and ball cost $1.10. The bat costs one dollar more than the ball. How much does the ball cost? An answer came to your mind...what was it? Just like 50% of students at Havard, MIT & Princeton; up to 80% at other universities BUT...... --intuitive, easy, appealing answer but is wrong do the math --tend to be cognitive misers--expend little energy --disrationalia-the tendency to think and bah irrationally, despite having adequate intelligence •Nobel prize in 2002, decision making (economics) •we use a small number of heuristicsto guide our decision-making •usually efficient •but also lead to cognitive errors, which we often fail to appreciate! Distinguishing between 2 types of processing... Type 1 Processing: fast & automatic -•little conscious attention; instinctive—think of "2 + 2" •For example: •expression recognition •depth perception •often stereotypes Type 2 Processing: slow & controlled •focused attention; effortful •typically more accurate •when thinking of exceptions to a general rule... •when we realize a Type 1 response was wrong... •pause and shift to Type 2 when more effortful approach is needed...."bat & ball problem" •and conditional reasoning problems -rational •Representativeness •Availability •Anchoring & Adjustment

results: Neuschatzet al (2002) take home message about schemas in class boundary extension demo why is boundary extension in the chapter about general knowledge boundary extension: Intraub et al, 1996: "Wide-angle memories of close-up scenes"

1) more accurate memory foratypical actions --swat at a fly, whistle, feet on desk, dance across room 2) BUT ALSO, participants more likely to falsely remember typical actions read from book, rub chin, erase whiteboard •rate of false memory increases with time... immediate, 48 hours, 1 week .10, .24, .26 (mean proportion recognition Results are a mixed bag... Consistent vs. Inconsistent information READ SUMMARY bottom of p. 300 minor event, limited time accurate memory for schema-consistent info but not schema-inconsistentinfo people seldom create a completely false memory... when inconsistent information is surprising, people are likely to remember it Boundary Extension— memory illusion created by schemas we tend to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than was originally shown Why? memory illusion created by schemas we tend to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than was originally shown Why? Partial view activates schema Illustrates top-down schematic knowledge in memory So far, recognition tasks (class demo)... Also, drawing tasks... 7 scenes depicting single objects participants view an image for 15 seconds then, asked to draw "exactly what they saw" (object and background) -Drawings provide a more wide-angle view -Unconscious PREDICTION-MAKING— Reflects our expectations of the broader physical world

the framing effect: effect go background info effect of background info example 1 effect of background info example 2 If decision makers were perfectly rational, how would they respond to both problems? the framing effect: wording of questions, gain and losses prospect theory prospect theory example

1.Imagine that you decided to see a concert and you paid $20 for the admission price of one ticket. You are about the enter the theater, when you discover that you cannot find your ticket. The theater doesn't keep a record of ticket purchases, so you cannot simply get another ticket. You have $60 in your wallet. -Would you pay $20 for another ticket for the concert? 2. Imagine that you decided to buy a ticket for a concert; the ticket will cost $20. You go to the theater box office. Then you open your wallet and discover that a $20 bill is missing. (Fortunately, you still have $40 left in your wallet.) -Would you pay $20 for a ticket for the concert? 46% of people would pay for another ticket -frame: Spending $20 twice for the same ticket—not acceptable 88% of people would pay for another ticket -frame: The lost $20 is irrelevant to the ticket...seems okay answer: IDENTICALLY But the background info provides different FRAMES wording of the questions (disease cure example in textbook, p. 477)—disease that will kill 600 people --When faced with gains leads to people avoid risks, choose certainty (frame: lives saved) •When faces with losses leads to people tend to seek risks (frame: lives lost; deaths) •losses have greater emotional impact us than gains do Tversky and Kahneman (1981) -So, given choices presented two ways — with both offering the same statistical result — an individual will pick the option offering perceived gains. •Prospect theory sometimes called "loss-aversion theory" Here are 2 options: 1. You are given $25 cash 2. You are given $50 cash, and then you lose $25 Which would you choose? *people are more likely to chose receiving the straight cash --•a single gain seems more favorable than initially having more cash and then suffering a loss. ---notice the end result is the same

2 factors that influence availability: How many people die each year from thefollowing causes? Availability Heuristic: Brown & Siegler (1992) the lottery: what role does availability play? heuristics review representativeness heuristic example availability heuristic

2. familiarity: we tend to overrate the likelihood of highly familiar events --"If a random word is taken from an English text, is it more likely that the word starts with a K, or that K is the third letter?" •Kangaroo, Kitchen, Kale (p's OVERESTIMATE) •Examples come to mind easily •acKnowledge, asK, anKle(p's UNDERESTIMATE) •Examples come to mind more slowly...but it's not because they're more infrequent •True statistic is: 2X as more words w/ K as 3rd letter overestimate tornado and fireworks but underestimate drowning and asthma •higher population estimates for countries "in the news" •El Salvador vs. Indonesia: •people make similar estimates, although...Indonesia 35X as large •MATLIN: Ask your friends: population of Israel vs. Cambodia •(7.4M versus 14.8M) •distortion due to media coverage...Israel more in the news than Cambodia getting all 6 numbers right 1 in 25 mill vs 3 numbers right get $3 *high availability of winners but rarely see losers When we need to make a decision, we often use a heuristicthat is simple, fast, and easy to access. We are mostly rational—but we often apply heuristics too broadly RESULT: we often ignore other relevant info that is important-probability and statistics tom is an engineer based on description? -given the relative size of the fields, it would be better to predict that tom was a student in a larger filed (health profession) -instead Instead, people pick up on Tom's characteristics, and identify them with the stereotypes of computer scientists and engineers... May sometimes be correct, but often they are wrong A heuristic that we use when making judgments about the frequency of an event A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind... -thinking always traffic on central expressway

boundary extension is a robust effect; participants extend boundaries drawings incorporate visual info outside of boundary based on our expectations, experience boundary extension is a other applications of boundary extension deductive reasoning deductive reasoning: conditional reasoning deductive reasoning: conditional reasoning luckily

30% on avg schemas memory illusion eyewitness settings --Recalling features, not actually visible --Reporting a complete target, even when view blocked by crowded scene "filling in the blanks" recalling schema consistent images •A specific type of decision-making •AKA: logical reasoning •Given a set of premises (statements), can you draw a particular conclusion? One of the most common types of deductive reasoning: •Conditional reasoning (aka: propositional reasoningtask) •involves the relationship between two conditions: •If .......... then ......... •Task is to judge whether the conclusion is validor invalid EXAMPLE: IF a child is allergic to peanuts, THEN eating peanuts produces a breathing problem. A child has a breathing problem. Therefore, this child has eaten peanuts. • •In this case, it is not valid, because... •these kinds of decisions occur frequently in daily life •surprisingly difficult to solve correctly in this propositional form •Luckily...there are rulesthat apply to conditional reasoning tasks •A formal processfor making a decision

functional fixedness carl Duncker-gestalt psychologist "functional fixedness" errors due to top down processing also include: stereotypes about own abilities gender stereotypes and math problem solving stereotype threat gender stereotypes and math problem similar results in other studies

Assigning stable uses to an object....and failing to think about the features of anobject that might be helpful in solving aproblemin a new context •only seeing usualuses and not potentialuses due to overactive top-down processing the candle problem HOW TO AFFIX CANDLE TO THE WALL, SO THAT WAX DOES NOT DRIP ONTO THE TABLE? •CANDLE •BOOK OF MATCHES BOX OF THUMBTACKS to solve must overcome functional fixedness of the box of thumbtacks gender stereotypes •beliefs and opinions that we associate with female and males •Who's better at math? Hyde et al., 2008(p. 427) •analyzed standardized math test scores •7.2M US students, 2nd-11th grade •Result: consistent gender similarities for all ages •results also apply to international samples... •females earn highergrades in math, elementary through college •females do not associate themselves with mathematics •even math majors If you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think about your membership in that group—your performance may suffer. sterotype—-> anxiety—->less effective problem-solving •Shih et al, 1999 (p. 428) •PARTICIPANTSare all Asian American female college students (stereotype: Asian Americans are "good at math" Women are "bad at math") •EXPT. TASK: p's take a challenging math test, under 3 different conditions •IV: type of "pre-test" given to participants •"ethnicity emphasis" condition: answer a series of questions about their ethnic identity •"gender emphasis" condition: answer a series of questions about their gender •control group: no pre-test -asian reminders showed higher performance •O"Brien and Crandall (2003), p. 429 •IV: information given during instructions •"test known to show higher scores for men than women" •"test known to show no gender differences" •RESULTS..........first group significantly worse than second group

prospect theory broad app the cellphone wars overconfidence overconfidence in politicians overconfidence-the rest of us too crystal ball technique overconfidence: completing projects

Broad application to consumer decisions...we value gains, shun away from losses -people take money out of stock market when prices dip— avoiding losses at all costs -advertising takes advantage of this: "fear of missing out"--FOMO Putting prospect theory to work -Fear of missing out... Avoiding a loss Our confidence judgments are higher than they should be, based on our actual performance. -Illusory correlations -Eyewitness testimony -Metamemory **General knowledge: 77% overconfident Politicians: We expect our politicians/leaders to exude confidence...but they are often overconfidentabout their decisions -Overconfidence has consequences -Failure to to consider the risks involved in international conflicts; both sides overestimatetheir own chances of success -Other policies Housing crisis in 2007-2009 was largely caused by overconfidence •"Titanic is unsinkable" •Challengerspace shuttle disaster—NASA over-optimism a factor •Think of a time when your overconfidence led you astray... A Method for reducing overconfidence; a de-biasingtechnique •An alternativelook into the future •Try imagining that your hypothesis is wrong •Then, search for alternative explanations and find evidence to support them •Similar to idea of having "dissenting views in the room" People create optimistic scenarios that represent the ideal way that things will go... planning fallacy: underestimating the amount of time/money required to complete a project; underestimate difficulty as well Strategies to prevent: •Estimate time for each part •Envision each step in the process •Visualize another person completing the process

belief bias effect: handling the unbelievable Belief-Bias Effect: Individual differences confirmation bias: are humans rational confirmation bias: preference for confirming a hypothesis, rather than disproving it confirmation bias: belief example confirmation bias: classic research-Wason'sSelection Task: The Four-Card Task

Definition of belief bias effect: An error in reasoning that occurs when people make judgments based on prior beliefs and general knowledge, rather than on the rules of logic... •lowscores on a testsof intelligence and test on flexible thinking: "No one can talk me out of something I know is right..." •highscores on test of flexible thinking: •take into consideration any evidence that goes against their beliefs •ability to actively block everyday knowledge •willingness to look for faulty logic We take shortcuts; and often go around the harder work of "rationality" •So...we tend to interpret info to match our preconceptions... --making our life easier cognitive misers preference for confirminga hypothesis, rather than disprovingit •Often, we'd rather know what isversus what isn't •turning a blind eye to info that doesn't confirm our beliefs •actively seeking out confirmatory evidenceand assigning it more weight... •For example, where do you get your news? •Experiment: try reading editorial pages from news sources that are more conservative or liberal than you are... BELIEF: During a full moon there is an increase in admissions to hospital emergency rooms where you work •take notice of admissions during a full moon •BUT inattentiveto admissions during other nights during the month •over time, strengthens your belief in relationship between full moon and accidents....affects memory/recall •4 cards are sittingon a table •2 are letter-sideup; 2 are number-side up RULE: For these four cards, If a card has a vowel on its letter side, it has an even number on its number side ***notice antecedent/consequence construction: conditional reasoning

IV 2 results diagrams: which is more helpful buddhist monk mountain problem most research on solving problems based on additional factors (2) the situated cognition approach the situated cognition approach-brazilian kids selling candy example situated cognition approach: this is why Context-free computational problems

Difficulty (# of steps) Fewer steps to complete , ~ 7 More steps to complete, 20+ images add useful concrete info, more helpful with many moves required pictures Trying to use a mathematical solution (rates & distances)will not work... To solve: "Picture" the problem •create a graph to represent abstract info in a concrete fashion... --visualizing simplifies knowledge & information that we have attained through reading & listening... -situated cognition: info from env, context, life knowledge/experiences -embodied cognition: using our own bodies to express and represent knowledge -We use helpful info from immediate environmentto create spatial representations -contextas a 'driver' of problem-solving •cognition takes advantage of information-rich environment •real life experience often provides the information needed to solve problems •Studies from Brazil: children selling candy (e.g., Wall, 2002; p. 414) •complex ratio calculation at 10 years old •no formal schooling... •Box of candy bars = 20,000 Brazilian cruzeiros •2 bars for 500, but 5 for 1000 *Problem embedded in real life -> solutions out of necessity ability to solve a problem is often tied to specific physical and social context in which we learned to solve the problem are often difficult to solve Implications for education: •"authentic math problems" •role of internships for older students

mock trial experiment-of note and also the real world of decision making ecological rationality graph of organ donation consent rate default heuristic The beauty of the preselected option (default heuristic) framing probabilities seem different

Of note: •judges had average of 15 years experience •judges were explicitly informed that the "prosecutor" was a computer science student Also: •Judges handed down similar sentence lengths as other participants—expertise not a factor •we use heuristics to make adaptive decisions in the real world •It's true that people are not perfectly rational decision makers, •especially under time-pressure •YET....people do relatively well overall •Gigerenzer and colleagues •Argues people may do better in naturalistic settings Ecological Rationality Use of heuristics is an adaptive response to real life! •Can you imagine notusing any heuristics? •We need simple strategies--optimization not always an option •Seeking solutions that are "good enough" •our decisions "make sense" in the context of the environment we live in....for many routine situations, heuristics are fine! •lab versus real world -linda problem is conjunction fallacy but would have ecological validity One of the most well-known graphs in the behavioral economics community— --Johnson & Goldstein, 2003 Gigerenzer(2008) - organ donation in France versus The United States •In U.S., must sign up, so most people remain in non-donor category(40%) •In France, must opt out, so most people remain in donor category(99%) •"opt in " versus "opt out" Default heuristic:if there is a standard option, which requires doing nothing, people will choose it., nudge behavior • •Environment affects decision-making •Sticking with the status quo; not making changes • the "yeah, whatever" heuristic -voting, privacy settings, 401ks The role of "context" in decision-making The way the same informationis presented to us has an impact on how we process and react to it. --affects our choices/decisions -20% fat v 80% fat free Probabilities seem different, depending on how they are framed •Background information provided •Wording/ phrasing of a question

exemplar approach prototype v exemplar exemplar approach exemplar approach and typicality exemplar approach-if exemplar is less typical Comparing Prototype vs Exemplar approaches exemplar approaches do not need, argues that

Our concepts consist of separate representations of experienced examples of a category—-exemplars First: learn information about somespecific example(s)of a concept Later: we classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it resembles all of those specific examples -Prototype: we store in memory an "idealized version" of a particular concept; not necessarily like one you've seen before....an abstraction -Exemplar: we store in memory information about numerous examples of a concept, typical and atypical, then classify new items based on these examples...actual experiences example suppose you open up a present and it is a colorful box full of the following items: dice, cards, board contents bring to mind specific experiences you have had that involve objects with similar features... Monopoly, Candy Land, Risk, etc. compare, and then decide it is a board game -learning about depressed indv, when looking at case studies more likely to say depressed bc of examples How does exemplar approach explain the results from typicality effect? If an exemplar is more typical, it ismore similar to recalled objects from a category suppose you see a robin for the first time: brings to mind memories of of many birds (sparrows, cardinals, woodpeckers, blue jays) highly similar, so easy to categorize less similar to recalled objects; fewer that can be recalled suppose you see an ostrich for the first time: very few birds are similar --compare to alpaca instead Both approaches compare a new item against a stored representation of the category •prototype approach—Stored representation is atypical/idealizedmember of the category. •exemplar approach—Stored representation is a collection of numerous specific members of the category. •do not need to perform any kind of abstraction process •argues that the prototype approach would force you to discard useful, specific data about individual cases

problems with prototype and exemplar approaches overall we use both trying to remember as much as you can from a confusing passage in class experiment both of the in class passage demos from a classic study by schema schema theories propose that schemas are a kind of heuristic

Problems The exemplar approach may be more suitable for categories with relatively few members •US presidents, very tall mountains •Also, for experts, exemplars make sense The prototype approach may be more suitable for categories with numerous members . Overall... •we use both approaches; a concept can include info about both prototypes and specific exemplars -a combination of strategies used in everyday life •individual differences are substantial having a picture provides context ~60% recall with picture before the story as opposed to 25% recall with no picture -participants remember about 15-25% of the passage ULESS you are provided with some structure to help you organize the info --the example with topic "doing laundry" Bransford and Johnson 1972 -schemas important to interpret info (encode and recall) generalized, well-integrated knowledge about a situation, an event,or a person **knowledge structures** packages of information/things we know --especially useful for explaining how people process complex situations, events What does an interior of a hardware store look like? A trip to the beach... What does a flight attendant do? our memories encode "generic" information about a situation •we then use this information to understand and remember new examples of the schema •simple but powerful device... --"This is just like what happened when..." --structuring our knowledge over time, implicit reference of a schema a kind of heuristic—a general rule that is typically accurate quickly accessible but they can lead to memory errors errors usually make sense within the framework of that schema (this idea should be very familiar...)

key characteristics of prototypes family resemblance-Rosch & Mervis(1975) The most prototypical itemin each category shared prototype theory-levels of categorization basic level categories Prototype Theory: Levels of Categorization-related findings Prototype Theory: Levels of Categorization prototype theory-summing up

Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category •family resemblancemeans thatno single attribute is shared by all examplesof a concept •BUT...each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept -no strict definition -variation is okay •ask p's to write down as many characteristics/attributes as they could think of for each item(category). •For example •Cars: four wheels, you drive them, steering wheel, use fuel •Dogs: have four legs, bark, have fur •When attributes overlap with many other members' attributes, family resemblance is high ***•RESULT: items with high prototypically ratings also have high family resemblance the largest number of attributes with the other items in the category. Our semantic categories are structured in terms of different levels of categorization... 1.superordinate-level categories(higher, more general) 2.basic-level categories (moderately specific) 3.subordinate-level categories(more specific) •We tend to use basic level categories when naming items Rosch et al.(1976) •participants viewed a series of pictures and named each object •RESULTS: •people typically prefer to use basic level namesn (pen v writing utensil) •participants provide basic-level names fasterthan either superordinate or subordinate names •when presented with superordinate or subordinate names during learning, people tend to recall basic level version of these terms later on vehicle-->car<--sports car basic level of categorization—not too general, not too specific--has a special, privileged status -either gain or lose a lot of info when not using basic •prototypes are good for "loosely structured" groups/categories •but...prototypes can be unstable—can vary over time, and with new experiences •read short description on p. 280, Novick (2003) •airplane as prototypical vehicle after 9/11 --bc at forefront of thought --not as prototypical as before --4-5 mo later, back to baseline

confirmation bias: Wason'sSelection Task: The Four-Card Task-question confirmation bias: Wason'sSelection Task: The Four-Card Task-rule and results most people do realize that you don't need to see what if task is more concrete? Griggs & Cox (1982) confirmation bias: medical contexts...for example confirmation bias: real life experiences

QUESTION: Which card(s) do you need to turn over to determine whether the rule is true or false? confirmation bias: Wason'sSelection Task: The Four-Card Task almost universally (~95%), people decide to turn over the E card to check whether or not an even number is on the other side... •to AFFIRM THE ANTECEDENT(confirming the hypothesis) •BUT... also need to turn over the 7 card to check whether or not a vowel is on the other side •to DENY THE CONSEQUENT (disproving the hypothesis) •only about 4% of participants realize the need to do BOTH --CONFIRMATION BIAS back of the J card •rule says nothing about consonants Why don't you need to turn over the 6 card? •letter side does not matter --if it's a vowel that's okay—consistent --if it's a consonant, that's okay, too (rule does not say anything about consonants) RULE: "If a person is drinking beer, then the person must be over 19 years of age." Which cards do you need to turn over to determine whether rule is being broken? RESULT: This time, 73% select correct cards: "Beer" & "16" Participants' reasoning is far better on this task compared to abstract FOUR CARD TASK •Patients, seeking medical advice about their insomnia...(Harvey & Tang, 2012) •Results show that people often misperceive their sleep overestimate: •how long it takes them to fall asleep underestimate: •amount of time they spend sleeping at night In other words—they seek confirming evidence that they are "bad sleepers"—provide estimates that are consistent with their own diagnosis •Be aware of your own tendency to look only for info that confirmsyour opinions.... •See "going to war" example on p. 455... (Kida, 2006) •Each side seeks confirming evidence to support their position •Avoiding info that weakens their poition •What if you tried to explain whythe other side has the opposite view? •Deductive reasoning is one of the most difficult cognitive tasks people face

how scripts influence memory how scripts influence memory-Trafimow & Wyer (1993 RESULTS schemas-brewer and treyens 1981 results SCHEMAS: Neuschatzet al (2002) Neuschatzet al (2002) procedure and test

Trafimow & Wyer (1993 STIMULI: 4 common scripts photocopying a piece of paper writing a check making tea taking the subway INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: When script info was provided to participants (before or after reading description) TASK: participants read all four descriptionsfor 5 minutes—distractor task—then take a recall test better recall when script given in advance 23% (before) vs. 10%(after) p's can recall more details when know it's a script right from the beginning "Role of schemata in memory for places" aka, "the office experiment" Procedure: participants arrive to participate in an experiment •p's are asked to wait, a one at a time, in grad student's office (35 seconds) so that experimenter "can check the lab." -Then, participants enter the lab, and are asked to list as many items as they can remember from the office participants remember schema consistent items such as desk, chair, type writer but do not remember schema inconsistent items such as wine bottle, picnic basket, skull also, p's misremember schema consistent items that were not present (up to 40%) such as windows, books, telephone, pencil holder ***schema-consistent errors increase over time....SCHEMAS GUIDE MEMORY similar results with participants in a natural setting what role do schemas/typicality play in memory? TASK: Participants watch a video of a man giving a 10-minute lecture on leadership. cover story: "evaluate distance learning" STIMULI: in video, lecturer enacts both: schema-consistent(typical)actions schema-inconsistent(atypical) actions PROCEDURE: watch video filler task (read paragraphs) recognition test TEST: view list of actions: 1/2 performed; 1/2 not-performed 1/2 typical; 1/2 not typical (schema) "Did he do _______? "—participants answer: yes/no

representing the problem methods for representing a problem effectively symbols matrix methods of representing the problems: diagrams diagrams: Novick & Morse(2000) origami study IV 1

Translating the elements of the problem into a different format •appropriate representation increases likelihood of solving problem •Gestalt psychologists emphasized importance of representing problem effectively (active organization) •Algebra word problems, geometry: working memory •Correlation between WM and algebra problem solving ability •Keeping the relevant parts in mind simultaneously symbols, matrices, diagrams algebra used for representing Translating words into symbols is useful, but can be problematic -> errors in representation •reversing role of 2 variables -oversimplification can lead to misrepresenting info A MATRIX is a grid of rows and columns • useful for sorting information into categories •Simplifies complex problems by organizing and keeping track of problem details -room number and disease problem example: Students who represent problem by a matrix were more likely to solve the problem. (Shwartz& colleagues, 1971, 1972, 1974) The power of imagery.... probably one of the first problem-solving techniques you learned to use in childhood.... Title: "Folding a fish, making a mushroom: The role of diagrams in executing assembly procedures" TASK: teaching p's to make complex origami objects Type of instruction given •step-by-step,written instructions only •step-by-step, written instructions+ final diagram •step-by-step-instructions +intermediary diagrams

Representativeness Heuristic: background Rep heuristic example with outcome probability We believe random-looking outcomes are Sample Size and Representativeness: Kahneman & Tversky (1972)—The Hospital Question results Sample Size and Representativeness-small sample fallacy Base Rate and Representativeness

We make a lot of decisions about other people •what job do they have? •what ethnicity? what religion? what political affiliations? •what social category do they fall into? •If you can figure out what category another person is in, then you might be able to make some assumptions about what they are like... more likely to choose outcome that looks more random even though both have the same statistic probability more likely than orderly outcomes •"It looks normal".... T H T H T H (see p. 458) •Consider: restaurant bill: $22.22" vs. $21.97 •Random processes don't always produce random-looking outcomes...can also produce non-random looking outcomes! •Ignoring important statistical information is a problem... •When we are unsure about how to make a decision, we often use heuristicsàquick decisions •Shift to slower, TYPE 2 processing to correct errors •Small Hospital —~15 babies born each day •Large Hospital —~45 babies born each day For one year, each hospital recorded the number of days on which more than 60% of births were boys... •Which hospital recorded more of such days? Small, Large, or about the same? Results: 56% of p's say "about the same" But.... •the correct choice is SMALLER hospital. •large sample statically more likely to show true proportions •much more likely for the small hospital to show extreme deviations (i.e., 60% baby boys) assuming that a small sample is representative of the population •small samples often reveal extreme proportions •basis for stereotypes—unwarranted generalizations about a group, based on a few people •e.g., What do criminals look like? What are engineering students like? Drama majors? •SOLUTION: get to know more people from a specific group! Psychologists have administered a personality assessment to 100 people: 30 engineers and 70 lawyers, all successful in their fields. Brief descriptions were written for each, the engineers and lawyers. Below is a sample: --Jack is a 45 year-old man. He is married and has four children. He is generally conservative, careful, and ambitious. He shows no interest in political and social issues and spends most of his free time on his many hobbies, which include home-carpentry, sailing, and mathematical puzzles. The probability that Jack is one of the 30 engineers in the sample of 100 is 30% .

to organize and make sense of our semantic knowledge, we use concept benefits of categories and concepts We form concepts in one of 2 ways... prototype approach prototype approach and experiences fitting the prototype

categories category: set of objects that belong together --cognitive system considers objects from a categoryas at least partially equivalent --if an entity is a member of a category, gives you a lot of info about it your mental representation of a category(p. 274) a wide variety of similar objects are combined into a single concept -ex) boxes The academic classes you have taken are all about concepts (see p. 274) concepts/categoriespromote efficiency -combining many similar objects using a single concept saves space -allows you to make inferences about new category members -without concepts, you would need to examine every new object in order to figure out how to use it would need a lot of experience... Prototype Approach versus Exemplar Approach (** "definitional approach" is notflexibleenough to account for the way we create and use real-world categories ) We form concepts by using prototypes •Prototype: item that is the best, most typical example of a category •"the ideal representative" •the item that possesses all the characteristic features ***Whereas definitions set BOUNDARIES of a category, prototypes specify the CENTER When making a decision about whether something belongs in a particular category, you use the prototype as the comparison -If similar to the prototype, then can include in the same category -your experiences drive your prototype What does a lawyer look/act like? ("She's a lawyer??") What does an art-major look/act like? ("He's an art major??") What does a priest look/act like? what is a bachelor?? ex) trees and dogs ex) birds vs bats (diff category)

Bartlett's War of the Ghosts results schemas and scripts: background schemas and scripts: historical context schemas and scripts: historical context schemas and scripts-clinical psych scripts scripts cont

classic study from 1932 one of first demonstrations that schemas, while usually helpful, can mislead us... WAR OF THE GHOSTS: two tribal warriors go out to hunt seals in a canoe and run into rivals... TASK: British participants read the Native American story then asked to repeat the story: Immediately Several days later participants omit details that didn't make sense reshaped story Ito more of a familiar schema of British fairy tales -diff people interpret diff things, diff based on their schema -over time recall borrows more and more from previous knowledge, not original story Schemas are a typeof heuristic(a general rule that is typically accurate) quickly accessible but they can lead to memory errors errors usually make sense within the framework of that schema (this idea should be very familiar...) -People use their own view of the world, in terms of existing knowledge and prior experience, to frame events that they witness, read, encounter, etc. Developmental Psychology: Piaget: infants' cognitive skills (knowledge driven) schemas about info and objects in the world increase in number and become more complex (developmental stages) Social Psychology schema-based expectations about what will happen in social situations -hong et al 2000 --bicultural individuals often develop a diff set of schemas of their two cultures -less info=more prejudicial schema therapy -explore core beliefs and create appropriate new and more helpful strategies narrower in scope than a schema script: a simple, well structured sequence of events -specified order -highly familiar activities -a prototype of a series of events that share an underlying similarity, for example --1st day of classes --fast food restaurant --check into hotel life scripts: a list of events that a person believes would be most important throughout his/her lifespan Janssen & Rubin (2011) Read bottom of p. 297 •often similar within a culture •500+ females from Denmark •Beginning school, first job, marriage, having children •Similar script across age groups ****also: violation of a familiar script can startle us ex) surprise ending, very memorable

analogies can lead to creative breakthroughs the analogy approach: requires identifying Rutgers university analogy approach the analogy approach requires identifying problem isomorphs the radiation problem, attacking army problem percentage of people able to solve both problems

ex) Wilbur and Orville wright •Wright bros. read a lot about hang gliding—realized controlling aircraft would be their biggest problem •Spent time observing birds in flight •Birds fly into the wind....air flows over curved surface of wings •noticed that birdscontrol flight patterns by adjusting theorientation of wing tips....this led to: pilots using gears to control wing tips problem isomorphs •a set of problems that have the same underlying structure and solutions.... •BUT, different details •success depends on being able to separate 2 things.... •How to make it easier for students for manage status of college applications(Ruben, 2001; see p. 418-9) •First attempt: Rutgers staff investigated the tracking systems used by other universities •SURFACEfeatures approach; superficial details.....yielded no solution Later: How do other businesses "track" items? •STRUCTURALfeatures approach; similar solution found in a different setting.... •What was the successful solution? •a set of problems that have the same underlying structure and solutions.... •surfacefeatures may be different •structuralfeatures: underlying core of problem is the same/very similar •e.g., Rutgers University problem Issue: being able to recognize the structural similarities between 2 problems... If cannot see the underlying similarity à "fail to see the analogy" Hints: •What if you could adjust the intensity of the beams? •What if you had more than 1 beam? answer: use multiple low intensity beams to converge on tumor analogous to the radiation problem -surface features are difference but the structure underlying both problems is very similar 70% of participants who received radiation problem first were able to solve the attacking army problem and vice versa only 10% of participants solved the problem when it was the only problem presented why? practice solving a structurally similar problem

general knowledge and semantic memory semantic memory-dont need Background: The "creep" of previous knowledge general knowledge=semantic knowledge thought experiment....what is a square? but what is a game? definitional approach we know a chair when we see one...

general knowledge=semantic memory semantic memory: your organized knowledge about the world -historical events -scholastic contents: math, reading, lang, terms --definitions, colloquialisms Don't need to experiencethese items to remember them.... •Unlike autobiographical/episodic memory •For example, amnesiacs may have distinct deficits for episodic memories, while semantic memory intact semantic memory=general knowledge make inferences about certain statements --infuse general knowledge most of our cognitive activities are influenced by our semantic memory determining locations reading sentences solving problems making decisions We need a way to divide up/organize what we know...how do we do this? ***we use categories and concepts if something has all of these features,then it must be a square... concepts as definitions --a required "checklist" --a list of features What is a game? more difficult to come up with a definition What are the required features of a game? more ambiguous definitional approach assumes sharp boundaries—"in or out" -problematic bc not all cases are equal (bachelor example) Even when a particular chair is an exception to our definition

the puzzle of motivation: Daniel pink "drive" ted talk intrinsic motivators algorithms vs heuristics looking for a Starbucks example problem solving strategies problem solving strategies (3) the analogy approach the analogy approach-for example

intrinsic v extrinsic motivators -more creativity need more intrinsic motivators, can't have extrinsic bc it creates a narrow focus autonomy mastery sense of purpose algorithm: a method that always produces a solution •Considers the entire problem space—searching every possible solution • exhaustive search—-trying out all possible answers using a specified system •inefficient, time consuming heuristic: a general rule that is usually correct •ignoring some alternatives in favor of those most likely to lead to solutions algorithm: check out all possible locations heuristic: limit to most likely locations unscramble the following letters -using heuristic: identifying 1st 2 letters that are pronounceable, vowels in 2nd position --solution is NOT guaranteed -algorithm: searching every possible combination guarantees a solution but takes a long time analogy approach means end heuristic hill climbing heuristic analogy approach: using a solution to an earlier, similar problem, to help you solve a new problem •"It's like when...." •prominent approach in problem solving •referring to earlier examples in a statistics textbook •using same strategies for studying for class next semester, based on strategies used for this class •For example, engineers...rely on analogies (102 analogies in 9 hrsof problem solving) •cross-cultural studies (p. 417) •Students from Brazil, India, and U.S... àanalogies are the preferred strategy

Recognition heuristic (Gigerenzer) illusory correlations anchoring and adjustment heuristic evaluating pricing uses the forensic setting anchoring and adjustment mock trial experiment mock trial experiment results

milan v modena or boston v mount holyoke Recognition Heuristic (p.466): •When comparing relative frequencies...tend to conclude that the ones we recognize have the higher frequency Sometimes the availability heuristic works! ILLUSORY: deceptive, unreal CORRELATION: statistical relationship ILLUSORY CORRELATION: •Belief that two variables are statistically related •Even though there is no actual evidence for the relationship... •think: stereotypes 1x2x3x4 v 8x7x6x5 definition: people start with an implicit reference point—the anchor—and make adjustments to it to reach their decision •first approximation: the anchor •Applies both to novices & experts ... •Example from previous slide... •Other common examples: •Can you meet me at the library in 15 minutes? (read p. 468) •Can you take the make-up exam right now? anchoring and adjustment heuristic evaluating prices •House hunting/ Apartment hunting •offers and counter offers • The anchor affects what you're willing to pay for a pair of shoes, jacket, a new car.... • restricts our search for relevant info... •Usually once the anchor is set, there is a bias toward that value. Imagine that you are a judge deciding on length of incarceration for a criminal rape case... • •There is mixed evidence; it is not clear-cut what you should do regarding sentencing. • How do the words of the prosecuting attorney's final argument affect the length of the final sentence you hand down? IV: Length of sentence prosecutor recommends in closing statement •Either: prosecutor "demands" 12 month sentence •Or: prosecutor "demands" 34 months • PARTICIPANTS: real judges (note: students act as prosecutors) •prosecutor "demands" 12 month sentence à judges hand down (on avg.) 28 mos •prosecutor "demands" 34 monthsà judgeshand down 36 mos • Even seasoned judges influenced by "anchor" provided by prosecutor

Affirming the Consequent when reasoning is difficult: negative information When reasoning is difficult: abstract information but...reasoning is better with concrete examples, rather than abstract ones when reasoning goes astray: belief-bias effect belief-bias effect example

most errors Because very often—in real life—it would probably hold true •heuristic-thinking: "its a good bet...(that this is true)" •But in logical reasoning, this is INVALID •conflicts with rules of deductive reasoning that require"always" Linguistically negative information: everyday occurrences •"It's notthe case that the researchers results were notillogical..." •"Notbeing impatient is neverunwise!" •"No, I don'tthink that you don'tknow how notto drive...." -4 nots: affirming the consequent=invalid -•negative info takes longer to evaluate; strains working memory -•leads to more errors...even when try to translate into positive form If an object is red, then it is rectangular. This object is not rectangular. Therefore, it is not red. •(Denying the consequent)—-> VALID •But this task is hard because it includes geometric items, which are abstract ... If it is a bird, then it has a beak. It doesn't have a beak. Therefore, it is not a bird. •(Denying the consequent)àVALID •Easier than the red rectangle example...because it is more concrete Our own background knowledge sometimes encourages us to make mistakeson reasoning tasks •everyday knowledge can override principles of logic •over-reliance on what we know/believe to solve a reasoning task •Remember: propositional calculus is a formal system of logic •An outcome may be true (or false) "in the world" but not match up with rules of logic If a feather is thrown at a window, the window will break. A feather is thrown at a window. Therefore, the window will break. •(Affirming the antecedent)àso, this is VALID •but this reasoning contradicts our background knowledge. •top-down processing error

graded structure of prototypes Prototype Approach—Research Prototype Approach: not all members are equal Prototype theory: characteristics of prototypes typicality effect (cont.): typicality effect cont-sentence verification typicality effect cont-picture id task all of these tasks/decisions are based on

range of representativeness: most prototypicalà most non-prototypical Rosch and Mervis (1975); demo 8.1, p. 277 participants were given a category and a list of 50 members. For example: CLOTHING pants, shirt, coat, socks, bathing suit, shoes, etc participants' task was to provide a rating on how well the item represented the category(or see description on p.276—rank order) 1-7 *robust effect across a variety of tasks table showing the range of items from most to least typical --When asked to give examples of a category, people tend to provide the "prototypical" example So, if I ask you to name a type of furniture, you will probably say.... (Mervis et al, 1976) p. 277 "table"or "chair" not "filing cabinet"or"lamp" These results account for the TYPICALITY effect: when judging whether an item belongs to a category, more typical items are judged faster than atypical items production tasks: Participants are asked to name as many members of a category as quickly as possible So... "name as many birds as possible," or "flowers" or "vehicles" Result: people typically start with the category members that are closest to the prototype For fruits: apples, bananas, oranges vs. tomatoes and olives Sentence verification task True or False: Robins are birds. Penguins are birds. Result: Which T/F decision above is faster? prototypes robins share more featureswith prototypical bird than penguins do, so... Picture identification tasks Does this picture show a bird? (emu) Result: Which decision is faster? --prototypical bird reasoning done with reference to the prototypes How close is this to the ideal? Proximity to the prototype informs our decisions...

decision making style-the paradox of choice the dark side of freedom transformation of knowledge small v larger problems in class demonstration: eight coin problem in class demonstration: eight coin problem strategies understanding the problem

the tyranny of choice satisficers: make a decision or take action once criteria is met •Criteria can still be high, but as soon as they find the car, the coat, the pasta sauce that has the qualities they want, they are satisfied... maximizers: more time and energy spent on making decisions; can't make a decision until they've examined every option -•Anxiety about whether making the right choice; less happy with outcomes of their decisions too many choices can be very stressful for people •Taking acquired knowledge, using it to solve a problem.... •Our days are full of problems we try to find solutions for.... of different scope and size (practical to professional to personal) Small problems: •What to wear, what to eat, how to organize your day; solving a crossword or Sodukupuzzle Larger problems: •How to get a good job, how to manage your time, stick to a budget, etc. Moving only two pennies, make an arrangement which ensures that every coin touches exactly three other pennies. -doesn't mention 3D manipulation so don't think to use diff plane What was your strategy? •Likely, trial and error... • How close to a solution did you did you feel while working on the problem? (metacognition) •insight: sudden epiphany problem solving: the processes necessary to reach a goal, when the solution isn't immediately obvious *3 components: •initial state (there's a problem) •obstacles •goal state (the solution)

affirming the antecedent affirming the consequent denying the antecedent deny consequent conditional reasoning: terms affirming the antecedent example affirming the consequent example denying the antecedent example denying the consequent conditional statement

valid invalid invalid valid PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS: a system for categorizing types of propositions 2 parts of the proposition: -antecedent: first proposition/statement, "if" part of the sentence -consequent: second proposition, "then" part of the sentence 2 possible actions: -affirm part of the sentence -deny part of the sentence if Susan is a violinist, then she can read music susan is a violinist. therefore, Susan can read music. if Susan is a violinist, then she can read music. Susan can read music. therefore, Susan is a violinist. if Susan is a violinist then she can read music. susan is not a violinist. therefore, Susan cannot read music. if Susan is a violinist, then she can read music. Susan cannot read music. therefore, Susan is not a violinist. if/then

varied instructions for participants (females) stereotype threat and poor performance: 2 explanations both concern working memory the role of insight in problem solving not insight problems insight problem examples that sudden burst certainty graph

•Varied instructions for participants (females): •Group 1: •"men score higher due to greater ability" •Group 2: •"men score higher because males try harder" •Group 3: •Received no information about gender differences **group 2 answered most questions correctly bc not intrinsic so you can counteract 1.stereotype threat produces high arousal •anxiety reduces working memory—"choking under pressure" 2.stereotype threat encourages thought suppression •working hard to to "bury" idea that they are supposed to perform poorlyàreduced capacity of working memory •messages matter! insight problems: •seem impossible until sudden solution appears •"aha" moments; "the lightbulb went on!" •Sudden flash of insight •classic feature of detective shows gestalt psychologists—emphasized organization in problem solving; "putting the parts together" must set aside incorrect assumptions àleads to insight •gradual solution using your memory, reasoning, strategies •Step-by-step (vs. insight with no real "process") •Algebra the nine dot problem-outside the box matches into triangles problem-overcome thinking only in 2D plane the Shara problem-parachuted in triplet example no BC on old coins y=warmth rating x=time 4 time quadrants -classic hallmark of insight problems=no improvement until very last interval (solution)

The likelihood is actually 30%... but description of Jack conforms to our stereotypeof a engineer... the Linda problem even with increasing levels of statistical knowledge representativeness-conjunction rule availability heuristic 2 factors that influence availability: Effect of recency (other examples)

•people ignore base rate(30 engineeers/70 lawyers), and rely, instead,on representativeness... "Is this person representative of what I know about engineers?" •Type 1 processing which is more probable, Linda is a bank teller or Linda is a bank teller and a feminist? --85% choose option 2: bank teller and a feminist....even though this violates a basic rule of probability --It cannot be more probable that Linda is a bank teller AND..... anything else(feminist, traveling salesman, former state governor, or whatever....) pattern is the same, drawing on representativeness overcomes knowledge **all groups responded incorrectly •conjunction rule: the probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be largerthan the probability of either of its constituent events -•conjunction fallacy: violation of conjunction rule -•judge probability of the conjunction of two events to be greater thanthe probability of either constituent event •using representativenessinstead of statistical probability A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind...we tend to judge "available" events to be more frequent. •Can I retrieve relative examples quickly and easily? Or does it require effort? •if quick and easy—->frequent and more common event •"If you can think of it, then it must be important" (Tversky & Kahneman) •if it seems difficult—->infrequent event (TYPE 1 THINKING) •usually a good tactic, but...our memory retrieval is not necessarily correlated with TRUE frequency 1.recency: we judge recent items to be more likely than they really are --After seeing news reports about people losing their jobs, you might start to believe that you are in danger of being laid off... --After viewing several shows on shark attacks, you start to think these incidences are relatively common, so you refuse to get in the water when you go to the beach... •medical diagnoses—a doctor 5 patients in one day with flu •McLeod & Campbell (1992):p. 465 •judgements about future likelihood of positive and negative events, based on recent recall of past events •When encouraged to recall pleasantevents from past, they later judge that pleasant events are more likely in the future •When recall unpleasantevents from past, they later judge that unpleasant events are more likely in the future •implications for psychotherapy