Exam 3 Ch.9-12

ingroup bias The tendency to favor one's own group

"Which are better, the children in your school or the children at [another school nearby]?" Virtually all will say their own school has the better children.

racism

(1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race.

sexism

(1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.

What are the biological responses that explain Anthony Greenwald's study on bias?

-Brain activity in the amygdala, a region that underlies fear and aggression, facilitates such automatic responding

increased aggression is predicted by the following...

1.) being male 2.) agressive or anger-prone personalities 3.) alcohol use 4.) violence viewing 5.) anonymity 6.) provocation 7.) the presence of weapons 8.) group interaction

What are the four media effects on thinking?

1.) desensitization 2.) social scripts: Culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations 3.) altered perceptions: if you see a lot of violence on tv you are more likely to report the there is more violence the happens in the world than there actually is 4.) cognitive priming: Research also reveals that watching violent television primes aggression-related ideas

recipe for love

1.) secure attachments 2.)equitable relationship 3.) intimate self-disclosure

three theories to helping

1.) social-exchange theory; maximize rewards 2.)reciprocity norm; help those who have helped us 3.) social responsibility norm

Biochemical influences of aggression (poor diet)

231 inmates signed on to receive nutritional supplements or a placebo. Prisoners who got the extra nutrition were involved in 35 percent fewer violent incidents

stereotype

A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information (and sometimes accurate) Ex: the British are reserved. Americans are outgoing. Professors are absentminded. The elderly are frail.

stereotype threat

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects. Placed in a situation where others expect you to perform poorly, your anxiety may also cause you to confirm the belief. I [DM] am a short guy in my early 70s. When I join a pickup basketball game with bigger, younger players, I presume that they expect me to be a detriment to their team, and that tends to undermine my confidence and performance.

stats on gun violence

A meta-analysis found that those with guns in their homes were three times more likely to be murdered and twice as likely to commit suicide (Anglemyer et al., 2014). Even after controlling for gender, age, and race, people with guns at home were 41 percent more likely to be murdered and 3 times as likely to commit suicide (Wiebe, 2003). A gun in the home is 12 times more likely to kill a household member than an intruder

social dominance orientation

A motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups Those high in social dominance orientation tend to view people in terms of hierarchies. They like their own social groups to be high status—they prefer being on the top. Being in a dominant, high-status position also tends to promote this orientation people high in social dominance orientation often support policies that maintain hierarchies, such as tax cuts for the well-off. They prefer professions, such as politics and business, that increase their status and maintain hierarchies. They avoid jobs, such as social work, that, by virtue of their aid to disadvantaged groups, undermine hierarchies. And they express more negative attitudes toward minority persons who exhibit strong racial identities

stigma consciousness

A person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination.

authoritarian personality

A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status. These judgmental, ethnocentric people shared certain tendencies: an intolerance for weakness, a punitive attitude, and a submissive respect for their group's authorities, as reflected in their agreement with such statements as "Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn." Adorno and his colleagues (1950) surmised that these tendencies define an authoritarian personality that is prone to prejudice and stereotyping. More recent inquiry into authoritarian people's early lives has revealed that, as children, they often faced harsh discipline. Extremism, on both the political left and the right, shares some common themes, such as catastrophizing, desiring vengeance, dehumanizing the enemy, and seeking a sense of control Authoritarian people therefore tend to be submissive to those with power over them and aggressive or punitive toward those whom they consider lower in status than themselves

prejudice

A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members. (Some prejudice definitions include positive judgments, but nearly all uses of "prejudice" refer to negative ones

egoism

A self-serving motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare. egoism—the idea that self-interest motivates all behavior—has fallen into disrepute.

passionate love

A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

terror management

According to "terror management theory," people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality With death on their minds, people exhibit terror management. They shield themselves from the threat of their own death by derogating those whose challenges to their worldviews further arouse their anxiety. When people are already feeling vulnerable about their mortality, prejudice helps bolster a threatened belief system. One study found that among Whites, thinking about death can even promote liking for racists who argue for their group's superiority

five highest gun violence states

Alaska, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Wyoming—all states with higher gun ownership rates and less restrictive gun laws more likely to see ambiguous stimuli as threatening if gun is present

When are stereotypes good? What is that called?

An accurate stereotype may even be desirable. We call it "sensitivity to diversity" or "cultural awareness in a multicultural world." EX: To stereotype the British as more concerned about punctuality than Mexicans is to understand what to expect and how to get along with others in each culture. "Accuracy dominates bias," notes Lee Jussim (2012). "The social perception glass (of people judging others) is about 90 percent full."

reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

instinctive behavior

An innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species. aggressive energy is instinctive (innate, unlearned, and universal). If not discharged, it supposedly builds up until it explodes or until an appropriate stimulus "releases" it, like a mouse releasing a mousetrap.

Hostility aggression

Angry acts an end in itself; (murder;Approximately half erupt from arguments, and others result from romantic triangles or from brawls that involve the influence of alcohol or drugs. Such murders are impulsive, emotional outbursts, which helps explain why data from 110 nations show that a death penalty has not resulted in fewer homicides) Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure. ex:(one teen is angry at another for stealing her boyfriend)

Explain Anthony Greenwald's study on bias

Anthony Greenwald and his co-workers (2003) invited people to press buttons quickly to "shoot" or "not shoot" men who suddenly appeared onscreen holding either a gun or a harmless object such as a flashlight or a bottle. The participants (both Blacks and Whites, in one of the studies) more often mistakenly shot harmless targets who were Black. Follow-up computerized simulations revealed that it's Black male suspects—not females, whether Black or White—that are more likely to be associated with threat and to be shot [Plant et al., 2011].

two-factor theory of emotion

Arousal X its label = emotion.

Is gender bias fast becoming extinct in Western countries?

As with racial prejudice, blatant gender prejudice is dying, but subtle bias lives. Violate gender stereotypes, and people may react. People take notice of a cigar-smoking woman and a tearful man, and denigrate a White rapper. A woman whom people see as power hungry suffers more voter backlash than does a similarly power-hungry man

influences of aggression

Aversive Incidents Recipes for aggression often include some type of aversive experience. These include: pain uncomfortable heat an attack overcrowding.

attack

Being attacked or insulted is especially conducive to aggression. Several experiments confirm that intentional attacks breed retaliatory attacks.

ethnocentric

Believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups.

Biochemical influences of aggression (alcohol)

Both laboratory experiments and police data indicate that alcohol unleashes aggression when people are provoked Alcohol enhances aggressiveness by reducing people's self-awareness, by focusing their attention on a provocation, and by people's mentally associating alcohol with aggression Alcohol also predisposes people to interpret ambiguous acts de-individualizes

television and exposure to violence and murder

By age 18, the average child has witnessed some 16,000 TV murders and 200,000 other violent acts

Does automatic (implicit) prejudice, like explicit prejudice, matter?

Critics note that unconscious associations may only indicate cultural assumptions, perhaps without prejudice (which involves negative feelings and action tendencies). Or perhaps people's kneejerk responses relate to familiarity, or to actual race differences (Tetlock, 2007). some studies find that implicit bias can leak into behavior. EX: Those who display implicit prejudice on the IAT—by taking longer to identify positive words such as peace and paradise as "good" when associated with Black rather than White faces—also have been observed to judge White job applicants more favorably and recommend better treatment for White emergency room patients more often than Black patients

catharsis

Emotional release. The catharsis view of aggression is that the aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression. Although much remains to be learned, these studies challenge the catharsis hypothesis— the idea that violent games allow people to safely express their aggressive tendencies and "get their anger out" (Kutner & Olson, 2008). Practicing violence breeds rather than releases violence, say catharsis critics. Yet the idea that games might relieve angry feelings is one of the main draws of violent video games for angry people (Bushman

group-serving bias

Explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group). Positive behavior by outgroup members is more often dismissed. It may be seen as a "special case" ("He is certainly bright and hardworking—not at all like other.. ."), as owing to luck or some special advantage ("She probably got admitted just because her med school had to fill its quota for women applicants"), as demanded by the situation ("Under the circumstances, what could the cheap Scot do but pay the whole check?"), or as attributable to extra effort ("Asian students get better grades because they're so compulsive"). The group-serving bias can subtly color our language. A team of University of Padua (Italy) researchers led by Anne Maass (1995 et al., 1999) has found that positive behaviors by another ingroup member are often described as general dispositions (for example, "Karen is helpful"). When performed by an outgroup member, the same behavior is often described as a specific, isolated act

Freudian theory on aggression

Freud speculated that human aggression springs from a self-destructive impulse. It redirects toward others the energy of a primitive death urge (the "death instinct")

Motivational sources of prejudice

Frustration and Aggression: The Scapegoat Theory When the cause of our frustration is intimidating or unknown, we often redirect our hostility. This phenomenon of "displaced aggression" (scapegoating) contributed to the lynchings of African Americans in the South after the Civil War. Between 1882 and 1930, more lynchings occurred in years when cotton prices were low and economic frustration was therefore presumably high Scapegoats provide a handy explanation for bad events

According to stereotypes and evolutionary psychology, what do people think about men and women?

Gender stereotypes have persisted across time and culture. Averaging data from 27 countries, John Williams and his colleagues (1999, 2000) found that people everywhere; perceive women as more agreeable, and men as more outgoing. The persistence and omnipresence of gender stereotypes have led some evolutionary psychologists to believe they reflect innate, stable reality

Group influences

Groups can amplify aggressive reactions partly by diffusing responsibility. Diffusion of responsibility increases not only with distance but also with numbers..The greater the number of people in a lynch mob, the more vicious the murder and mutilation. Youths sharing antisocial tendencies and lacking close family bonds and expectations of academic success may find social identity in a gang. As group identity develops, conformity pressures and deindividuation increase (Staub, 1996). Self-identity diminishes as members give themselves over to the group, often feeling a satisfying oneness with the others. The frequent result is social contagion—group-fed arousal, disinhibition, and polarization.

Biochemical influences of aggression (testosterone)

Hormonal influences appear to be much stronger in other animals than in humans. But human aggressiveness does correlate with the male sex hormone testosterone. Testosterone is roughly like battery power. Only if the battery levels are very low will things noticeably slow down.

physical aggression

Hurting someone else's body.

social aggression

Hurting someone else's feelings or threatening their relationships. Sometimes called relational aggression, it includes cyberbullying and some forms of in-person bullying.

arousal

In a famous experiment, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962) found we can experience an aroused bodily state in different ways. They aroused University of Minnesota men by injecting them with adrenaline. The drug produced body flushing, heart palpitation, and more rapid breathing. When forewarned that the drug would produce those effects, the men felt little emotion, even when sitting next to either a hostile or a euphoric person. Of course, they could readily attribute their bodily sensations to the drug. Schachter and Singer led another group of men to believe the drug produced no such side effects. Then they, too, were placed in the company of either a hostile or a euphoric person. How did they feel and act? They were angry with the hostile person and amused by the euphoric person. The principle seemed to be: A state of arousal can be interpreted in different ways depending on the context. arousal fuels emotions

porn stats

In a recent survey of 18- to 26-year-old American men, 87 percent said they viewed pornography at least once a month, and nearly half used it at least once a week. However, only 31 percent of women reported viewing pornography at all bigger business than football is US

heat

In heat-stricken Phoenix, Arizona, the drivers of cars without air-conditioning were more likely to honk at a stalled car People certainly could be more irritable in hot, sticky weather. And in the laboratory, hot temperatures do increase arousal and hostile thoughts and feelings, but there may come a point where stifling heat suppresses violence—when it's too hot to do anything, much less hurt someone

Leonard Berkowitz revisiting frustration-anger theory

Leonard Berkowitz (1978, 1989) realized that the original theory overstated the frustration-aggression connection, so he revised it. Berkowitz theorized that frustration produces aggression only when people become upset—for instance, when someone who frustrated them could have chosen to act otherwise, leading to feelings of anger (Averill, 1983; Weiner, 1981). For example, many people are frustrated in their goals while playing sports, but they usually aren't aggressive unless they are angered by a deliberate, unfair act by an opposing player.

Lorenz theory on aggression

Lorenz, an animal behavior expert, saw aggression as adaptive rather than self-destructive.

explain the statement: Unequal status breeds prejudice

Masters view slaves as lazy, irresponsible, lacking ambition—as having exactly those traits that justify the slavery. Historians debate the forces that create unequal status. But after those inequalities exist, prejudice helps justify the economic and social superiority of those who have wealth and power. Tell us the economic relationship between two groups, and we'll predict the intergroup attitudes. Upper-class individuals are more likely than those in poverty to see people's fortunes as the outcomes they have earned, thanks to skill and effort, and not as the result of having connections, money, and good luck

Has racism gone away as much as we believe?

Most people support racial equality and deplore discrimination. Yet 3 in 4 people who take the Implicit Association Test display an automatic, unconscious White preference Subtle prejudice may also be expressed as "microaggressions," such as race-related traffic stops or a reluctance to sit on a bus or train next to a person of another race

If stereotype threats can disrupt performance, could positive stereotypes enhance it?

Negative stereotypes disrupt performance, and positive stereotypes, it seems, facilitate performance blacks did worse golfing when it was framed as "sports intelligence" white did worse when golf was framed as "natural athletic ability"

outgroup homogeneity effect

Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus "they are alike; we are diverse." effect—a sense that they are "all alike" and different from "us" and "our" group

self-perpetuating prejudgements

Prejudgments guide our attention and our memories. People who accept gender stereotypes often misrecall their own school grades in stereotype-consistent ways. For example, women often recall receiving worse math grades and better arts grades than were actually the case Whenever a group member behaves as expected, we duly note the fact; our prior belief is confirmed. When a group member violates our expectation, we may interpret or explain away the behavior as due to special circumstances Perhaps you can recall a time when, try as you might, you could not overcome someone's opinion of you, when no matter what you did you were misinterpreted. Misinterpretations are likely when someone expects an unpleasant encounter with you

ABC's of prejudice

Prejudice is an attitude—a combination of feelings, inclinations to act, and beliefs. It can be easily remembered as the ABCs of attitudes: Affect (feelings) Behavior tendency (inclination to act) Cognition (beliefs). A prejudiced person may dislike those different from self and behave in a discriminatory manner, believing them ignorant and dangerous.

social sources of prejudice

Prejudice springs from several sources. It may arise from people differing in social status and their desires to justify and maintain those differences. It may also be learned from our parents as they socialize us about what differences they believe matter between people. Our social institutions, too, may maintain and support prejudice.

Love Triangle

Psychologist Robert Sternberg (1998) views love as a triangle consisting of three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment

Evolutionary psychology of aggression for reproductive success

Purposeful aggression improved the odds of survival and reproduction. The losers, notes McAndrew, "ran the risk of genetic annihilation." Aggression often occurs when males are competing with other males. In one study, men primed to think about mating delivered louder and longer bursts of painful noise against another man who provoked them. But mating-primed men were not more aggressive toward women, and mating-primed women were not more aggressive at all (Ainsworth & Maner, 2012).

how to use terror management to win votes

Reminding people of their death can also affect support for important public policies. Before the 2004 presidential election, giving people cues related to death—including asking them to recall their emotions related to the 9/11 attack, or subliminally exposing them to 9/11 related pictures—increased support for President George W. Bush and his antiterrorism policies

other effects of porn by meyers

Repeated exposure to erotic films featuring quick, uncommitted sex also tends to 1.)decrease attraction for one's partner 2.)increase acceptance of extramarital sex and of women's sexual submission to men 3.)increase men's perceiving women in sexual terms.

Do opposites attract? Explain.

Research says no but typically yes, we don't like people that share the same negative attributes with us but we seek out this that are similar to us in our good in those bad areas

Institutional support for prejudice through policy

Schools tend to reinforce dominant cultural attitudes. An analysis of stories in 134 children's readers written before 1970 found that male characters outnumbered female characters three to one

social psychology on sexually violent porn

Social psychologists report that viewing such fictional scenes of a man overpowering and arousing a woman can (a) distort men's (and possibly women's) perceptions of how women actually respond to sexual coercion and (b) increase men's aggression against women.

categorization, stereotypes, and evolutionary psychology

Stereotypes represent cognitive efficiency. They are energy-saving schemes for making speedy judgments and predicting how others will think and act. We judge people in outgroups more quickly; when assessing ingroup individuals, we take longer to form impressions (Vala et al., 2012). Thus, stereotypes and outgroup bias may have served ultimate, evolutionary functions, by enabling our ancestors to cope and survive

in what three ways does stereotype threat undermine performance?

Stress. fMRI brain scans suggest that the stress of stereotype threat impairs brain activity associated with mathematical processing and increases activity in areas associated with emotion processing (Derks et al., 2008; Krendl et al., 2008; Wraga et al., 2007). Self-monitoring. Worrying about making mistakes disrupts focused attention (Keller & Dauenheimer, 2003; Seibt & Forster, 2004). Suppressing unwanted thoughts and emotions. The effort required to regulate one's thinking takes energy and disrupts working memory (Bonnot & Croizet, 2007).

From research on stereotypes, two conclusions are indisputable, what are they?

Strong gender stereotypes exist, and, as often happens, members of the stereotyped group accept them. Men and women agree that you can judge the book by its sexual cover.

social identity

The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. Self-concept—our sense of who we are—contains not just a personal identity (our sense of our personal attributes and attitudes) but also a social identity Fiona identifies herself as a woman, an Aussie, a Labourite, a University of New South Wales student, a MacDonald family member. We carry such social identities like playing cards, playing them when appropriate.

What is the 10% rule with stereotypes? Is it good or bad?

The 10 percent problem with stereotypes arises when they are overgeneralized or just plain wrong, as when liberals and conservatives overestimate the extremity of the others' views (Graham et al., 2012). To presume that most American welfare clients are African American is to overgeneralize,

companionate love

The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined. If a close relationship is to endure, it will settle to a steadier but still warm afterglow called companionate love. The passion-facilitating hormones (testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline) subside, while the hormone oxytocin supports feelings of attachment and trust

What, then, is the relationship between religion and racial prejudice?

The answer we get depends on how we ask the question. If we define religiousness as church membership or willingness to agree at least superficially with traditional religious beliefs, then the more religious people have been the more racially prejudiced. Bigots often rationalize bigotry with religion. But if we assess depth of religious commitment in any of several other ways, then the very devout are less prejudiced—hence

Motivation to avoid prejudice

The motivation to avoid prejudice can lead people to modify their thoughts and actions. Aware of the gap between how they should feel and how they do feel, self-conscious people will feel guilt and try to inhibit their prejudicial response (Bodenhausen & Macrae, 1998; Dasgupta & Rivera, 2006; Zuwerink et al., 1996). Even automatic prejudices subside, note Devine and her colleagues (2005), when people's motivation to avoid prejudice is internal (because they believe prejudice is wrong) rather than external (because they don't want others to think badly of them).

social capital

The mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network.

cues associated with aggression amplify aggression: relative deprivation

The perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself. frustration arises from the gap between expectations and attainments. The most economically frustrated people may not be the impoverished residents of African shantytowns, who might know no other way of life, but middle-class Americans who aspire to be rich—or at least upper-middle class. When your expectations are fulfilled by your attainments, and when your desires are reachable at your income, you feel satisfied rather than frustrated why happiness tends to be lower and crime rates higher in communities and nations with large income inequality

complementarity

The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other. people seem slightly more prone to like and to marry those whose needs, attitudes, and personalities are similar

physical-attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.

Faceism in magazines

The researchers suspect that the visual prominence given the faces of men and the bodies of women both reflects and perpetuates gender bias. In research in Germany, Norbert Schwarz and Eva Kurz (1989) confirmed that people whose faces are prominent in photos seem more intelligent and ambitious.

matching phenomenon

The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits. When choosing whom to approach, knowing the other is free to say yes or no, people often approach and invest more in pursuing someone whose attractiveness roughly matches their own They seek out someone who seems desirable, but they are mindful of the limits of their own desirability. Good physical matches may be conducive to good relationships

mere-exposure effect

The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them. contrary to an old proverb, familiarity does not breed contempt. Rather, it fosters fondness Mere exposure has an even stronger effect when people receive stimuli without awareness The mere-exposure effect colors our evaluations of others: We like familiar people

own-race bias

The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race. (Also called the cross-race effect or otherrace effect.) When viewing someone of our own group, we are less attentive to the race category and more attentive to individual details such as the eyes

just-world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. rape victims must have behaved seductively (Borgida & Brekke, 1985) battered spouses must have provoked their beatings (Summers & Feldman, 1984) poor people don't deserve better (Furnham & Gunter, 1984) sick people are responsible for their illnesses (Gruman & Sloan, 1983). activating the concept of choice by having people record others' choices, participants (in the United States) display less empathy for disadvantaged individuals, engage in more victim-blaming, and show reduced support for social policies such as affirmative action

frustration-aggression theory,

The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress.

social-exchange theory

The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs. costs and benefits do good feel good effect

realistic group conflict theory

The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources. the realistic group conflict theory suggests that prejudice arises when groups compete for scarce resources

social learning theory of aggression

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished. we learn aggression not only by experiencing its payoffs but also by observing others. The emotional arousal stemming from an aversive experience motivates aggression. Whether aggression or some other response actually occurs depends on what consequences we have learned to expect.

reward theory of attraction

The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events. Those who reward us, or whom we associate with rewards, we like. If a relationship gives us more rewards than costs, we will like it and will want it to continue.

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR INTERACT

The traffic between biology and behavior flows both ways. For example, higher levels of testosterone may cause dominant and aggressive behavior, but dominant and aggressive behavior can also lead to higher testosterone levels Testosterone surges, plus celebrationrelated drinking, probably explain the finding of Cardiff University researchers that fans of winning rather than losing soccer and rugby teams commit more postgame assaults- the eagles after winning the Super Bowl rioting

Religion and racial prejudice

The use of religion to support injustice helps explain a consistent pair of findings concerning North American Christianity: (1) White church members have expressed more racial prejudice than nonmembers, and (2) those professing fundamentalist beliefs have expressed more prejudice than those professing progressive beliefs "intrinsic" and "extrinsic" religiosity. They found that those for whom religion is an intrinsic end in itself (those who agree, for example, with the statement "My religious beliefs are what really lie behind my whole approach to life") express less prejudice than those for whom religion is more a means to other ends (who agree "A primary reason for my interest in religion is that my church is a congenial social activity").

describe the desirable vs undesirable experiment

They showed students slides in which various people, members of "Group A" or "Group B," were said to have done something desirable or undesirable. For example, "John, a member of Group A, visited a sick friend in the hospital." Twice as many statements described members of Group A as Group B. But both groups did nine desirable acts for every four undesirable behaviors. Since both Group B and the undesirable acts were less frequent, their co-occurrence—for example, "Allen, a member of Group B, dented the fender of a parked car and didn't leave his name"—was an unusual combination that caught people's attention. The students therefore overestimated the frequency with which the "minority" group (B) acted undesirably, and they judged Group B more harshly. Remember, Group A members outnumbered Group B members two to one, and Group B members committed undesirable acts in the same proportion as Group A members (thus, they committed only half as many). Moreover, the students had no preexisting biases for or against Group B, and they received the information more systematically than daily experience ever offers it

prejudice and conformity

Those who conformed most to other social norms were also most prejudiced; those who were less conforming mirrored less of the surrounding prejudice. Conformity also maintains gender prejudice. "If we have come to think that the nursery and the kitchen are the natural sphere of a woman,"

Does viewing sexual violence reinforce the "rape myth"—that some women would welcome sexual assault and that "no doesn't really mean no"?

To explore the relationship experimentally, Neil Malamuth and James Check (1981) showed University of Manitoba men either two nonsexual movies or two movies depicting a man sexually overcoming a woman. A week later, when surveyed by a different experimenter, those who saw the films with mild sexual violence were more accepting of violence against women. This was especially true if they were aroused by the films For example, while spending three evenings watching sexually violent movies, men became progressively less bothered by the raping and slashing (Mullin & Linz, 1995). Compared with men not exposed to the films, the men expressed less sympathy for domestic violence victims and rated the victims' injuries as less severe—even three days later. Note that the sexual message (that many women enjoy being "taken")

discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members. Prejudice is a negative attitude; discrimination is negative behavior. Discriminatory behavior often has its source in prejudicial attitudes Racism and sexism are institutional practices that discriminate, even when there is no prejudicial intent. There can be racism without racists and sexism without sexists.

does liking an in-group mean you have to dislike the outgrip?

We also ascribe uniquely human emotions (love, hope, contempt, resentment) to ingroup members, and are more reluctant to see such human emotions in outgroup members If you're a patriot and love your country, that means you are willing to die to defend it against an enemy that you probably hate Yet ingroup bias and discrimination result less from outgroup hostility than from ingroup favoritism (Balliet et al., 2014; Greenwald & Pettigrew, 2014). Bias is less a matter of dislike toward those who are different than of networking and mutual support among those in one's group. Even when there is no "them" (imagine yourself bonding with a handful of fellow survivors on a deserted island), one can come to love "us" (Gaertner et al., 2006). So it seems that positive feelings for our own groups need not be mirrored by equally strong negative feelings for outgroups

When are we more prone to in-group bias?

We are more prone to ingroup bias when our group is small and differs in status relative to the outgroup When our ingroup is the majority, we think less about it.

functional distance

We become friends with those who use the same entrances, parking lots, and recreation areas. Randomly assigned college roommates who interact frequently are far more likely to become good friends than enemies Interaction enables people to explore their similarities, to sense one another's liking, to learn more about each other, and to perceive themselves as part of a social unit the architecture of friendship

social identity theory

We categorize: We find it useful to put people, ourselves included, into categories. To label someone as a Hindu, a Scot, or a bus driver is a shorthand way of saying some other things about the person. We identify: We associate ourselves with certain groups (our ingroups) and gain self-esteem by doing so. We compare: We contrast our groups with other groups (outgroups), with a favorable bias toward our own group. Having a sense of "we-ness" strengthens our self-concepts. It feels good. We seek not only respect for ourselves but also pride in our groups Because of our social identifications, we conform to our group norms. We sacrifice ourselves for team, family, and nation. The more important our social identity and the more strongly attached we feel to a group, the more we react prejudicially to threats from another group

guns and aggression

When Australia instituted stricter gun laws and bought back 700,000 guns after a 1996 mass shooting, gun-related murders fell 59 percent, and no mass shootings have occurred since What's within sight is within mind. This is especially so when a weapon is perceived as an instrument of violence rather than a recreational item. For hunters, seeing a hunting rifle does not prime aggressive thoughts, although it does for nonhunters

empathy based altruism

With their empathy aroused, many people are motivated to assist others in need or distress, even when their helping is anonymous or their own mood will be unaffected.

What is the women are wonderful effect?

a favorable stereotype that says most people like women more than men. They perceive women as more understanding, kind, and helpful.

rewards of aggression

aggression often pays Ex: A child who successfully intimidates other children by being aggressive will likely become increasingly aggressive Ex: Aggressive hockey players—the ones sent most often to the penalty box for rough play—score more goals than nonaggressive players

displacement

aggressive energy need not explode directly against its source. Most people learn to inhibit direct retaliation, especially when others might disapprove or punish; instead, we displace, or redirect, our hostilities to safer targets. Displacement occurs in an old anecdote about a man who, humiliated by his boss, berates his wife, who yells at their son, who kicks the dog, which bites the mail carrier (who goes home and berates his wife...). In experiments and in real life, displaced aggression is most likely when the target shares some similarity to the instigator and does some minor irritating act that unleashes the displaced aggression Definition: The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target.

Frustration

anything (such as the malfunctioning vending machine) that blocks us from attaining a goal. Frustration grows when our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong, when we expected gratification, and when the blocking is complete.

How can aggression be reduced?

catharsis does not work; expression violence and hostility breads more of the same cruel acts beget cruel attitudes use "I" responses rather than accusatory "you" responses when communicating frustrations The social learning approach suggests controlling aggression by counteracting the factors that provoke it: by reducing aversive stimulation, by rewarding and modeling nonaggression, and by eliciting reactions incompatible with aggression.

benevolent-hostility and sexism

gender attitudes often are ambivalent, reported from their surveys of 15,000 people in 19 nations. Gender attitudes frequently mix a benevolent sexism ("Women have a superior moral sensibility") with hostile sexism ("Once a man commits, she puts him on a tight leash"). in one 57-nation study, hostile sexists beliefs ("On the whole, men make better political leaders than women do") predicted increased future gender inequality (Brandt, 2011). Hostile sexism is overtly negative. Benevolent sexism, though sounding positive ("women deserve protection"), may still impede gender equity.

"Twinkie Defense"

in which an accused murderer's attorneys argued he had been eating a junk food diet of Twinkies and Coca-Cola. The upshot: To lower aggression, eat a diet high in omega-3 fatty acids, low in trans fat, and without sweetened drinks.

What does anticipating interaction do?

it boosts liking Anticipatory liking—expecting that someone will be pleasant and compatible—increases the chance of forming a rewarding relationship

gene (MAOA-L)

linked to aggression; some even call it the "warrior gene" or the "violence gene." In several studies, people with the gene showed more activation in the self-control center of their brains after being rejected or insulted, suggesting they were struggling to control their anger. They were also more likely to act aggressively when provoked Long-term studies following several hundred New Zealand children reveal that a recipe for aggressive behavior combines the MAOA-L gene with childhood maltreatment Neither "bad" genes nor a "bad" environment alone predispose later aggressiveness and antisocial behavior; rather, genes predispose some children to be more sensitive and responsive to maltreatment. Nature and nurture interact.

Instrumental aggression

means to an end, indirect; (war) Aggression that aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end. a high school student believes she can become popular by rejecting an unpopular girl

why does media viewing affect behavior?

media aroused and spills into or energizes behavior viewing violence disinhibits and legitimizes the option to commit violent acts it evokes imitation

Agression

physical and verbal bx intended to cause harm

Prejudice of women causing unequal status

powerful men who stereotype their female subordinates give them plenty of praise, but fewer resources, thus undermining their performance. This sort of patronizing allows the men to maintain their positions of power. In the laboratory, too, patronizing benevolent sexism (statements implying that women, as the weaker sex, need support) has undermined women's cognitive performance by planting intrusive thoughts—self-doubts, preoccupations, and decreased self-esteem (Dardenne et al., 2007).

Proximity

proximity Geographical nearness. Proximity (more precisely, "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking. One powerful predictor of whether any two people are friends is sheer proximity. most people marry someone who lives in the same neighborhood, or works at the same company or job, or sits in the same class, or visits the same favorite place "functional distance" is even a greater predictor

evolutionary helping

reciprocity and devotion to kin

pain

varied the source of pain. They found that not only shocks induced attack; intense heat and "psychological pain"—for example, suddenly not rewarding hungry pigeons that have been trained to expect a grain reward after pecking at a disk— brought the same reaction as shocks. This "psychological pain" is, of course, frustration.

dual attitude system

we can have different explicit (conscious) and implicit (automatic) attitudes toward the same target Implicit Association Test (IAT) Although explicit attitudes may change dramatically with education, implicit attitudes may linger, changing only as we form new habits through practice