Exam 3

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *9. Physical activity* * Work and exercise modify the amount of lipid contained in body.* * Promotes _________ to meet increased energy requirements.* *THATS THE END OF ADIPOSE TISSUE: ANTOMY AND DEVELOPMENT!*

* - Promotes _________ to meet increased energy requirements.* lypolysis

*Lipogenesis vs Lipolysis* Overview slide * Fatty acids from Triacylglycerides in the blood come from these two places:* *1.* *2.*

* Fatty acids from Triacylglycerides in the blood come from these two places:* 1. diet 2. hepatic synthesis

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *4 FOURTH MAJOR FACTOR 4: Breed/Strain* *• Different breeds or genetic lines within a species vary in their ability to deposit adipose tissues.* * • Includes differences in the ____________ of fat between adipose tissues.* - Example: Some genetic lines of pigs in the 1950s deposited >2" of subcutaneous fat at market weight but today's lines deposit a few millimeters

* • Includes differences in the ____________ of fat between adipose tissues.* distribution

*What are the specific actions of Estrogen that affect bone?* *Bone:* *- Accelerates epiphyseal plate closure in animals after puberty by ______________ chondrocyte proliferation and function* *- Increases bone density by:* *• _________ osteoclast apoptosis* *• _____________ osteoclast activity* *• _________ osteoblast apoptosis*

*- Accelerates epiphyseal plate closure in animals after puberty by ______________ chondrocyte proliferation and function* suppressing *• _________ osteoclast apoptosis* increasing *• _____________ osteoclast activity* decreasing *• _________ osteoblast apoptosis* decreasing

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *2 SECOND MAJOR FACTOR 2. Anatomical location* - Different fat deposits throughout the body accumulate lipid and different rates during development. - Example: Intramuscular adipocytes in pigs account for almost 50% of all adipocytes but store only ~10% of total lipids in the body. *- Adipose tissues that develop ______ usually accumulate more fat compared to those that develop _______.* • Intramuscular fat develops after most other fat tissues.

*- Adipose tissues that develop ______ usually accumulate more fat compared to those that develop _______.* early late Graph comparing quality fat Mature = subcutaneous Moisture = cytoplasm content Subcutaneous = bigger/large get fewer in 1 gram of tissue Fat content corresponds to when these tissues develop in the fetus

*GH in mice, man and livestock * *2. Administration of Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)* *- Administered very frequently since it is a ___________* *- Results in similar composition differences compared with exogenous "GH"* *Draw out the diagram of GHRH*

*- Administered very frequently since it is a ___________* peptide

*-- Describe where and how lipogenesis takes place --* ------------------------------------------------ *Location of Lipogenesis is species specific:* *Where would you expect lipogenesis to occur in cattle, sheep, and pigs?* *How about lipogenesis in avian species?*

*Where would you expect lipogenesis to occur in cattle, sheep, and pigs?* adipose tissue *How about lipogenesis in avian species?* liver

*Catecholamines (epinephrin and norepinephrin)* *Adrenergic Receptors (receptors that bind catecholamines)* *• Epinephrine acts through what type of receptors?* *• Norepinephrine acts through what two types of receptors?*

*• Epinephrine acts through what type of receptors?* beta *• Norepinephrine acts through what two types of receptors?* alpha and beta-1

*More on adipoblasts and adipocytes* *• Adipoblasts contain no _________ ___________ or lipid droplets.* *• Preadipocytes contain some _________ _________ & few lipid droplets.* *• Adipocytes:* *- Deposition of lipid in the adipocyte results in ____________ or enlargement of each adipocyte.* *Order these fat organizations from smallest to largest:* * fat section, fat cell, fat lobule, fat lobe/pearl.*

*- Contain no _________ ___________or lipid droplets.* lipogenic enzymes *• Preadipocytes contain some _________ _________ & few lipid droplets.* lipogenic enzymes *- Deposition of lipid in the adipocyte results in ____________ or enlargement of each adipocyte.* hypertrophy *Order these fat organizations from smallest to largest: fat section, fat cell, fat lobule, fat lobe/pearl.* fat cell, fat lobule, fat pearl, fat section

*Understand the diagram relating to bone and estrogen.* *Estrogen stops osteoclast activity and promotes osteoclast apoptosis.* ----------------------------------------------- *Muscle:* *- Direct - stimulation of muscle growth by enhancing __________ ____________* *- Indirect - stimulates secretion of GH that decreases rates of muscle degradation and increases muscle synthesis* *- ANABOLIC in ruminants but less in pigs*

*- Direct - stimulation of muscle growth by enhancing __________ ____________* protein synthesis

*Estrogen postnatal effects on fat:* *Fat types like other tissues express different combinations of ERa and ERb* *- Increases lipogenesis and lipolysis depending on the type of estrogen receptors present in that type of fat (ERa or ERb)* * Generally increases the size of subcutaneous adipocytes while reducing the size of internal adipocytes:* *• In part explains why males have more visceral fat and females more subcutaneous fat* *- Estrogen is important for glucose uptake by liver and muscle. Thus, when estrogen levels fall glucose is transported instead to __________ where it is converted to fat.* • Explains why % fat increases after menopause

*- Estrogen is important for glucose uptake by liver and muscle. Thus, when estrogen levels fall glucose is transported instead to __________ where it is converted to fat.* adipose

*--Characterize the differences between white and brown adipose tissue and understand how brown adipose tissue generates body heat through non-shivering thermogenesis--* --------------------------------------------------------- *Types of Adipose Tissue* *1. Brown adipose* *- Extensive ___________. High numbers of iron containing ___________, hence brown color. * *- Common in ___________, __________ animals, _________ __________ animals.* *a) Maintenance of body heat immediately after birth in neonates for 7-10 days* • No longer functional in adult life *b) Initiated by rousing of hibernating animals.* • Persistence throughout life of hibernating animals *Brown adipose tissue is brown because: * *T/F: Brown adipose is found in humans and all animals of all age groups* *T/F: Pigs cannot use brown adipose tissue effectively.*

*- Extensive ___________. High numbers of iron containing ___________, hence brown color. * vascularity mitochondria *- Common in ___________, __________ animals, _____________animals.* neonates hibernating cold adapted *Brown adipose tissue is brown because: * it contains high numbers of iron containing mitochondria *T/F: Brown adipose is found in humans and all animals of all age groups* false *T/F: Pigs cannot use brown adipose tissue effectively.* true

*Glucocorticoids* *Actions* *- Generally exert __________ effects to mobilize energy under conditions of chronic stress or injury* *- Decreases muscle protein synthesis and increases muscle protein degradation to make amino acids available for glucose production* *- Enhances lipolysis by enhancing catecholamine stimulated lipolysis* *- Promotes ________________ * ---------------------------------------------------- *GC - specific actions- Bone -* *Suppresses bone growth and remodeling* *Direct effects* • Suppresses chondrocyte proliferation • Suppresses osteoblast proliferation *Indirect effects:* *• Reduces chondrocyte and osteoblast responsiveness to ____* *• Inhibits ____ production and ______ numbers*

*- Generally exert __________ effects to mobilize energy under conditions of chronic stress or injury* catabolic *- Promotes ________________ * gluconeogenesis *• Reduces chondrocyte and osteoblast responsiveness to ____* GH *• Inhibits ____ production and ______ numbers* IGF-1 IGF-1R

*Synthetic Anabolic Steroid Hormones for Improving Growth* *Androgen + Estrogen combinations* *- Most effective in ___________* *- Combination binds estrogen and testosterone receptors in muscle:* *1. Increases protein accretion due to decreased protein degradation resulting in myofiber _____________* *2. May increase recruitment of satellite cells that develops into new muscle* *3. Increases ____ secretion*

*- Most effective in ___________* castrates *1. Increases protein accretion due to decreased protein degradation resulting in myofiber _____________* hypertrophy *3. Increases ____ secretion* GH

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *7 SEVENTH MAJOR FACTOR: Nutrition* *- Reduced energy intake induces _______ so that FAs are released for oxidation.* *- During high energy intake excess energy is stored as ______ in adipocytes through ____________.* - Fat depots are differently affected by these changes in energy consumption (see Table 7.5, Figure 7.12) ------------------------------------------------------- *Lamb Study * Intermuscular (muscle fat) fat is staying relatively low here.

*- Reduced energy intake induces _______ so that FAs are released for oxidation.* lipolysis *- During high energy intake excess energy is stored as ______ in adipocytes through ____________.* TAGs Lipogenesis

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *8. Environmental temperature* *- Mammals use energy to maintain a constant body temperature.* *- When temperatures drop below the ____________ _______, adipose tissue will be mobilized to produce heat.* *- Animals will eat ______ to keep up with this ___________ energy demand.* *- Feed to body gain ratios will drop as the extra energy consumed is used for heat production* *Describe feed efficiency and how it is affected by the temperature the animals are raised in*

*- When temperatures drop below the ____________ _______, adipose tissue will be mobilized to produce heat.* Thermoneutral zone *- Animals will eat ______ to keep up with this ___________ energy demand.* more increased *Describe feed efficiency and how it is affected by the temperature the animals are raised in* Feed efficiency is feed over gain. Lower temp = drop in feed to body gain ratio.

*Testosterone secretion varies with age* *1. Prenatal:* *-High concentrations produced by male FETUS that is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to induce male development* *- Influences _____________ by increasing the number of ___________ formed resulting in increased muscle fiber numbers in males compared with females* _________________________________________________________________________ *2. Postnatal:* *- Increased concentrations just after birth and during & after ____________* *- ___________ with increasing age*

*-High concentrations produced by male ___________ that is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to induce male development* fetus *- Influences _____________ by increasing the number of ___________ formed resulting in increased muscle fiber numbers in males compared with females* myogenesis myoblasts *- Increased concentrations just after birth and during & after ____________* puberty *- ___________ with increasing age* declines

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *6 SIXTH MAJOR FACTOR 6: Hormones* - In addition to sex hormones other hormones have significant effects on adipose tissue composition and metabolism: *1) Insulin - ___________* *2) Growth Hormone - _________* *3) Glucagon - ___________* *4) Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) - ________/________* *5) Glucocorticoids - ___________* *6) Catecholamines - _________* *7) Thyroid Hormones - ________*

*1) Insulin - ___________* lipogenic = anabolic *2) Growth Hormone - _________* lypolytic *3) Glucagon - ___________* lipolytic = catabolic *4) Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) - ________/________* lipogenic/lipolytic *5) Glucocorticoids - ___________* lipolytic *6) Catecholamines - _________* lipolytic *7) Thyroid Hormones - ________* lypolytic

*-- Describe the process of Adipogenesis including:* *-The characteristics of all precursor cells that give rise to adipocytes.* *-The tertiary structure of adipose tissue* -------------------------------------------------------- *Adipogenesis* *1. Adipose tissue develops from _________ connective tissue derived from the _____________ (like muscle and bone).* *2. ___________________ from the mesoderm gives rise to ______________ which are an early form of fat cell. * *3. Eventually adipoblasts stop replicating and differentiate into _________________.* *4. Preadipocytes mature into _____________ after lipid droplets coalesce to form one large globule.* *Draw out the diagram and use the following structures* Mature Fibroblast Mesenchymal cell Preadipocyte Developing adipocytes Adipoblast

*1. Adipose tissue develops from _________ connective tissue derived from the _____________ (like muscle and bone).* loose mesoderm *2. ___________________ from the mesoderm give rise to ______________ which are an early form of fat cell. * mesenchymal cells Adipoblasts *3. Eventually adipoblasts stop replicating and differentiate into _________________.* preadipocytes *4. Preadipocytes mature into _____________ after lipid droplets coalesce to form one large globule.* adipocytes

*Functions of Adipose tissues* *What are the 7 functions of adipose?* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. *What kind of vitamins can fat store?*

*1. Energy substrate*: Used when nutrient intake is restricted, energy density > carbohydrates and protein *2. Storage*: Lipids, vitamins, essential fatty acids, fat soluble A,D, E, K *3. Protection and insulation* of vital organs *4. Physical support* *5. Maintenance of serum lipids* *6. Generation of heat* (brown adipose tissue) *7. Source of hormones* *What kind of vitamins can fat store?* fat soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K

*Growth hormone Function:* *1. Increases __________ of practically all tissues* *2. Mobilizes _________ required for growth* *How does GH control these processes?* *1. Direct effects* • Mediated through GH receptors in different tissues *2. Indirect effects* • Modulated through release of other hormones or growth factors • Catecholeamines, thyroid hormone, insulin, but mostly IGF-1 • IGF-1 acts on muscle, bone, fat and other tissues

*1. Increases __________ of practically all tissues* growth *2. Mobilizes _________ required for growth* energy

*GH in mice, man and livestock * *3. Immunize animals against ________________* - Increases growth hormone secretion by release of suppressive effects of somatostatin; therefore, increasing growth *4. Creating transgenic animals* *- Insertion of an extra copy of the ___ gene that can be turned off and on* • Over expression of growth hormone resulting in increased growth *5. Bovine Somatotrophin (bST) in dairy cows* *How does (bST) function in dairy cattle?* Now onto sex steroids!

*3. Immunize animals against ________________* somatostatin *- Insertion of an extra copy of the ___ gene that can be turned off and on* GH *How does (bST) function in dairy cattle?* Increases milk production by decreasing the reduction in milk production after peak lactation.

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *6 SIXTH MAJOR FACTOR: Hormones Continued. . . * *8) Leptin is produced by __________* *- Reduces _______ and _____ intake* *Circulating concentrations related to adipose tissue _______* *Ø Leptin is _________ in obese animals and increases with overfeeding* *Ø Leptin is ________ in lean animals*

*8) Leptin is produced by __________* adipocytes *- Reduces _______ and _____ intake* appetite and feed intake *-Circulating concentrations related to adipose tissue _______* mass *Ø Leptin is _________ in obese animals and increases with overfeeding* elevated *Ø Leptin is ________ in lean animals* lower

*--Characterize the differences between white and brown adipose tissue and understand how brown adipose tissue generates body heat through non-shivering thermogenesis--* --------------------------------------------------------- *Types of adipose tissue* *1. Brown adipose* *Associated with ____-_____________thermogenesis* *Fatty acids converted to HEAT in adipose tissue due to ____________ ____________-___ (also known as _______), allows uncoupling of oxidaiton from ATP formation* *What is the mechanism for heat production rather than ATP synthesis?* *Where does this process of non-shivering thermogenesis occur?*

*Associated with ____-_____________thermogenesis* non-shivering *Fatty acids converted to HEAT in adipose tissue due to ____________ ____________-___ (also known as _______), allows uncoupling of oxidaiton from ATP formation* uncoupling protein-1 (UGP1) *Where does this process of non-shivering thermogenesis occur?* mitochondria

*Recap* *Compare and contrast brown and white adipose tissue.*

*Brown adipose*: High number of mitochondria, produces heat, no longer functional in adult life, FA are converted to heat by mitochondria inside the cell, surrounds vital organ areas *White adipose*: predominant fat in the body throughout life time, poorly developed mitochondria, energy storage, after lipolysis FA are released from the cell

*Define Adipogenesis* *Describe the process of adipogenesis* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. * Adipocytes collect together to form ___________ that eventually develop into larger ___________.* *• Lobules of fat are separated and supported by loose connective tissue called __________.* *What is the purpose of septa?*

*Define Adipogenesis* process of cell differentiation by which preadipocytes become adipocytes, formation of fat cells. *Describe the process of adipogenesis* 1. Adipose tissue develops from loose connective tissue derived from the mesoderm 2. Mesenchymal cells from the mesoderm give rise to adipoblasts which are an early form of fat cell 3. Eventually adipoblasts stop replicating and differentiate into preadipocytes 4. Preadipocytes mature into adipocytes after lipid droplets coalesce to form one large globule 5. Adipocytes collect together to form lobules that eventually develop into larger lobes 6. Lobules of fat are separated and supported by loose connective tissue called septa * Adipocytes collect together to form ___________ that eventually develop into larger ___________.* lobules lobes *• Lobules of fat are separated and supported by loose connective tissue called __________.* septa: bundles fat together *What is the purpose of septa?* Septa carries blood vessels and nerves to adipose tissue.

*Lipogenesis* *Describe the process of adipose tissue metabolism, including the enzymes that are utilized. (Lipogenesis vs lipolysis)* *Adipocytes store fat as ___________ _________* *Adipocytes accumulate FA's to produce TAGs by: * *1. Extracting FA's from TAG's in the BLOOD, which comes from:* *a. _________* orrrrrr *b. ______________ ___________* *2. _____ _____________ synthesis of FA's* *Where is hormone-sensitive lipase effective? Where is lipoprotein lipase effective?*

*Describe the process of adipose tissue metabolism, including the enzymes that are utilized.* *Lipogenesis* is the synthesis or absorption of FA; lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes TAGs in chylomicrons to free fatty acids that can be used for lipogenesis. *Lipolysis* is the breakdown of TAG within adipocytes that is controlled by hormone sensitive lipase *Adipocytes store fat as _______ -_______ _________* triacyl glycerols *1. Extracting FA's from TAG's in the _______, which comes from:* blood *a. _____________* diet *b. ______________* hepatic synthesis *2. _____ _____________ synthesis of FA's* de novo (from new) *Where is hormone-sensitive lipase effective? Where is lipoprotein lipase effective?* HSL = fat cell LPL = capillaries (blood stream)

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *5 FIFTH MAJOR FACTOR 5: Sex* *Does male of female have increased fat composition?* * • Associated with increased _________ of adipocytes but fewer in ___________ per unit of tissue than males and castrates* *• Earlier closure of _________________ ___________ in females resulting in decreased growth and enhancement of fattening* *• Sex also influences fat _____________* *How does the sex of an animal influence fat distribution?*

*Does male of female have increased fat composition?* females * • Associated with increased _________ of adipocytes but fewer in ___________ per unit of tissue than males and castrates* size (fewer but bigger) number *• Earlier closure of _________________ ___________ in females resulting in decreased growth and enhancement of fattening* epiphyseal plate *• Sex also influences fat _____________* distribution *How does the sex of an animal influence fat distribution?* in females, there is increased fatness due to larger size of adipocytes but fewer in number than males.

*GH in mice, man and livestock* *Excess GH:* *- _____________ - mice genetically engineered to express extra copies of the GH gene.* *No response to GH* *- ____________ - mice genetically engineered with a deficiency of one or both copies of the GH Receptor knock-out (GHR-/-)*

*Excess GH:* *- _____________ - mice genetically engineered to express extra copies of the GH gene.* transgenic *No response to GH* *- ____________ - mice genetically engineered with a deficiency of one or both copies of the GH Receptor knock-out (GHR-/-)* knockout

*What is an Androgen?* *Generic term for any molecule, including testosterone, which does what 3 things?* 1. 2. 3. *T/F: Males produce some estrogen, and females produce some testosterone.* *T/F: Castrates have better feed conversion ratios then intact animals.*

*Generic term for any molecule, including testosterone, which does what 3 things?* 1. Binds androgen receptors 2. Stimulates activity of male organs 3. Encourages development of male sex characteristics *T/F: Males produce some estrogen, and females produce some testosterone.* true *T/F: Castrates have better feed conversion ratios then intact animals.* false

*Growth Hormone (GH) also called _______________* *Major regulator of growth* -make alot of growth hormone -always make some growth hormone *What category/type of hormone is it?* *Where is GH produced?* *What organ does GH directly target?* * What organs does it indirectly target?* *What kind of effect does GH have on growth?* *Draw the diagram for GH* *Secretion of GH is ____________* -mostly during sleep

*Growth Hormone (GH) also called _______________* somatotrophin *What category/type of hormone is it?* protein *Where is GH produced?* Anterior pituitary *What organ does GH directly target?* liver * What organs does it indirectly target?* bone, muscle, fat, others, through IGF-1 *What kind of effect does GH have on growth?* anabolic *Secretion of GH is ____________* episodic

*--Know how to classify hormones according to extracellular signaling--* ------------------------------------------------ *Hormones are classified according to the mechanism of _____________ delivery.* *What are the 4 mechanisms of hormonal signaling?* 1. 2. 3. 4. *Why can't protein and peptide hormones penetrate the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane?*

*Hormones are classified according to the mechanism of _____________ delivery.* extracellular *What are the 4 mechanisms of hormonal signaling?* 1. Autocrine 2. Paracrine 3. Endocrine 4. Neurocrine *Why can't protein and peptide hormones penetrate the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane?* They are water soluble and cannot penetrate the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane.

*Cheat sheet of what to know about insulin/glucagon.* 1. liver 2. muscle 3. fat *Is insulin catabolic or anabolic?* *Is glucagon catabolic or anabolic?*

*Is insulin catabolic or anabolic?* anabolic *Is glucagon catabolic or anabolic?* catabolic

*Compare how adipose tissue develops prenatally versus postnatally*

*Prenatally*, adipoblast grow by hyperplasia, adipocytes begin to accumulate with little hypertrophy and there is initiation of vascularization of connective tissue with adipose. *Postnatally*, adipose grows in diameter and volume by hypertrophy of adipocytes, theres limited adipoblast hyperplasia. There are repeated phases of recruitment.

*RECAP: Adipoblasts grow by _________ while developing adipocytes grow by __________* *Define lipogenic* *--Understand the contribution of adipocyte number and volume to fetal & postnatal adipose tissue development--* ----------------------------------------------------- *Postnatal* *• Postnatal adipose growth is through increasing ___________ and ____________ of adipocytes (hypertrophy).* *• Limited adipoblast _______________ continues after birth.*

*RECAP: Adipoblasts grow by _________ while developing adipocytes grow by __________* hyperplasia hypertrophy *Define lipogenic* producing, forming or caused by fat *• Postnatal adipose growth is through increasing ___________ and ____________ of adipocytes (hypertrophy).* diameter and volume *• Limited adipoblast _______________ continues after birth.* hyperplasia

*RECAP: The dense connective tissue that separates and supports lobules of fat is called __________* *Fat originally develops from which type of connective tissue?* *--Understand the contribution of adipocyte number and volume to fetal & postnatal adipose tissue development--* ----------------------------------------------------- *Fetal* *• Adipoblast ____________ is significant* *• Accumulation of small adipocytes with little ______________* *• Initiation of ______________ of connective tissue associated with adipose*

*RECAP: The dense connective tissue that separates and supports lobules of fat is called __________* septa *Fat originally develops from which type of connective tissue?* loose connective tissue *• Adipoblast ____________ is significant* hyperplasia *• Accumulation of small adipocytes with little ______________* hypertrophy *• Initiation of ______________ of connective tissue associated with adipose* vascularization

*Hormone Secretion Regulation* *• Hormones from the pituitary reach peripheral tissues where they may induce the secretion of additional hormones* *• Some of these INHIBIT the secretion of hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary* *Why?* So no surplus of hormones. Break pedal. *Recap: which side of the pituitary does not have a blood step? Which does?*

*Recap: which side of the pituitary does not have a blood step? Which does?* posterior: no blood step anterior: has a neurocrine step

*--Name how lipogenesis differs between ruminant and monogastric animals--* ------------------------------------------------------- *1. Ruminant* *Rumen microbes modify FA "before" absorption. Therefore FA in feed and adipose is ___________________* *What is the substrate for de novo synthesis of FA?* *_________________; a volatile fatty acid produced in large quantities by rumen microorganisms* ------------------------------------------------------- *2. Monogastric* *Unmodified FAs absorbed from the diet enters blood stream. Therefore FA in feed and adipose ______________* *What is the substrate for de novo synthesis of FA?* *_______________* *Why would a pig's meat taste "fishy" if you fed it a lot of fish oil? Would the same thing happen to a cow? Why or why not? *

*Ruminant* *Rumen microbes modify FA before absorption. Therefore FA in feed and adipose is ___________________* different *_________________; a volatile fatty acid produced in large quantities by rumen microorganisms* acetate *Monogastric* *Unmodified FAs absorbed from the diet enters blood stream. Therefore FA in feed and adipose ______________* similar *_______________* glucose *Why would a pig's meat taste "fishy" if you fed it a lot of fish oil? Would the same thing happen to a cow? Why or why not? * Pigs and monogastric digestive systems take and store oils as they are given where cows/ruminants would modify fats after consumption so adipose would not be the same.

*Hormone Binding Proteins* *--Understand why cells selectively express hormone receptors--* ------------------------------------------------ *Since hormones are not stored, what two things does the concentration of the hormone depend on?* 1. 2. *• ___________ Proteins are molecules that increase the half-life of hormones by binding and protecting them from _______________ in blood and extracellular fluid* *• Half-life (t1/2): is the time it takes _______ of the hormone to be degraded.* - Growth Hormone, Insulin: few minutes - Thyroid hormone: days *--Describe the purpose of hormone binding proteins and how they work--*

*Since hormones are not stored, what two things does the concentration of the hormone depend on?* secretion and degradation *• ___________ Proteins are molecules that increase the halflife of hormones by binding and protecting them from _______________ in blood and extracellular fluid* binding degradation *• Half-life (t1/2): is the time it takes _______ of the hormone to be degraded.* half

*Synthetic Catecholamines can alter growth and development in livestock* *Synthetic catecholamines promote growth of _________ over _____ during fattening period in cattle and pigs*

*Synthetic catecholamines promote growth of _________ over _____ during fattening period in cattle and pigs* muscle over fat

*Compare and contrast Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes*

*Type 1: *Auto-immune disease, immune response to B-cells, the body's immune system destroys the cells that release insulin, eliminating insulin production. Without insulin, cells cannot absorb glucose, which they need to produce energy *Type 2: *Metabolic disease, the body isn't able to use insulin the right way (insulin resistance), too much energy production, cell receptors lose sensitivity, B cells make more insulin, become distorted

*What are the 2 parts of the pituitary gland and how do they differ?* 1. 2. *What kind of cells would be dangerous if exposed to growth hormone?* *How do we get mini vs. toy vs. standard sized dog breeds?*

*What are the 2 parts of the pituitary gland and how do they differ?* 1. Anterior: secretion of hormones controlled by hypothalamus releasing or inhibiting hormones. 2. Posterior: secretion of hormones controlled by neuronal signal stimuli. *What kind of cells would be dangerous if exposed to growth hormone?* cancer cells *How do we get mini vs. toy vs. standard sized dog breeds?* due to different versions of IGF-1 with different levels of activity

*Synthetic Anabolic Steroid Hormones for Improving Growth* *Primary use is to improve efficiency of gain in beef cattle* *- Used mainly in castrates and females because of behavioral problems with in intact males* *What are the 3 synthetic analogue types that animals are given for production?* 1. 2. 3. *Why wouldn't you want to give an artificial androgen to an intact male?*

*What are the 3 synthetic analogue types that animals are given for production?* 1. Androgens 2. Estrogens 3. Progestins *Why wouldn't you want to give an artificial androgen to an intact male?* they are already producing sufficient quantities of testosterone.

*What are the three functions of the pancreas?* 1. 2. 3. *Why do monogastrics have to have their blood glucose tightly controlled, but ruminants don't?*

*What are the three functions of the pancreas?* 1. Exocrine function that helps in digestion (alpha cells synth glucagon 2. Endocrine function that regulates blood sugar (beta cells synthesize insulin) 3. Islets of Langerhans synthesize nuclei for all cells *Why do monogastrics have to have their blood glucose tightly controlled, but ruminants don't?* Because the microbes see the starch first and break it down, they rely on VFA for survival thus they do not have much glucose, unlike monogastrics that depend on glucose.

*Catecholamines (epinephrin and norepinephrin a.k.a. adrenaline and noradrenaline) * *What category/type of hormone does catecholamines fall into?* *Where are they produced?* *Targets multiple organs.* *What is the effects of catecholamines?* *Adrenal gland* • Located on the dorsal aspect of kidney *• Consist of specific layers and highly _______________ and ______________*

*What category does catecholamines fall into?* single amino acid derivatives *Where are they produced?* adrenal medulla (on kidneys) *What is the effects of catecholamines?* modulates sympathetic and parasympathetic stress responses. *• Consist of specific layers and highly _______________ and ______________* vascularized and innervated

*ESTROGEN* *What category/type of hormone is estrogen?* *Where is estrogen produced?* *What are the target organs of estrogen?* *What is the effect that estrogen has on the body?* *Draw the diagram of how estrogen is produced in the body.*

*What category of hormone is estrogen?* steroid hormone *Where is estrogen produced?* follicles of the ovaries *What are the target organs of estrogen?* reproductive organs, bone, muscle, fat *What is the effect that estrogen has on the body?* female reproductive maturity and sexual behavior, mammary duct growth, body growth

*Insulin and Glucagon* *What category of hormones are insulin and glucagon* *• Production: ________ ___ __________ in pancreas:* *Which cell type synthesizes glucagon?* *Which cell type synthesizes insulin?*

*What category of hormones are insulin and glucagon?* protein hormones *• Production: ________ ___ __________ in pancreas:* islets of langherhans *Which cell type synthesizes glucagon?* alpha cells *Which cell type synthesizes insulin?* beta cells

*Testosterone* *What category/type of hormones is testosterone?* *What cell type produces testosterone?* *What are the target organs of testosterone?* *What is the overall EFFECT of testosterone? (2 important things)* *Draw out the diagram of Hypothalamus producing GnRH and how its targets the sertoli/leydig cells of the testis.*

*What category of hormones is testosterone?* Steroid hormone (ANDROGEN) *What cell type produces testosterone?* Leydig cells *What are the target organs of testosterone?* reproductive organs, muscle, bone, fat *What is the overall effect of testosterone?* spermatogenesis and body growth

*Glucocorticoids* *What category/type of hormone are glucocorticoids?* *Where are glucocorticoids produced?* *What is their effect on growth? (catabolic/anabolic)* *Adrenal cortex* 1. Zona glomerulosa - mineralocorticoids 2. Zona reticularis - steroids *3. Zona fasiculata - glucocorticoids*

*What category/type of hormone are glucocorticoids?* steroid hormone *Where are glucocorticoids produced?* adrenal cortex *What is their effect on growth?* Catabolic, modulated carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism

*Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1)* *What category/type of hormone is it?* *Where is IGF-1 produced?* *What organ does IGF-1 directly target?* *What kind of effect does IGF-1 have?* *Draw the diagram for IGF-1/SRIF* *Secretion of IGF-1 is ____________* *The difference between miniature and standard size dogs of the same breed is due to different verisons of IGF-1 with different levels of activity.* *Malnutrition reduces circulating IGF-1 that leads to stunted growth.* -Increase nutrition = increase IGF-1

*What category/type of hormone is it?* protein hormone *Where is IGF-1 produced?* liver, skeletal muscle, kidney, adipose, bone *What organ does IGF-1 directly target?* liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, adipose bone *What kind of effect does IGF-1 have?* anabolic *Draw the diagram for IGF-1*

*Catecholamines (epinephrin and norepinephrin)* *What causes catecholamines to be released?* *Causes dramatic adjustments in metabolism to release energy* *• Increased _____________ in liver* *• Increased _______________ in liver and muscle* *• Increased ___________* *Physiological effects* *• Mobilization of glycogen and fat for energy* *• Various vascular changes such as increased heart rate and blood flow* *• Increased body temperature and respiration *

*What causes catecholamines to be released?* acute stress *• Increased _____________ in liver* gluconeogenesis *• Increased _______________ in liver and muscle* glycogenolysis *• Increased ___________* lipolysis

*GH - specific actions on BONE* *• Stimulates production of IGF-1 in "proliferation zone"* *- Effects on bone are largely indirect as they are mediated through IGF-1* *What cell increases in proliferation due to GH?* *What cell increases activity that increases the long bone growth prior to the closure of epiphyseal plate?* *• Increases ____________ growth, which increases bone thickness *

*What cell increases in proliferation due to GH?* chondrocyte *What cell increases activity that increases the long bone growth prior to the closure of epiphyseal plate?* osteoblasts *• Increases ____________ growth, which increases bone thickness * periosteal growth

*What happens if GH is too high before adulthood?* *What happens if GH is too high after puberty?* *What happens if GH is too few before adulthood?* *What happens if GH is too few after puberty?*

*What happens if GH is too high before adulthood?* gigantism *What happens if GH is too high after puberty?* bony overgrowth *What happens if GH is too few before adulthood?* short inidividual *What happens if GH is too few after puberty?* obesity, low muscle mass, depression

*--Describe the anatomical location of different adipose tissue deposits and their anatomical origins--* *Where are the 4 general locations fo adipose tissue?* 1. *a. perinephric - fat surrounding kidneys, pelvis and heart (KPH)* *b. omental or mesenteric- fat surrounding the GI tract * 2. 3. 4. *How does the location of deposition differ between males and females? *

*Where are the 4 general locations fo adipose tissue?* 1. *Visceral* in and around organs 2. *Subcutaneous* Under hide 3. *Intermuscular* Between muscles 4. *Intramuscular* Within muscles *How does the location of deposition differ between males and females? * increased "fatness" in females, early closure of epiphyseal plate results in decreased growth and enhancement of fattening. Males have more visceral adipose while females have more subcutaneous adipose tissue.

*Bone:* *What is testosterones effect postnatally on bone?* *Stops osteoclast activity, stops osteoblast apoptosis, and increases osteoblast proliferation/differentiation.* ------------------------------------------------ *Muscle:* *Direct - testosterone binds intracellular androgen receptors activating transcription factors that:* *1. _________ (inc/dec) protein synthesis* *2. _________ (inc/dec) protein degradation* *3. Increase _________ cell number* *Indirect - Blocks muscle degradation by _______________* *Net actions: synthesis > degradation = Increase protein accretion *

*What is testosterones effect postnatally on bone?* it increases bone mass and cortical thickness *1. _________ protein synthesis* increase *2. _________ protein degradation* decrease *3. Increase _________ cell number* satellite *Indirect - Blocks muscle degradation by _______________* glucodorticoids

*What is testosterones effect postnatally on fat? (promotes what two things)* 1. 2. *- Inhibits ___________ ___________ activity so that fatty acids are not available for uptake by adipocytes* *- Castration (no more testosterone) diverts energy from __________ to _____ deposition* *• Because fat deposition requires more energy per unit weight, castrates have _________ feed conversion ratios than intact animals* *What is Feed Conversion Ratio? How is it affected by temperature? *

*What is testosterones effect postnatally on fat? (promotes what two things)* 1. Lipolysis 2. Lipogenesis *- Inhibits ___________ ___________ activity so that fatty acids are not available for uptake by adipocytes* lipoprotein lipase *- Castration (no more testosterone) diverts energy from __________ to _____ deposition* muscle to fat *• Because fat deposition requires more energy per unit weight, castrates have _________ feed conversion ratios than intact animals* worse *What is Feed Conversion Ratio? How is it affected by temperature? * - The relationship between the input of the feed that has been fed and the weight gain. - Feed/Gain - Ratio will drop as the extra energy consumed is used for heat production.

*HORMONES* *--Know the definition of a hormone--* *How are hormones classified? (2 ways)* ------------------------------------------------ *Hormones are essential for every activity of life* a. digestion, metabolism, reproduction, mood, sleepy, immunity, etc. *This includes the coordination of ____________ & _______________ of complex organisms.*

*What is the definition of hormones?* chemical signaling molecules that regulate biological processes in the body. *How are hormones classified? (2 ways)* 1. amino acid derived 2. Cholesterol derived *This includes the coordination of ____________ & _______________ of complex organisms.* growth and development

*-- Describe the process of lipolysis--* ------------------------------------------------------- *What is the definition of lipolysis? (breakdown of what within what and results in what)* *1) Controlled by _________ _________ _________* *2) Primarily stimulated by hormones with ________ (anabolic/catabolic) actions* *FAs are targeted to various processes including:* *1) Catabolized for energy* *2) Used for membrane Synthesis*

*What is the definition of lipolysis?* Breakdown of TAG within adipocytes and results in diffusion of FA across cell membranes. *1) Controlled by _________ _________ _________* hormonse sensitive lipases *2) Primarily stimulated by hormones with ________ actions* catabolic

*--Know how to classify hormones according to their chemical nature--* ------------------------------------------------ *What is the difference between protein hormone and a peptide hormone?* *Insulin, IGF-1, GH are all protein hormones.* *What is the example of the peptide hormone from lecture? TRH and GnRH are also peptide hormones.* *• Tyrosine derivatives (Amine Hormones)* Ø Modified amino acids Ø Examples: Thyroxin (T4), Catecholamines, Dopamine *• Steroid Hormones derivatives are _________________ Metabolites* Ø Examples: Estrogen, Testosterone, Glucocorticoids *Which ones are amino acid derived hormones?* *Which ones are cholesterol derived hormones?*

*What is the difference between protein hormone and a peptide hormone?* Protein Ø > 20 amino acids Peptide Ø < 20 amino acids *What is the example of the peptide hormone from lecture? TRH and GnRH are also peptide hormones.* somatostatin *• Steroid Hormones derivatives are _________________ Metabolites* cholesterol *Which ones are amino acid derived hormones?* protein peptide tyrosine derived *Which ones are cholesterol derived hormones?* steroid

*What is the main glucocorticoid in mammals?* *What is the main glucocorticoid in avian species?* *Regulation of glucocorticoids* * NEUROCHEMICAL signals from stress are sent to the hypothalamus* - Hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) to stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion from the pituitary - ACTH induces adrenocortical cells to secrete GC in circulation * Negative feedback on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary via ______________ receptors*

*What is the main glucocorticoid in mammals?* cortisol *What is the main glucocorticoid in avian species?* coticosteroid * Negative feedback on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary via ______________ receptors* glucocorticoid

*What mechanisms are taking place to ensure the growth of a child while they're producing growth hormone?* *Why do you think the body favors lypolysis when exposed to growth hormone?* *Why can't you put growth hormone in the diet of animals grown for slaughter?*

*What mechanisms are taking place to ensure the growth of a child while they're producing growth hormone?* Energy has to be mobilized for growth, so there is lipolysis of adipose to convert the energy from fat for muscle growth. Also there is indirect production of IGF-1 in the proliferation zone of muscle stimulating chondrocyte proliferation and osteoblast activity to increase size of long bone as well as an increase in periosteal growth to inc. bone thickness. *Why do you think the body favors lypolysis when exposed to growth hormone?* Because energy has to be mobilized for growth, and when fat is broken down, the energy from it can be used for muscle growth. *Why can't you put growth hormone in the diet of animals grown for slaughter?* because GH remains in the meat.

*What category/type of hormone is leptin? * *Where is leptin produced?* *What are the target organs of leptin?* *What is the effect of leptin?* *Leptin* Increase in adipose tissue results in increased leptin, which induces hypothalamus to send signals to: *1. ________ (inc/dec) food intake* *2. _______ (inc/dec) energy expenditure* *3. Modulates other hormones including insulin, cortisol, and GH that decrease lipogenesis and increase lipolysis*

*What type of hormone is leptin? * peptide hormone *Where is leptin produced?* adipose tissues *What are the target organs of leptin?* hypothalamus *What is the effect of leptin?* suppresses appetite *1. ________ food intake* decrease *2. _______ energy expenditure* increase

*--Know that some hormones are regulated independently of the HPA--* ------------------------------------------------ *Hormone Secretion Regulation* *• The Pituitary is composed of anterior and posterior lobes* *Which lobe of the pituitary is responsible for secretion of hormones controlled by Hypothalamus "Releasing" or "Release-Inhibiting" hormones (RH, IH)* *Which lobe of the pituitary is responsible for the secretion of hormones controlled by neuronal signal stimuli?* • Some endocrine hormones are independent of HPA: Ø Examples: pancreatic hormones, erythropoietin, gastrointestinal hormones

*Which lobe of the pituitary is responsible for secretion of hormones controlled by Hypothalamus "Releasing" or "Release-Inhibiting" hormones (RH, IH)* anterior *Which lobe of the pituitary is responsible for the secretion of hormones controlled by neuronal signal stimuli?* posterior

*Understand the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes.* *Which one is an autoimmune destruction of beta cells? (basically no insulin)* *Which one has a reduced efficiency of insulin receptors = no response to insulin?* *. A farmer wants to give some exogenous hormones to improve the feed conversion ratio of his animals. What are some points he should consider when choosing a hormone? Why?*

*Which one is an autoimmune destruction of beta cells? (basically no insulin)* type 1 *Which one has a reduced efficiency of insulin receptors = no response to insulin?* type 2 *. A farmer wants to give some exogenous hormones to improve the feed conversion ratio of his animals. What are some points he should consider when choosing a hormone? Why?* He should consider wether they're intact or castrates, species, whether, he just wants to use just an androgen or a combination.

*--Know the different routes through which hormones signal their target cell--* ------------------------------------------------ *Different types of hormones signal cells thru different routes* *Which two types of hormones are water soluble and cannot penetrate the cell membrane? They instead bind receptors on the cell surface.* *Which type of hormones are lipid soluble and can penetrate the cell membrane to bind cytosolic or nuclear receptors?*

*Which two types of hormones are water soluble and cannot penetrate the cell membrane? They instead bind receptors on the cell surface.* peptide protein *Which type of hormones are lipid soluble and can penetrate the cell membrane to bind cytosolic or nuclear receptors?* steroid

*Draw out the diagram of the feedback loop of GH-IGF-1 axis* *Why do you think GH is often used for doping athletes?*

*Why do you think GH is often used for doping athletes?* allows for muscle growth and encourages lipolysis; which translates into energy and strength.

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *7 SEVENTH MAJOR FACTOR: Nutrition* *- The composition of the diet impacts lipid metabolism:* *Would you expect a high fat diet to increase or decrease FA synthesis?* *Would you expect a low fat diet high in carbohydrates to increase or decrease synthesis of FA's? What about TAG storage?* *• ___________/protein deficiencies or imbalances will result in increased lipogenesis because lean tissue accretion cannot be maximized* Barrel Theory: Restricted by limiting AA. *Diets high in fat have a (positive/negative) effect on the synthesis of fatty acids.*

*Would you expect a high fat diet to increase or decrease FA synthesis?* depress *Would you expect a low fat diet high in carbohydrates to increase or decrease synthesis of FA's? What about TAG storage?* increase increase *• ___________/protein deficiencies or imbalances will result in increased lipogenesis because lean tissue accretion cannot be maximized* amino acids *Diets high in fat have a (positive/negative) effect on the synthesis of fatty acids.* negative

*--Characterize the differences between white and brown adipose tissue and understand how brown adipose tissue generates body heat through non-shivering thermogenesis--* --------------------------------------------------------- *Types of Adipose Tissue* *2. White adipose* *_______________ fat in the body* * Long term ___________ ___________* * Few cytoplasmic inclusions* * Poorly developed ________________* * After lipolysis fatty acids are released from the cell unlike brown adipose where fatty acids are converted to heat by mitochondria inside the cell*

*_______________ fat in the body* predominant *- Long term ___________ ___________* energy storage *- Poorly developed ________________* mitochondria

*Embryonic Origin of the adipose* *Which -tome for the following:* *________________ = subcutaneous fat* *_________________= intermuscular fat* *____________ = visceral fat* *Critical transcription factors for fat cell differentiation* 1) PRARy 2) C/EBP3a *From what is adipose tissue derived?* * T/F: Subcutaneous fat cells are smaller and contain fewer lipids than other types of fat cells.*

*________________ = subcutaneous fat* dermatome *_________________= intermuscular fat* myotome *____________ = visceral fat* sclerotome *From what is adipose tissue derived?* mesoderm * T/F: Subcutaneous fat cells are smaller and contain fewer lipids than other types of fat cells.* false

*Adipose Tissue Metabolism* *• Adipose tissue is VERY efficient at storing tissue in the body as well as mobilizing that energy when it is needed. By doing this, we can maintain the body's energy balance.* *• Fat storage is a function of:* *What is the difference between lipogenesis and lypolysis?* *What is the equation for the net lipid accretion rate?* *If lipogenesis is "favored", what happens to the size of the fat cells?*

*a. ___________ : synthesis or absorption of FA from blood, and subsequent esterification to form triglycerides (TAG) in adipocyte.* lipogenesis *b. _________ : release of fatty acids (FA) from adipocyte, which involves breakdown of TAG within adipocytes and results in diffusion of FA across cell membranes.* lipolysis *What is the equation for the net lipid accretion rate?* Net lipid accretion rate = lipogenesis rate - lipolysis rate *If lipogenesis is "favored", what happens to the size of the fat cells?* increases

*--Describe the purpose of hormone binding proteins and how they work--* ------------------------------------------------ *Hormone Binding Proteins* *• Bound hormones are not usually ___________ active* *To become biologically active, what is necessary of the binding proteins?* *What are binding proteins? How do they work?*

*• Bound hormones are not usually ___________ active* biologically *To become biologically active, what is necessary of the binding proteins?* They must first dissociate from the Binding Protein (BP) to bind receptors on or in cells. *What are binding proteins? How do they work?* Molecules that increase the half-life of hormones by binding and protecting them from degradation in blood and extracellular fluid, also provides protection.

*--Describe the concept and components of hormone cascades and how they work to regulate hormone levels in the body--* ------------------------------------------------ *Hormone Secretion Regulation* *• Hormones regulate each other through multiple positive and negative feedback loops called ____________ ____________* *Positive and negative feedback loops in which hormones regulate eachother are called _________ __________* *Explain the concept of negative feedback.*

*• Hormones regulate each other through multiple positive and negative feedback loops called ____________ ____________s* hormone cascade *Positive and negative feedback loops in which hormones regulate eachother are called _________ __________* hormone cascades *Explain the concept of negative feedback.* regulatory mechanism in which a 'stimulus' causes an opposite 'output' in order to maintain an ideal level of whatever is being regulated.

*GH - specific actions* *- Adipose -* *- Direct actions:* *• Increased ___________ by stimulating mobilization of fatty acids from adipose* *- Indirect actions:* • Decreases insulin stimulation of glucose uptake Ø Reduces the conversion of glucose to fat *• Increases _______________-stimulated lipolysis *

*• Increased ___________ by stimulating mobilization of fatty acids from adipose* lipolysis *• Increases _______________-stimulated lipolysis * catecholamine

*GH - specific actions* *- Muscle -* *- Direct actions:* *• Increased muscle protein ______________ and decreased protein ______________* *• Increased ________ ________ incorporation into muscle* -------------------------------------------------- * Indirect actions:* *• Mediated by IGF-1 secreted by _________ into circulation* *• Also muscle cells produce IGF-1, which increase protein ________ through paracrine or autocine effects on other muscle cells* *• IGF-1 increases uptake of glucose and __________ _____ into muscle = raw materials for growth*

*• Increased muscle protein ______________ and decreased protein ______________* synthesis degradation *• Increased ________ ________ incorporation into muscle* amino acids *• Mediated by IGF-1 secreted by _________ into circulation* liver *• Also muscle cells produce IGF-1, which increase protein ________ through paracrine or autocine effects on other muscle cells* accretion *• IGF-1 increases uptake of glucose and _____________ into muscle = raw materials for growth* amino acids

*GC - specific actions - Muscle -* *Suppresses muscle growth and induces muscle atrophy* *Direct actions:* *• Increases muscle protein _____________* *• Increases resistance to insulin that reduces _____________ uptake* *Indirect actions:* *• Reduces sensitivity to _________ (like bone)*

*• Increases muscle protein _____________* degradation *• Increases resistance to insulin that reduces _____________ uptake* glucose *• Reduces sensitivity to _________ (like bone)* IGF-1

*Insulin* *Control of Insulin Secretion* *• Enhanced secretion by increased food intake and resulting increased blood glucose* *Actions - Anabolic* *• Increases uptake of ___________ and amino acids* *• Stimulation of lipogenesis, _____________, and protein _____________* *• Blood glucose is tightly controlled in monogastrics but not ruminants*

*• Increases uptake of ___________ and amino acids* glucose *• Stimulation of lipogenesis, _____________, and protein _____________* glycogenesis synthesis

*Glucagon* *Control of Glucagon Secretion* • Actions are opposite of insulin • Enhanced secretion by decreased food intake and decreased blood glucose *Actions - Catabolic* • Mobilizing glucose by increasing glycogenolyisis and gluconeogenesis *• Mobilizing fatty acids by increasing ____________* *• Increasing amino acid catabolism* *Understand the diagram of dietary intake and how the different pancreatic cell types influence cells.*

*• Mobilizing fatty acids by increasing ____________* lypolysis

*--Understand the contribution of adipocyte number and volume to fetal & postnatal adipose tissue development--* ----------------------------------------------------- *Fetal and Postnatal Adipose Development* *• New fat cells may be generated in older animals after existing adipocytes become full of lipid.* *• New adipocytes differentiate from _______________ that are found in loose connective tissue from which fat originally develops.* *• Appears to be repeated phases of recruitment resulting in a _____________ distribution of fat cells with increased fatness. *

*• New adipocytes differentiate from _______________ that are found in loose connective tissue from which fat originally develops.* adipoblasts *• Appears to be repeated phases of recruitment resulting in a _____________ distribution of fat cells with increased fatness. * bimodal

*GH in mice, man and livestock* *Clinical aspects of GH abnormalities:* *- Gigantism* • Excessive GH before epiphyseal plate closure *• Often develops as a result of a ___________ tumor* - Acromegaly • Excessive growth hormone after epiphyseal plate closure *• Results in extensive _______ bone growth * -------------------------------------------------- *Manipulation of the GHRH/GH/IGF-1 axis has been used to enhance livestock growth and performance:* *1. Growth hormone (GH)- administered frequently and systemically as an injection* *- Swine* *• Increases body "weight", improved feed "conversion", and decreased feed "intake"* *• Carcasses have more muscle and less fat*

*• Often develops as a result of a ___________ tumor* pituitary *• Results in extensive _______ bone growth * flat

*GH in mice, man and livestock* *Clinical aspects of GH abnormalities:* - Dwarfism caused by GH deficiency *• Respond to _____________ GH* *- Laron type dwarfs - ________ GH* • Lack of functional hepatic GH receptor

*• Respond to _____________ GH* exogenous *- Laron type dwarfs - ________ GH* excessive

*--Know that some hormones are regulated independently of the HPA--* ------------------------------------------------ *Hormone Secretion Regulation* • Many cascades are initiated through stimulation of senses in the brain. Examples: 5 senses, energy levels, stress, etc. *• Signals are transmitted to part of the brain called the _______________ that initiates individual cascades* *- The hypothalamus is the main _______________ control center* *• The hypothalamus forwards these signals to an organ called the _________________ that in turn releases hormones that affect multiple organ systems* *The ___________ ____________ is the "master endocrine gland", while the _____________ is the neurohormonal control center.* *• This interaction is termed the ________ ___________ __________ (HPA)*

*• Signals are transmitted to part of the brain called the _______________ that initiates individual cascades* hypothalamus *- The hypothalamus is the main _______________ control center* neurohormonal *• The hypothalamus forwards these signals to an organ called the _________________ that in turn releases hormones that affect multiple organ systems* pituitary gland *• This interaction is termed the ________ ___________ __________ (HPA)* hypothalamic-pituitary axis *The ___________ ____________ is the "master endocrine gland", while the _____________ is the neurohormonal control center.* pituitary gland hypothalamus

*Lipogenesis* *• TAGs that reach the blood from the diet are transported from the small intestine attached to lipoproteins. These structures are called ___________________.* *• Endothelial cell walls of capillaries contains the enzyme ___________ _________ that hydrolyses TAGs in chylomicrons to glycerol and free fatty acids for uptake by adipocytes.* * How does the location of lipogenesis differ between species? * *Why can you feed a cow candy without having any effect on the taste of the meat or the milk?*

*• TAGs that reach the blood from the diet are transported from the small intestine attached to lipoproteins. These structures are called ___________________.* chylomicrons *• Endothelial cell walls of capillaries contains the enzyme ___________ _________ that hydrolyses TAGs in chylomicrons to glycerol and free fatty acids for uptake by adipocytes.* lipoprotein lipase * How does the location of lipogenesis differ between species? * 1. cattle, sheep and pigs: occurs mostly in adipose tissue. 2. Avian species: occurs mostly in the liver (hepatocytes) 3. Ruminant species: rumen microbes modify FA before absorption, therefore FA in feed and adipose is different. Substrate for de novo synthesis of FA in adipocyte: Acetate which is a volatile FA produced in large quantities by rumen microorganisms. 4. Monogastric species: Unmodified FAs absorbed from the diet enters blood stream, therefore FA in feed and adipose is similar. Substrate for de novo synthesis of FA in adipocyte. *Why can you feed a cow candy without having any effect on the taste of the meat or the milk?* Rumen microbes modify FA before absorption.

*--Understand that hormones are very selective for their receptors--* ------------------------------------------------ *Receptors are specific for the hormones they bind* *• The cellular structure of hormone receptors allows them to bind hormones with great ________________ (like a lock fits a key)* *Selective expression of receptors allows for targeted effects of hormones* *This ensures hormones act only on the cells they should* *How does the body get a specific hormone response?*

*• The cellular structure of hormone receptors allows them to bind hormones with great ________________ (like a lock fits a key)* specificity *How does the body get a specific hormone response?* Hormones will bind to specific receptors that ensures hormones act only on the cells they are targeting.

*GC - specific actions - Adipose -* *Effects on fat are variable but generally favor lipolysis* *Direct actions:* • Increased lipolysis by stimulating mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissues sensitive to GC *• This fat is absorbed in adipose depots that are insensitive to GC such as ____________ fat*

*• This fat is absorbed in adipose depots that are insensitive to GC such as ____________ fat* abdominal

*--Describe the concept and components of hormone cascades and how they work to regulate hormone levels in the body--* ------------------------------------------------ *Hormone Cascades* *• What are the 5 advantages of this extra complexity of hormone cascades?* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

*• What are the 5 advantages of this extra complexity of hormone cascades?* 1. Control of biological functions 2. One hormone can have many effects 3.Amplification 4. Redundancy: allows for compensation 5. Negative feedback

*Catecholamines (epinephrin and norepinephrin)* *• Catecholamines released in response to acute stress reduces meat quality* *Skeletal muscle effects* *- Release induces anaerobic glycolysis to meet energy needs of muscle* *- Excessive stress results in depletion on glycogen stores and excess lactic acid that reduces meat quality:* *• ______________ (DFD) beef and pork if glycogen reserves depleted before slaughter (pH too high) - chronic long term stress* *• Acute stress before processing may promote _______________ (PSE) pork. Excess glycogen is converted to lactic acid after death (pH too low)* *Would DFD have a high or low pH?* *Would PSE have a high or low pH?*

*• ______________ (DFD) beef and pork if glycogen reserves depleted before slaughter (pH too high) - chronic long term stress* dark firm dry *• Acute stress before processing may promote _______________ (PSE) pork. Excess glycogen is converted to lactic acid after death (pH too low)* pale soft exudative *Would DFD have a high or low pH?* Higher pH higher water long term stress *Would PSE have a high or low pH?* Lower pH lower water acute stress

*--Understand the different factors that affect adipose tissue metabolism and composition--* ------------------------------------------------------- *1 FIRST MAJOR FACTOR 1: Age or stage of maturity* *What are some characteristics of young animals?* *________ adipocytes* *______ % lipid* *______ % protein and water* *What are some characteristics of old animals?* *________ adipocytes* *______ % lipid* *______ % protein and water*

Young *________ adipocytes* small *______ % lipid* low *______ % protein and water* high ------------------------------------------------------- Old *________ adipocytes* large *______ % lipid* high *______ % protein and water* low