Exam Two Psych of Gender

intensifiers

adverbs like very, really, and vastly, intensifiers add little content to a sentence and actually reduce the strength of the statement, so they contribute to tentativeness.

what age can child tell male and female apart?

birth and 3 months of age

What have some studies been done on non binary emotional competence?

birth. For example, several studies demonstrate that gender role identification plays a larger role than binary gender in shaping emotional expression (e.g., Fischer & LaFrance, 2015). Other lines of research specifically examine the emotional experiences of trans people. For example, one study of transgender men and women examined how changes in levels of testosterone and estrogen during medical transition might shape emotional competencies such as the ability to recognize emotions. masculinity and trans identity may shape the experience of positive emotions across the transition process. The men described the experience of emotions such as pride, happiness, awe, and love, as well as a lack of shame and fear.

what happens if the gender dysphoria?

child, gender-affirming hormone treatment may be initiated. This would involve taking hormones that promote the development of secondary sex characteristics, such as facial hair or breasts (see Chapter 10). Health care providers often encourage kids to wait until around age 16 to begin these hormones because their effects are less reversible and may have implications for the teen's later fertility. Still, the long-term effects of these medical treatments—both pubertal suppression and gender-affirming hormone treatment—have not been thoroughly examined among individuals who received them in child.

how do media message affect children?

children's gender role attitudes and behaviors and on girls' body dissatisfaction (L. M. Ward & Harrison, 2005). For example, in one study first and second graders were exposed to television commercials in which all boys were playing with a gender-neutral toy (traditional condition), all girls were playing with it (nontraditional condition), or the commercial was not about toys (control; Pike & Jennings, 2005). After the viewing, children were asked to sort six toys into those that were for boys, those that were for girls, or those that were for both boys and girls. Among the six toys was the toy they had seen in the commercial. Children in the traditional condition were more likely to say that the toy was for boys, whereas children in the nontraditional condition were more likely to say that it was for both boys and girls.

different cultures hypothesis.

communication between women and men is as difficult as communication between people from different cultures

Why does Tannen think that men and women communicate differently?

communication stem from the different goals that men and women have when they communicate. These different communication goals are rooted in gender roles. The female role emphasizes nurturing and relationships, whereas the male role emphasizes dominance and power. Thus, these roles require that women aim to establish and maintain relationships, whereas men aim to exert control, preserve their independence, and enhance their status

Robbie Sutton (2014) attitudes of gender language

conducted a study to explore why this gender difference exists. Participants completed a questionnaire measuring their general preference for social hierarchy and inequality over equality (known as social dominance orientation; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) and their tendency to think gender inequality is fair and legitimate (or system-justifying beliefs). Douglas and Sutton found that gender differences in attitudes toward sexist language were explained by social dominance ori"entation and system-justifying beliefs. In other words, the finding that men are more supportive of sexist language was explained by men's preference for social inequality and belief that gender inequality is fair. These findings are in line with the argument that sexist language is caused by sexist beliefs, but, because the data are quasi-experimental, we can't actually infer causation.

Janet Swim and her colleagues (2004) gendered language

conducted two studies on sexist beliefs and the use of sexist language. In the first study, participants completed mea"sures of sexist beliefs and were asked to mark a list of sentences for grammatical and sexist language errors. Swim et al. found that participants who endorsed modern sexist beliefs (discussed in Chapter 1) were less able to detect sexist language, in part because they had narrower definitions of sexist language. In the second study, participants completed measures of sexist beliefs and wrote responses to how they would respond to several moral dilemmas. Swim et al. then coded participants' responses for the use of sexist language, such as masculine generics. Participants who held modern sexist beliefs used sexist language more often.

from 37 cultures, Fischer and her colleagues (2004) actual emotion felt

cultural universality of gender differences in the experience of powerful and powerless emotions. They found gender similarities in the experience of powerful emotions; that is, men and women reported experiencing the same intensity of anger and disgust, regardless of culture. However, compared with men, women reported experiencing significantly more intense powerless emotions. In other words, men's experience of fear, sadness, shame, and guilt was less intense than women's experience of these emotions. Women's emotional intensity did not vary across cultures, but men's did. Men's experience of powerless emotions depended, in part, on gender equality: Men in more gender-egalitarian countries tended to report less intense fear, sadness, and so forth, compared to men in less gender-egalitarian countries.

Leslie Brody (1999) has proposed a comprehensive model for the development of gender differences in emotional expression"

expression, building on the work of Chodorow (1978; see Chapter 2) and emphasizing the complex interactions among biological, social, and cultural factors. Brody's model is a transactional model in that it emphasizes the bidirectional influences of children and parents, interacting and shaping each other's behaviors. That is, the process begins in infancy with subtle differences in temperament between girls and boys. While boys are more physically active than girls, girls are more sociable than boys. Girls also have better and earlier language skills than boys, and they develop self-control earlier than boys. Parents respond to the temperamental traits that they perceive in their children, such as by reinforcing girls' sociability and empathy with more opportunities to develop their social skills and emotional competence. Parents also socialize their children in socially acceptable gender-stereotyped ways, preparing them for their adult gender roles. In turn, the subtle gender differences in activity, sociability, language, and self-control develop into meaningful gender differences in emotional expression." As children continue to develop, peers play an increasingly important role in gender role socialization. According to Brody, peers enforce gender stereotypes and gendered display rules of emotion, especially in the context of gender-segregated groups. That is, within same-gender peer groups, gendered patterns of social interaction and emotional expres "sion are reinforced, such that girls continue to hone their skills for warm and intimate dyadic interactions and boys continue to develop their capacity for intense competitive interactions. Because those who violate these norms are socially excluded, children and adolescents are motivated to adhere to their gender role and follow the display rules.

According to lakoff what are the four different patterns of tentative speech?

expressions of uncertainty, hedges, tag questions, and intensifiers.

Hedges

expressions such as "sort of" or "kind of.

Anderson and Leaper (1998) gender differences and similarities in conversational interruption

gender difference in interruptions was d = 0.15, indicating that men interrupt more often than women. However, moderator analyses told a more complex story about interruptions. Effect sizes for intrusive interruptions (i.e., interruptions that display dominance, such as a change in subject or expression of disagreement) were considerably larger, d = 0.33.

how many chidren with gender dysphoria will go onto be non binary?

"12% and 50% of children diagnosed with gender dysphoria will continue to identify their gender as inconsistent with their gender assigned at birth" Excerpt From: Nicole M. Else-Quest. "The Psychology of Women and Gender. Ninth Edition." iBooks.

Olson et al., 2015 "implicit and explicit measures of gender identity and preferences"

"5- to 12-year-old children and compared them on implicit and explicit measures of gender identity and preferences (Olson et al., 2015). The first group was composed of transgender children who presented themselves consistent with their gender identity (i.e., they did not appear to match the gender assigned at birth); the "5- to 12-year-old children and compared them on implicit and explicit measures of gender identity and preferences (Olson et al., 2015). The first group was composed of transgender children who presented themselves consistent with their gender identity (i.e., they did not appear to match the gender assigned at birth)

Modeling:

"Demonstrating gendered behavior for children; also refers to the child's imitation of the behavior." Excerpt From: Nicole M. Else-Quest. "The Psychology of Women and Gender. Ninth Edition." iBooks.

what identity do adolescent women have vs male

"Research indicates that adolescent girls progress by developing both an interpersonal identity and an autonomous identity, whereas boys' identity development focuses mainly on autonomous identity (Fivush & Zaman, 2015; Lytle et al., 1997). In short, adolescent girls balance the two sources of identity, whereas boys grow in autonomous identity considerably more than in interpersonal identity. It seems likely that girls today develop both aspects of identity because real career options are available to them that simply were not there 40 or more years ago. Girls in late adolescence also vary considerably among themselves in what components they believe will shape their identities.

"Women who are satisfied by long-term single status tend to have "

(a) satisfying employment that provides economic independence, (b) connections to the next generation through extended family or by mentoring younger people, and (c) a strong network of family and friends who provide support when it is needed

Investigations of infant gender differences generally have involved two primary lines of reasoning

- First, some have reasoned that, if gender differences are found in newborns, then those differences must surely be innate and the result of biological factors, because gender role socialization can scarcely have had time to have an effect. The idea, then, is to try to discover which gender differences are innate by studying newborns. - second, many investigators think it is important to study the way parents and other adults treat infants, to discover the subtle (and perhaps not-so-subtle) differences in the way adults treat boy babies and girl babies, beginning the process of socialization at a tender age. The logic in this line of reasoning is that boys and girls are socialized to be different.

Mulac and his colleagues (2013) gender-linked language effect

- In the first task, participants wrote descriptions of landscape photographs and the research team coded those descriptions for 13 features of language that have been shown to differ between men and women. Only six of those features showed gender differences. For example, men tended to make more references to quantity (e.g., "60 feet tall") and use elliptical sentences (e.g., "great picture"), whereas women tended to write more words overall and make more references to emotion (e.g., "a somber scene"). Many features of tentative language, such as hedges and intensifiers, showed gender similarities. - In the second task, the researchers asked the participants to write descriptions of more photographs, this time under the guise of specific genders. That is, participants were asked to describe the photographs "as a man" and "as a woman." This task was used to indicate participants' gender-linked language schemas/ "second task matched four of the six features that showed gender differences in the first task, including references to quantity and emotion. In other words, participants had clear gender schemas about language, and these schemas were fairly accurate. These findings demonstrate that the gender-linked language effect exists but that the effect is subtle.

Are men and women equally accurate in encoding and decoding nonverbal messages?

- Meta-analysis tells us that women convey nonverbal messages or cues more accurately than men do - men tend to suppress their nonverbal expressions, beginning around adolescence, whereas women tend to amplify their expressions. - Women are also more accurate at decoding or reading others' nonverbal cues. The gender difference in decoding exists even in childhood (McClure, 2000), though it is somewhat larger in adults.

Is divorce harmful to one's psychological or physical well-being?

- Most research indicates that divorced individuals have poorer psychological and physical well-being compared with married individuals (Amato, 2010). Yet two important factors can contribute to these effects. One factor that influences the psychological outcomes of divorce is one's history of depression; that is, divorce can be a significant stressor for people who are already at higher risk for developing depression. - Another important factor influencing outcomes following divorce is marital quality. That is, if the marriage is stressful and difficult, maybe even abusive, it might actually be beneficial to end it. This is particularly true for women. One study with a nationally representative sample of adults in the United States found that the psychological effects of divorce depend on both marital quality and gender (Bourassa et al., 2015). For women, ending a poorer quality marriage resulted in a greater increase in life satisfaction than ending a higher quality marriage. For men, there was no association between marital quality and life satisfaction after divorce. Divorced women also may experience role strains and role overload. They may have to manage a household by themselves, including doing tasks such as repairs that the husband may have done previously. Divorced women with children may feel that their social life has become extremely limited and that they are socially isolated from other adults. Black women tend to fare less well than White women following divorce (McKenry & McKelvey, 2003). Compared with their White counterparts, divorced Black women are less likely to receive child support and more likely to live in poverty.

what are the two reasons that gender linked effect matter?

- One reason is that language is often used to persuade, solve problems, and connect with people. Doing these things effectively requires using our language well. As discussed earlier, in some cases tentative language is more interpersonally sensitive and, therefore, more effective - communication therapy. For transgender people, communication therapy is often a component of their transition. This therapy might include working with a speech-language pathologist to change such speech features as vocal pitch, resonance, intonation, volume, articulation, and others so that their speech is more aligned with their gender identity.

What are other ways that parent influence gender steroetypes

- Parents talk differently with their daughters compared with their sons. Mothers talk more and use more supportive speech with daughters than with sons, perhaps creating a greater emphasis for daughters on verbal interactions and relationships - Much of the gender teaching in parents' talk is subtle and implicit rather than obvious and explicit (Gelman et al., 2004). That is, today parents don't say that girls cannot grow up to be doctors. Instead, their talk emphasizes the categories of gender and assigns gender even to animal characters that are portrayed as gender neutral in books. - Parents also play differently with sons compared with daughters in the preschool years. Parents engage in more pretend play with girls than with boys, and fathers in particular engage in more physical play with sons than with daughters.

What has reseach told us about how gender language can influence the way we think?

- Participants who were native English speakers and bilingual were randomly assigned to respond to the survey in either a natural gender language (English) or a grammatical gender language (Spanish or French). Participants who completed the survey in a grammatical gender language reported more sexist attitudes than participants who completed the survey in the natural gender language. These findings suggest that using a grammatical gender language may actually promote sexist attitudes. - research participants in Israel to complete a survey measuring aspects of academic motivation in Hebrew (a grammatical gender language) using either masculine generics or a gender-neutral form (i.e., ""sing both masculine and feminine forms; Vainapel et al., 2015). They found gender differences in self-efficacy when the survey used masculine generics but gender similarities when gender-neutral forms were used. That is, women's self-efficacy scores were lower than men's scores only when masculine generics were used - generated an age-appropriate stimulus sentence and asked first-, third-, and fifth-grade children to tell stories in response to it. The children were divided into three groups. The stimulus sentence was as follows: "One-third of the children received he for the blank, one-third received they, and one-third received he or she. When the pronoun was he, only 12% of the stories were about women, versus 42% when the pronoun was "he or she." Interestingly, when the pronoun was he, not a single elementary school boy told a story about a girl. Clearly, then, when children hear he in a gender-neutral context, they think of a boy or man. Hyde also asked the children some questions to see if they understood the grammatical rule that he in certain contexts refers to everyone, both men and women. Few understood the rule; for example, only 28% of the first graders gave answers showing that they knew the rule.. Hyde also had the children fill in the blanks in some sentences. "The children overwhelmingly supplied he for the blank; even 72% of the first graders did so. In a final task, Hyde created a fictitious, gender-neutral occupation: wudgemaker. .One-quarter of the children received he in all the blanks, one-quarter received they, one-quarter received he or she, and one-quarter received she. The children then rated how well a woman could do the job on a 3-point scale: 3 for very well, 2 for just okay, and 1 for not very well. Next, they rated how well a man could do the job, giving ratings on the same scale. The results are shown in Figure 5.1. Which pronoun the children were given didn't seem to affect their ratings of men as wudgemakers, but the pronoun had a big effect on how women were rated as wudgemakers. Women were rated at the middle of the scale, or just okay. The ratings of women rose for the pronouns they and he or she, and finally were close to the top of the scale when children heard the wudgemaker described as she. Other experiments show that when job titles are marked for gender (e.g., policeman), children are more likely to view those occupations as being appropriate for only one gender, relative to when job titles are unmarked for gender (e.g., plumber; Liben et al., 2002). There is also reason for concern about the effect on broader issues, such as girls' self-efficacy in male-stereotyped jobs (Vervecken & Hannover, 2015). Research demonstrates that men and boys remember material better when it is written with masculine generics, but girls and women remember it better when it is written with gender-neutral or feminine generics.

do infant show gender differences?

- That is, gender similarities are the rule for most behaviors and traits, such as infant temperament. As noted in Chapter 6, researchers use the term temperament to refer to biologically based emotional and behavioral traits that appear early in life and predict later behaviors, personality, and psychological problems. A meta-analysis of studies of temperament in infancy and childhood found evidence of gender similarities as well as gender differences (Else-Quest et al., 2006). For example, male and female infants display equal amounts of sociability, shyness, soothability, and adaptability. - One significant gender difference in temperament is in activity level. In small infants, this may be measured by counting the number of times they swing their arms or kick their legs. In older babies, it might be measured by counting the number of squares the baby crawls across on a playroom floor. Researchers may also ask parents how much a baby moves their limbs during activities such as having a bath. Meta-analyses have reported "small but consistent gender differences in infants' activity level, d = 0.13 to 0.29 (D. W. Campbell & Eaton, 1999; Else-Quest et al., 2006). That is, male infants are more physically active than female infants. However, this gender difference changes across development. Effect sizes of gender differences in activity grow larger as children mature but then shrink in adolescence and become negligible in adulthood. Girls do better on tests of inhibitory control, d = -0.41, which is a medium-sized difference. This means that girls are better at controlling impulsive or inappropriate behaviors, which is definitely an asset in situations such as school. Similarly, girls also display better regulation of their attention; they can focus and shift their attention when they need to. Gender differences in attention focusing (d = -0.15) and purposeful attention shifting (d = -0.31) are small. Girls show greater perceptual sensitivity than boys, d = -0.38, a medium-sized difference. Perceptual sensitivity refers to awareness of subtle changes in the environment. Essentially, girls notice more about what is around them than boys do.

what has data found for assertive and affiliative?

- affiliativeness. In general, girls and women are somewhat more affiliative relative to boys and men. Among children, the gender difference is small, d = -0.26. That gender difference shrinks in adulthood, d = -0.12 - Among children, boys engage in more assertive speech than girls do, but the difference is very small, d = 0.10 (Leaper & Smith, 2004). Among adults, men are slightly more assertive than women, d = 0.09

what has found in relations to what gender interrupts more?

- one important and widely cited study found that gender differences in interruptions are found only in mixed-gender conversation pairs. Women interrupted women about as often as men interrupted men. However, women very seldom interrupted men, whereas men frequently interrupted women. - Across conversational pairs, women were more likely to be interrupted than men were, regardless of who was doing the interrupting. One interpretation of this finding, consistent with the feminist perspective, is that women are generally perceived as lower status and, thus, can be interrupted. Men, because they have higher status, are less likely to be interrupted - Some researchers have suggested that interruptions can have multiple meanings. These are requests for clarification. Others express agreement or support, such as an mm-hmm "or definitely murmured while the other person is speaking. Some interruptions express disagreement with the speaker, and other interruptions change the subject. These last two types of interruptions are the ones that express dominance. Most interruptions, in fact, turn out to be agreements or requests for clarification and have nothing to do with dominance. - Some researchers have found that women engage in more of this supportive interrupting, particularly when they are in all-female groups. -

Fausto-Sterling et al., 2015 different of gender with parent treamtent

- one longitudinal study examined how mothers handled and touched their babies, arguing that complex combinations of simple behaviors create a pattern of gender-differentiated treatment and ultimately foster gender differences in children's behaviors (Fausto-Sterling et al., 2015). The researchers observed a group of mother-infant dyads on a weekly basis starting at 3 months and ending at 12 months. The researchers videotaped the dyads and measured the frequency and duration of the behaviors of both the mothers and the babies. Although the babies showed no gender differences in their behaviors (e.g., crying, grasping, rolling), the mothers appeared to touch their sons and daughters differently. That is, the mothers not only touched their infant sons more than their infant daughters overall, but also touched them in different ways. For example, mothers tended to use more affectionate and care-taking touch with their daughters, such as cleaning and snuggling. With sons, mothers used more stimulatory touch, such as jiggling or rocking the infant and moving their limbs, and instrumental touch, such as shifting the infant's position or assisting with locomotion. The differences were especially pronounced in the early months, when mothers tend to touch their infants

Do we see gender differences online?

-When topics were female stereotyped (e.g., fashion) or male stereotyped (e.g., sports), findings were similar to those found in face-to-face interactions. Women used more hedges and intensifiers, and they expressed more emotion and disclosed more personal information. Men, in contrast, issued more directives,disagreed more, and boasted more. These differences, however, were not found when the topic was gender-neutral. - e-mail correspondence with two fictitious netpals and received responses that, in actuality, came from the experimenter (Thomson et al., 2001). For each participant, one netpal responded with female-linked language (more emotion references, more intensifiers, etc.) and the other netpal responded with male-linked language (more opinions, fewer emotions, etc.). Interestingly, participants—whether male or female—responded differently depending on the gendered content coming from the netpal, shifting their e-talk to be like that of their netpal.

Do we see gender differences in texting?

-qualities of text messages, women tend to use more emoticons, but men tend to use a greater variety of emoticons (Tossell et al., 2012). This pattern may have more to do with gender roles than actual gender, though; another study found that femininity (on the Bem Sex Role Inventory, discussed in Chapter 3) was more strongly linked to emoticon usage than gender. - Men are somewhat more permissive about the range of contexts in which they feel texting is appropriate. - While there are gender similarities in the amount of sexually explicit text messages (i.e., "sexts") sent, men report receiving more of such messages -

how many women experience impaired fecundity?

12 percent

How did the divorce rate increase from 1960 to 1996

136 percent

Gender learning in early childhood

3-year-old girl whether she is a boy or a girl, she will likely answer that she is a girl. But if you ask her whether she can grow up to be a daddy, she may answer yes. A 6- or 7-year-old girl will probably answer this question differently. The 3-year-old understands some aspects of the concept of gender, but has not yet developed gender constancy The first stage is the development of gender identity, in which children can identify and label themselves, as well as others, as boys or girls; gender identity develops around 18 months to 2 years however, girls may think that she grow to be a boy. "gender constancy is the development of gender stability, which happens around 3 to 4 years of age and refers to the understanding that gender is stable over time. Yet a 4-year-old girl with a firm grasp of gender stability may still insist that if she wears pants she will no longer be a girl. Once kids understand that gender is generally stable over time, they go through a period of rigidity in adhering to gender norms. One example of this behavior is appearance rigidity (that is, rigid adherence to gender norms in appearance), such as wearing highly masculine or feminine clothing and avoiding clothes typical of another gender. There is some evidence that appearance rigidity is higher in girls than in boys. One study of ethnically diverse 4-year-olds found that appearance rigidity was widespread (Halim et al., 2014). A few interesting patterns emerged in the comparisons across gender and ethnic groups. First, gender differences in appearance rigidity were found among Chinese American, African American, and White children. This difference was largest in White children: Only a minority (11%) of White boys exhibited appearance rigidity, compared with a majority (68%) of White girls. By contrast, among the Latinx (specifically, Mexican American and Dominican) children, boys and girls were equally likely to exhibit appearance rigidity. gender constancy development, between 5 and 7 years of age, gender consistency develops and kids become "more flexible about gender stereotypes. Gender consistency is the understanding that gender remains consistent despite superficial changes in appearance (such as wearing dresses instead of pants). After gender constancy is fully developed, then, children become more flexible because they know that playing with gender-stereotyped toys or wearing gender-typed clothing won't have any effect on their gender (Leaper, 2015). Yet this potential for flexibility doesn't mean that children start engaging in cross-gender-typed behaviors en masse. Kohlberg theorized that the acquisition of gender constancy is critical for the acquisition of gender roles. That is, once the little girl knows that her gender is a constant part of herself, gender becomes much more important to her. Motivated to have a positive sense of self, the girl comes to see femininity as good and then associates this valuation with cultural stereotypes and roles, so the female role becomes attractive and important to her.

What is the divorce rate?

40-50%

how many women experience infertility

6 percent

what is the remarry rate

70 to 75 percent

fat talk

A social process that keeps body dissatisfaction alive between girls and women ("You're not fat, I am!")

genderless languages

A type of language in which gender is expressed only lexically and neither personal nouns or pronouns are differentiated for gender; examples include Finnish, Mandarin, and Turkish.

natural gender languages

A type of language in which most personal nouns are gender-neutral (e.g., student) but pronouns are differentiated for gender; examples include English and Swedish.

Gender self-socialization model

According to this model, children's gender identity ("I am a girl"), their gender stereotypes ("Boys are good at math"), and their gender self-perceptions ("I am good at math") all influence each other as children develop. One of the processes linking these three aspects is stereotype emulation; the more that children identify ."ith their gender, the more they view themselves as having the qualities specified by stereotypes about their gender ("I am a girl. I want to wear dresses."). A second process is identity construction; the more that children engage in gender-stereotyped activities, the more identified with their own gender they become ("I love playing with dolls. I am such a typical girl."). In short, the culture provides plenty of information about acceptable behavior for girls and for boys, but children do not always have to be forced to conform. In many ways, they self-socialize.

how do "gender ratios become more and more lopsided with advancing age?

Among Americans between the ages of 60 and 69, there are 110 women for every 100 men. By 80 to 89 there are 162 women for every 100 men, and for those 90 and older, there are 259 women for every 100 men (Howden & Meyer, 2011). As a result, older women stand a good chance of living alone. Among women 65 and older, 32% live alone

When do girls start to became unhappy about their body?

Beginning in late elementary school, girls are more dissatisfied with their weight than boys are

how does body dissatifation vary across races?

Black adolescent girls are more likely to be proud of their bodies (60%) than White (38%), Hispanic (45%), and Asian American (50%) girls" Excerpt From: Nicole M. Else-Quest. "The Psychology of Women and Gender. Ninth Edition." iBooks.

Who is better at controlling their emotions men or women

By elementary school, girls are better than boys at controlling their emotions and displaying socially appropriate emotions. For example, first- and third-grade girls, when presented with a disappointing gift, display less negative emotion and more positive emotion than their male peer.

stratified reproduction

Essentially, White women's childbearing is more highly valued and promoted than the childbearing of women of color. Women of color and poor women are more likely to experience infertility. To make matters worse, these women are less likely to have access to the fertility treatments that White women and wealthier"omen have. Economic constraints, lack of health insurance, and discrimination from medical professionals all contribute to this disparity in access. In addition, the majority of research on fertility treatments has relied on wealthy White women as participants.

what amount of exposure can lead to lowering in body dissatification

Experimental research shows that as little media exposure as viewing 10 slides from women's magazines such as Glamour increases weight concerns (Posavac et al., 1998; see also Lavine et al., 1999). This effect holds true only for women with more initial body dissatisfaction, though.

what is the average age for marriage?

Female: 27.4 Male 29.5

Euperism and woman

Feminist linguists have argued that we similarly have a strong tendency to use euphemisms for the word woman. That is, people have a tendency to avoid using the word woman and instead substitute a variety of terms that seem more polite or less threatening, the most common euphemisms being lady and girl. "Other euphemisms objectify or sexualize women, such as chick, shorty, honey, or ho. Another euphemism for woman is bitch, which has a hostile connotation.

gender role socialization varies across different ethnic groups in the United States

For example, gender roles are less differentiated among Black Americans, and Black children are exposed to Black women who are assertive, express anger openly, and are independent (Reid et al., 1995). The version of the woman that these children observe and model differs from the version displayed by many White, middle-class women.

How have the results change to the jack in the box study

For example, raters who tend not to endorse gender stereotypes rate the emotions of boy and girl infants similarly. Raters, especially male ones, who tend to endorse gender stereotypes are the most likely to perceive a baby boy's reaction as angry (Plant et al., 2000). In other words, it seems that some adults may still see the baby's behavior through the lens of gender stereotypes."

How might societal gender equality be linked to gendered display rules for powerless emotions?

For women, endorsement of gender stereotypes and reports of intensity of personal emotional experiences are positively correlated: The more that women believe in stereotypes, the more intense they report their own emotions to be. For men, the correlation between endorsement of gender stereotypes and reports of emotional intensity is negative: The more that men believe in gender stereotypes, the less intense their emotions. Stereotypical men don't express emotions and stereotypical women do. In a related experiment, researchers removed gender role pressures by exerting pressure for both men and women to be emotionally expressive—specifically, by telling participants that research showed a positive correlation between emotional responsiveness and psychological adjustment (M. Grossman & Wood, 1993). In the control condition no such instructions were given, and presumably gender role pressures were in force as usual. Under the control condition, women gave more extreme emotional responses to negative slides than men did, but under the instructions encouraging emotional expressiveness, men's responses were the same as women's. Women's greater emotionality is thus not a biologically determined Natural Law.

How common and widely used are euperism used for woman and how many of them have an sexual meaning?

Fully 93% of men listed bitch as a term for woman! But then, so did 73% of the women. Overall, the euphemisms listed for woman were more likely to carry a sexual meaning than those listed for man; roughly 50% of the slang terms for woman were sexual, compared with 23% of the terms for man.

Research shows that although marriage and employment are both generally associated with positive adjustment for women. What are they?

Having children can increase parents' experiences of positive emotions and finding meaning in life, but it can also increase their experiences of negative emotions and magnify or exacerbate financial problems or relationship problems (Nelson et al., 2014). One meta-analysis found that parents have lower marital satisfaction "than nonparents, but the effect is small (d = -0.19; Twenge et al., 2003). Following the birth of a child, married women tend to experience a decline in marital satisfaction (Shapiro et al., 2015). The transition to motherhood can be very difficult and stressful. It requires that a woman rapidly acquire new skills, develop a new interpersonal relationship, and integrate a new role into her identity, all while experiencing considerable disruptions in her sleep patterns.

how does if a language correlate with gender equality?

In a study of 111 countries with different language types, researchers found that a country's level of gender equality (as described in Chapter 1) was associated with its language type (Prewitt-Freilino et al., 2012). Countries with grammatical gender languages tend to have less gender equality relative to countries with natural gender languages or genderless languages. In addition, masculine generics are more prominent in grammatical and natural gender languages.

Who better at reading facial expression

In adolescence, girls are able to read facial expressions of emotions faster and more sensitively than boys (Lee et al., 2013). Even as young as 3½, girls are better at identifying emotions than boys are.

what was found with a study with "aging examined changes in multiple cognitive abilities among a sample of adults who showed no signs of cognitive impairment or dementia?

In general, they found that participants' cognitive abilities declined with age, as expected. With regard to gender, a few patterns in their results are noteworthy. First, women tended to outperform men on most, but not all, of the abilities. For example, women scored higher on tests of reasoning, verbal learning, verbal memory, fluent language production, and episodic memory. They also found that, although men outperformed women in visual memory and visuospatial abilities, men also showed steeper decline in those abilities over time. That is, men's mean levels were higher but they declined at a faster rate. By contrast, there was no cognitive ability in which women showed steeper decline than men did. "women may be less vulnerable to age-related changes in brain functioning and cognition. Yet they also cautioned that the gender differences were subtle.

C. S. Brown & Bigler, 2005 gender discrimination

In one study, elementary school children were read scenarios about teachers' evaluations of students; in some of the scenarios, information was included suggesting that gender discrimination was likely (for example, "Mr. Franks almost always gives boys higher grades than girls"; C. S. Brown & Bigler, 2005). Even first and second graders recognized discrimination some of the time, and older children (fourth and fifth graders).

Why do women tend to have more contractive posture?

In some cases, it may be a strategy to avoid being perceived as threatening. In other cases, it may be a strategy to protect or shield one's body from scrutiny and the male gaze a protective strategy for women, which they've developed as an adaptation to objectification.

Gender intensification

Increased pressures for gender role conformity, beginning in adolescence.

How do we know which kids will continue to be transgender?

It seems that gender nonconforming children whose gender identity is very intense in childhood are more likely to continue with that gender identity and are less likely to identify with their gender assigned at birth (Steensma et al., 2013). In addition, kids whose gender dysphoria continues or intensifies in adolescence are also more likely to identify their gender as different from their gender assigned at birth.

how has masculine generics been linked status of women?

Jean Twenge and her colleagues (2012) analyzed the ratio of male to female pronouns (e.g., he/she, his/hers, him/her) in the full texts of about 1.2 million U.S. books in the Google Books database. They found that when women's status was higher, such as when women had greater educational attainment and labor force participation, the proportion of female pronouns was also higher. By contrast, when women's status was lower, the use of female pronouns was less frequent.

what were the critism of Lakoff theory?

Lakoff exaggerated and overemphasized gender differences without giving adequate attention to power and status. Similarly, some criticized her theory because it seemed to reflect gender stereotypes rather than empirical evidence. Her theory also implies, for some, a female deficit interpretation in labeling women's communication as deficient in respect to men's communication, which is held up as the standard.

Is this gender segregation in childhood, and the male dominance it encourages, inevitable?

Maccoby suggests that as long as we allow children the freedom to choose their playmates, the pattern will continue. Nonetheless, schools could take steps to ensure that children have multiple experiences of working cooperatively in mixed-gender groups in the classroom. Such practices reduce the extreme gender differentiation of childhood and should foster better mixed-gender relationships in adulthood

What changes have been made to use nonsexist language?

Most textbook publishers have guidelines for nonsexist language and refuse to publish books that include sexism. The American Psychological Association (2010) requires the use of nonsexist language in articles in the journals it publishes. And Webster's Dictionary has a policy of avoiding masculine generics and other forms of sexist language. in the fall of 2015, Harvard University gave new students the following options: he, she, they, e, and ze. Notice that three of these pronouns—they, e, and ze—are gender-neutral!. "In Sweden, a new gender-neutral pronoun (hen) has been incorporated into the official Swedish language and is used in Swedish media and government settings" Excerpt From: Nicole M. Else-Quest. "The Psychology of Women and Gender. Ninth Edition." iBooks.

intensive mothering

Mothering should be emotionally involving, time-consuming, and completely child-centered, according to this norm. These ideals are impossible for real women to achieve, leaving them feeling that they're not doing a very good job

what is nonsexist language according to feminists and how do go about doing that?

Nonsexist language might include omitting inappropriate or irrelevant references to gender, replacing masculine forms of words (e.g., nouns such as policeman, pronouns such as he) with gender-unmarked forms (e.g., police officer, they), and increasing the use of feminine forms (e.g., using he or she instead of only he) to make female referents more visible. A common solution is to use he or she instead of the generic he, him or her instead of him, and so on. while it makes women more visible, it also reaffirms the gender binary and, therefore, makes nonbinary people invisible. So another possibility is to switch from the singular to the plural, because plural pronouns do not signify gender, at least in English.

How do men and women compare when it comes to emotional competence?

On most of these abilities, women score higher than men (Brody et al., 2016). For example, compared with men, women tend to display more complex emotion knowledge when describing how others might feel in hypothetical situations (Ciarrochi et al., 2005). Elementary school teachers report that girls are better at regulating their emotions than their male classmates women are more skilled than men at recognizing the emotions of others, whether in photographs, films (with or without audio), or audio recordings, d = -0.27. Women also demonstrate more awareness of their own emotions and seem to encode their emotional experience in more detail in memory than men do.

What drives these lopsided gender ratios?

One factor is widowhood. Women are far more likely to be widowed than men are (Elliott & Simmons, 2011). This is the result of two trends: the longer life expectancy of women and the tendency of women to marry men older than themselves. Opportunities for remarriage are limited because there are so few men compared with women in the "appropriate" age-group. Therefore it is fairly common for women to face the last 15 years or so of their lives alone.

sexist language and the workplace

One issue is how the use of sexist language in job descriptions may contribute to a lack of gender diversity in the workplace. For example, the use of sexist language in a job ad might signal that only men should apply. One interesting experiment assessed the impact of women using stereotyped patterns of tentative speech compared with assertive speech (Carli, 1990). Participants listened to an "audiotape of a persuasive speech delivered by either a woman or a man. On one of the tapes, the woman used many tag questions ("Great day, isn't it?"), hedges ("sort of"), and disclaimers ("I'm no expert, but . . ."), indicating tentativeness. On another tape, she used no tag questions, hedges, or disclaimers, thus indicating assertiveness. In the third tape, a man used tentative speech, and in a fourth tape, a man used assertive speech. The results indicated that the female speaker who used tentative speech was more influential to men than the assertive female speaker. For female listeners, the effect was just the reverse: They were more influenced by the woman using assertive speech than by the woman with tentative speech. Interestingly, men were equally influential whether their speech was tentative or assertive.

what did a study find about girl dieting in adolescent and teen?

One longitudinal study found that nearly one-third of girls reported dieting by age 11; more than three-quarters reported dieting by age 15

what is the research done for non binary women?

One qualitative study with an ethnically diverse sample of transgender women found that three-quarters of the women had engaged in disordered eating behaviors in efforts to control their body shape

What has been found with eye contact and gender?

One study found that gender differences in visual dominance aligned with gender differences in knowledge about a gendered task, such as changing a tire versus changing a diaper (Brown et al., 1992). When researchers trained participants and eliminated gender differences in knowledge, the gender difference in visual dominance was also eliminated. College students were assigned to mixed-gender dyads. Each pair discussed three topics in sequence. The first discussion was on a neutral topic, and there was no manipulation of power (control condition). For the second topic, one member of the pair evaluated the other member and had the power to award extra-credit points to that person. For the third topic, the roles were reversed, and the person who had been evaluated became the evaluator. Condition, men were visually dominant: Men looked at their partners more while speaking, and women looked more while listening. This was as predicted, given that men tend to have. "greater status or power relative to women. However, in the second and third discussions, when women were in a powerful role, they looked more than men while speaking, and men looked more while listening. That is, when women were given social power, they became visually dominant. These results again support a power or status interpretation of gender differences in eye contact and visual dominance.

Does the data support Lakoff theory?

Overall, they found that women used more tentative speech but that the gender differences were small. For expressions of uncertainty, such as disclaimers, d = −0.33, and for hedges, d = −0.15. For tag questions, d = −0.23, and for intensifiers, d = −0.38. If gender differences in tentative speech reflect issues of power and assertiveness, then they should be largest in mixed-gender groups, with men dominating and women being tentative. Yet gender differences in the tentative speech were actually larger in same-gender groups (d = −0.37) than in mixed-gender groups (d = −0.21). Thus, we might say that the tag question is intended to encourage communication rather than to shut things down with a simple declarative statement. These data were also interpreted to be that women "women display greater interpersonal sensitivity, not that they lack assertiveness

what happens in early child years concerning gender preferences?

Preschool children between the ages of 2 and 3 tend to have a strong preference for gender-typed toys and same-gender playmates (Blakemore et al., 2009). In the United States and many other nations, girls prefer dolls and doll accessories, arts and crafts, and fashion, whereas boys prefer guns and transportation toys. Boys are particularly resistant to playing with girl-stereotyped toys. Another difference that appears early is in aggressive behavior. About as soon as aggressive behavior appears in children, around the age of 2, gender differences are found; boys are more aggressive than girls. This difference persists throughout the school years.

normative discontent.

Refers to the fact that the majority of girls and women have some level of dissatisfaction about their bodies, particularly weight, shape, and size.

What are the self report of emotion by gender?

Researchers have found gender differences in self-reported intensity of emotional experience and expression, with women reporting the greater intensity (Brody et al., 2016). And, whether in conversations or in writing samples, girls and women use more emotion words and talk about emotions more than boys and men do.

How does gender role identification, and sexual orientation affect interpersonal distance? .

Results indicated significant effects of gender: Female-female pairs stood significantly closer to one another than did male-male or female-male pairs. effects of gender were completely eliminated when the researchers considered gender role identification. That is, self-reported femininity and masculinity were far more important than gender in determining interpersonal distance: Feminine people stood closer to their conversational partner, and masculinity line people stood farther away from their conversational partner. Sexual orientation had minimal effects on interpersonal distance.

"Gervais et al., 2011" objectifying gaze

Sexualization may also lead to reduced cognitive performance and even lowered career aspirations. In one study, undergraduate women and men received an objectifying gaze during an interaction with a person of another gender, who was actually a confederate of the experimenter (Gervais et al., 2011). The objectifying gaze involved looking from the participant's head to the waist and back to the head and then, at several other times during the interaction, looking briefly at the chest. The objectifying gaze led to decrements in math performance for the women in the experiment but not for the men. No one has done such an experiment with younger girls, but surely incidents like these occur, and it is highly likely that they have similar negative effects

"His" and "Her" Marriage (Bernard)

She concluded that marriage was definitely good for men. The evidence came from comparisons of married men and never-married men on mental health and physical health outcomes. The married men consistently scored better. Married women scored worse than married men, yet never-married women scored better than never-married men. She concluded that marriage benefits men but hurts women. This idea became popularized with the general public and persists today.

Weitzman (1986) "study of women and divorce by sociologist Lenore

She found that divorced women and their children are becoming the new underclass: Whereas divorced men experience a 42% increase in their standard of living, divorced women experience a 73% decrease. These are the unintended consequences of no-fault divorce, which in the 1970s was thought to be positive for women. The problem is that divorce settlements often make the liberated assumption that women will go out and become self-sufficient earners, ignoring the great disparity between women's wages and men's wages in the United States

Contractive posture

Sitting or standing with legs together and arms close to the body.

Expansive posture

Sitting or standing with limbs extended away from the body; also referred to as power posing

Why do women tend to smile more?

Smiling is of the female role, which requires being warm, nurturant, and physically attractive. Women feel expected to do it, "twice as large when participants knew that they were being observed (d = -0.46) than when they did not know they were being observed (d = -0.19) In a study women were viewed less attractive if they were not smiling in the photo

How does society Infantilize woman?

Somehow girl, which in a strict sense should refer only to female children, is used for female adults as well. Women are called by a term that seems to make them less mature and less powerful than they are; women are thus infant. "Women and children first," putting women and children in the same category. Other examples in language are expressions for women, such as baby or babe. The problem with these terms is that they carry a meaning of immaturity and lack of power.

Affiliative speech

Speech that demonstrates affiliation or connection to the listener and may include praise, agreement, support, and/or acknowledgment

"double standard of aging"

That is, as a man reaches middle age and beyond, he may appear more distinguished and handsome, but a woman of the same age is considered less beautiful or even invisible. Older women are underrepresented as television characters, and when they do appear, they are portrayed negatively or stereotypically, as victims, dependent, or poor

jack-in-the-box popping open (Condry & Condry, 1976)

The baby stared and then cried. The videotape was shown to adults, half of whom were told the baby was a boy and half of whom were told it was a girl. Those who thought the baby was a boy labeled the emotions "anger"; the other half, who thought the baby was a girl, called the emotions "fear." In short, the adults read the emotions differently depending on the baby's gender. This partly explains why parents socialize children's emotions in gender-stereotyped directions: The parents, viewing a child's behavior through the lens of gender stereotypes, perceive the child to be experiencing gendered emotions"

Emotional development

The child learns differently depending on the parent's response—in the first case, learning to label their feelings as anger; in the second, to misinterpret them as sadness; and in the third, to restrain or regulate their feelings. Between the ages of 2 and 5, children rapidly learn to identify their own emotions and those of others (Saarni, 1999). Parents guide this process, socializing their children about how to label and interpret their feelings and what to do with them.

how does the media gender socialize?

The evidence indicates that some change has occurred, yet the same stereotyped gender roles are in plentiful supply. An analysis of toy commercials shown on the Nickelodeon network showed continued stereotyping (Kahlenberg & Hein, 2010). Almost all the toys were gender specific and showed only one gender playing with them. Mixed-gender groups of children were shown in only 19% of the commercials, and everything else was gender segregated. Even supposedly nonsexist children's books, which show girls and women in some nonstereotypic roles, still portray the female characters as having feminine personality characteristics (e.g., they are affectionate, sympathetic), performing household chores, and engaging in female-stereotyped leisure activities such as shopping Video games are also a source of gender role socialization. The average eighth- or ninth-grade boy plays computer games 13 hours per week, compared with 5 hours for the average girl (Gentile et al., 2004). Video games show patterns of extreme gender stereotyping, including violence against women. Female characters are generally portrayed as submissive and often serve as rewards or prizes for the male characters. For example, in the game Duke Nukem Forever, players can play "Capture the Babe," in which they compete to catch a woman who, dressed as a schoolgirl, utters only sexually suggestive phrases (Stermer & Burkley, 2015). Boys' exposure to such sexist video games is substantial. There is increasing evidence that the games encourage and reinforce sexist attitudes in adults

Differential treatment

The extent to which parents and others behave differently toward boys and girls

at what age, are girl expected to be feminine and how does this affect them?

The pressure, then, is for girls to become more feminine and less masculine, beginning around 11 or 12 years of age. A recent study of youth who entered adolescence in the 21st century, however, questioned whether gender intensification is as strong as it once was (Priess et al., 2009). Girls did not increase in femininity scores from age 11 to 15, and girls actually scored as high as boys on masculinity. Pressures for gender conformity may not be as strong today as they once were, or perhaps they have simply become more subtle, like modern sexism.

how are girls sexualize?

The report strikingly documented the multiple ways in which the culture sexualizes girls. In the media and in beauty contests, little girls are groomed to look like sexy adults. Products for girls contribute to sexualization, including the Bratz dolls (who wear sexy and provocative clothing and makeup) and Barbie. One experiment with 5- to 8-year-old girls, in fact, showed that just 15 minutes of exposure to Barbie images lowered girls' body esteem compared with girls in a control condition.

Emerging Adulthood

This developmental period spans the late teens through the early 20s. In earlier decades, people felt that they were adults either when they graduated from high school (if they weren't going to college) or when they graduated from college. Today, neither of these ages seems to be true adulthood for many people. Instead, there is a kind of suspended state of not being a teenager anymore and not yet being an adult that extends through the early 20s. Marriage is delayed until the mid- to late 20s, and the emerging adult years are spent in self-focused exploration of career or work and intimate relationships. Financial independence from one's family is occurring at later ages as well. Interestingly, this pattern is typical of both young men and young women."

pregnancy and non binary?

While there are more options available to these folks today than ever before, several obstacles may stand in their way. For example, to become pregnant, some couples may opt for ARTs with donated sperm. This is more challenging than it might seem. First, for many queer and trans people, some ARTs are financially out of reach. Second, finding a sperm donor can be complicated—should the donor be someone who is known to the couple, or should they be anonymous? Third, for trans people in particular, fertility is "shaped in part by their history of gender-affirming care (namely, whether they've had particular hormone treatments or surgical procedures). Some trans women may still produce sperm and some trans men may still ovulate, but other trans people will not be able to biologically parent a child because they have undergone treatments that have made them infertile. In the face of infertility, some couples may wish to adopt a child, but discrimination against queer and trans people adopting children remains a barrier for many. Despite these challenges, many queer and trans people become parents of a biological, step, or adopted child at some point in their lives. Research indicates that 48% of LGBT women and 20% of LGBT men in the United States have at least one child under age 18

How do parents impose gender stereotypes on children?

With regard to the socialization of gendered emotions, several patterns emerge from the research. One pattern in the data is that parents sometimes treat sons and daughters differently. A number of studies demonstrate that parents talk about emotions differently with sons compared with daughters (Denham et al., 2010; Fivush & Buckner, 2000). For example, mothers talk about emotions more with daughters than with sons (Brody, 2000; Fivush et al., 2000). And when parents do talk about emotions with their children, it's often in a way that conveys gender stereotypes"

What gender smiles more and how does this change across the lifespan?

Women infancy and childhood, for example, it is nonexistent, d = -0.01. in adolescence, the gender difference swells to d = -0.56 (LaFrance et al., 2003). The gap then declines, such that d = -0.30 in middle adulthood and d = -0.11 in older adulthood

Gender and posture?

Women are more likely than men to sit or stand in contractive poses (Hall, 1984). The gender difference in expansive posture is large, with men more likely than women to sit or stand in expansive poses (Hall, 1984). In one study, researchers observed passengers on the subway in Amsterdam and found that men more often displayed an expansive posture whereas women more often displayed a contractive posture.

According to Tannen how do men and women communicate differently?

Women try to show support or empathy by matching or mirroring experiences ("I've felt that way, too"), whereas men try to display their knowledge, avoid disclosing personal information, and avoid showing the slightest vulnerability. Women engage in conversation maintenance, trying to get a conversation started and keep it going ("How was your day?"), whereas men engage in conversational dominance (e.g., interrupting). Tannen claimed that women display tentative and affiliative speech, whereas men display assertive and authoritative speech.

visual dominance ratio

a function of the time spent looking while speaking divided by the time spent looking while listening. An indicator of social dominance.

how do women feel after their children leave home?

a study of 60- to 65-year-old women found that 70% described their lives currently as better than when they were younger (Burns & Leonard, 2005). In some cases, the gains they reported were due to the women's own actions. In other cases, women reported that changes in roles or simply the passage of time provided stress relief.

grandmother effect,

a term coined by evolutionary theorists (Herndon, 2010). Compared with other species, female humans experience far more years of vigorous life after ovulation ceases and they can no longer reproduce. Why is this adaptive, in an evolutionary sense? According to the grandmother effect, older women who are healthy and active enhance their own fitness by providing care for their grandchildren, who carry their genes, thereby enhancing the survival of those offspring. According to this hypothesis, natural selection occurred among early humans, favoring women who lived longer, were vigorous, and helped to care for their grandchildren.

Trans-affirmative practice

is care that is respectful, aware, and supportive of the identities and life experiences of transgender and gender nonconforming people (APA, 2015). For prepubescent children, trans-affirmative care might include socially transitioning—that is, changing one's name, pronoun, clothing, and so on to be consistent with one's gender identity—though this would depend on the child and their family. When children "reach puberty, there are additional aspects of care and development to consider.

What Anthony Mulac (2006) theorized about the commuication differences of men and women?

many features of verbal communication show very small gender differences, it is the clustering of these features that matters. That is, there are feminine and masculine patterns of speech, each with multiple features that show subtle differences on their own but, in combination, are perceived as distinctly gendered.

Mulac (2006)

men and women (or boys and girls) is transcribed, masked as to the identity of the speaker, and then presented to university students to see whether they can tell whether the speaker was male or female. If Tannen's hypothesis is correct, the task should be a snap and students should be able to identify the gender of the speaker with a high degree of accuracy. The findings support the notion of gender similarities in communication.

What tends the role of emotion socialization in parents?

mothers are more emotionally expressive than fathers (Dunsmore et al., 2009). Compared with fathers, mothers talk about emotions more often with their children (Zaman & Fivush, 2013) and are more supportive and less unsupportive of their children's negative emotions (Nelson et al., 2012). Other research suggests that, while fathers are more likely to play the role of a playmate, mothers are more likely to serve as emotional gatekeepers for children (Aznar & Tenenbaum, 2013; Denham et al., 2010). Being an emotional gatekeeper involves taking on the work of regulating children's emotions and fostering children's emotional competence. fathers become more involved with their children, patterns of gendered emotions are different (Brody, 1999). Girls with more involved fathers express less fear and sadness, compared with girls whose fathers are less involved. Boys with more involved fathers express more warmth and fear. Consistent with Nancy Chodorow's theory (see Chapter 2), fathers' involvement in the family seems to be crucial to breaking down stereotypes in the next generation." Mothers actively encourage boys, more than girls, to respond to angry situations with anger and retaliation. Boys get the message and expect their mothers to react more warmly to them when they express anger than when they express sadness (Brody, 1996). Fathers pay more attention to their daughters when they are displaying sadness or anxiety and to their sons when they are displaying anger

Mondschein et al., 2000 Socialziation of gender from parents

mothers of 11-month-old babies were asked to estimate how steep a slope their infant could successfully crawl down (Mondschein et al., 2000). Mothers of boys estimated that they would be successful at steeper slopes than mothers of girls did. Thus, even in infancy, parents have different expectations for their sons than for their daughters, and parents' expectations do have an impact on their children. It's important to bear in mind, however, that not only do parents influence infants, but infants also influence parents. Therefore, if differences exist in the behavior of boys and girls, these may cause the differences in parental treatment rather than the reverse. In the study described above, though, the boy and girl babies did not differ significantly in their crawling performance.

what are gender neutral pronouns?

one set that has been proposed is tey for he or she, tem for him or her, and ter for his or her. Thus one might say, "The scientist pursues ter work; tey reads avidly and strives to overcome obstacles that beset tem." Entire books have been written with this usage. These new pronouns have a great deal of merit, but they are not widely used yet. "In fact, more people have begun to adopt the use of the gender-neutral title Mx.

How do parent socialization differ with races?

one study examined how mothers and fathers of three ethnic groups (European American, Lumbee American Indian, and African American) responded to their children's expressions of negative emotions responses to their daughters' negative emotions, mothers were more supportive than fathers across each group. In responses to their sons' negative emotions, European American mothers were more supportive than European American fathers, Lumbee mothers and fathers were equally supportive, and African American mothers were less supportive than African American fathers.

Hock et al., 2015 gender congruent

one study showed infants pairs of photographs and measured their looking direction and duration. The "photographs were of people who were gender congruent (either a masculine body with a masculine face or a feminine body with a feminine face) and gender incongruent (modified photographs of either a feminine body with a masculine face or a masculine body with a feminine face). These images are shown in Figure 7.1. While 3.5-month-olds showed no preference for photographs of gender congruent or gender incongruent people, 5-month-olds preferred to look at the gender incongruent photographs.

how do parent influence their children gender socialization?

parents influence their children's development in four ways: channeling, differential treatment, direct instruction, and modeling

grammatical gender languages,

parts of speech (including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) that would not naturally be considered masculine or feminine are inflected with gender. For example, in German the word for the noun student is masculine, as in der Student, but the word for the noun university is feminine, as in die Universität.

decoding

perceiving or reading

Deborah Tannen

popularized the belief that women's and men's communication patterns are vastly different and that these differences create problems when women and men communicate with one another. In her widely read books, including You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation (Tannen, 1991), she proposed that gender differences in communication are so substantial that it is as though women and men come from different linguistic communities or cultures. Thus, communication between women and men is as challenging as communication between people from different cultures—say, a person from the United States and a person from Japan.

Who does marriage benefit more?

positively associated with a variety of health indicators in middle age, but that this effect was greater for men than for women

empty nest

postparental period. Traditional stereotypes held that, because motherhood is a major source of identity, the empty nest promotes depression in middle-aged women." .

decoding nonverbal cues

reading other people's body language

Socialization

refers to the ways in which society conveys to the individual its expectations for their behavior.

Why is there a difference in the way gender interpersonal space?

reflect concerns about falsely signaling that we are sexually or romantically interested in someone. It is a significant gender role violation for a heterosexual man to signal sexual interest in another man. Another possibility is that men are perceived as a threat or considered potentially dangerous, so we try to stay out of their "territory" to avoid conflict. By contrast, women are perceived as nonthreatening and considered safe, so we may feel less wary of getting in their space. some have suggested that women have a small interpersonal distance as a result of, or in order to express, warmth, caring, or friendliness

Channeling

selection of different toys, activities, and so on for boys and girls; also called shaping." Excerpt From: Nicole M. Else-Quest. "The Psychology of Women and Gender. Ninth Edition." iBooks.

Effectively encoding

sending or conveying

What do researcher think shape our interpersonal shape?

sexual attraction, self-protective, and affiliative forces

tag questions

short phrase at the end of a declarative sentence that turns it into a question, such as "This is a great class, isn't it?

what race has the highest divorce rates and the lowest?

somewhat higher rates for Whites and African Americans and lower rates for Latinx and Asian Americans

assertive speech

speech that aims to influence the listener and may include providing instructions, information, suggestions, criticism, and/or disagreement

Whorfian hypothesis

states that the specific language we learn influences our mental processes. If that is true, then gendered language doesn't just reflect gender inequality; gendered language perpetuates gender inequality. Similarly, some experts have argued that language encodes inequalities in a culture and "that language can normalize bias by making it part of everyday speech.

Direct instruction

telling girls and boys to act in a certain way

emotional competence

the ability to control emotions and know when it is appropriate to express certain emotions

what is the average age for giving birth overall and across the races?

the average age of first giving birth was 21, today it is 26 (Costello et al., 2003; Hamilton et al., 2015). This varies somewhat by ethnicity; the average age of first birth is 24.3 for Hispanic women, 24.2 for Black women, 27.0 for White women, 23.1 for American Indian women, and 29.5 for Asian American women

gender dysphoria

the condition of feeling one's emotional and psychological identity as male or female to be opposite to one's biological sex.

Motherhood mandate:

the societal belief that women should have children and that they should be physically available at all times to tend to their young children's needs

what does Erik Erikson (1950) proposed why adolescence is important

the stage in which the primary developmental crisis is a quest for identity. As we prepare for the autonomy of adulthood, we must explore and commit to a coherent identity to guide us. Erikson's theory was androcentric: He focused on boys and their identity development, which has long been defined largely in terms of work. Thus, vocational identity, such as "I am a doctor," takes center stage in this model. Adolescence becomes a time to prepare for this adult identity, as in "I must start taking science courses and become a responsible student in order to become a doctor." The emphasis for boys, therefore, is on developing autonomy and a separate identity that is grounded in an occupation. Once that identity is achieved, they can move on to the next stage, which focuses on intimacy and marriage. .

How does it affect trans people when they are misgender?

transgender people has clearly harmful effects. When a person is misgendered in this way, their personal identity has not been affirmed, which threatens their sense of a strong and coherent identity (McLemore, 2014, 2016). Surveys of transgender men and women show that their experiences of being misgendered are linked to negative moods (such as anxiety and depression), feeling negatively about their identity and appearance, and feelings of stigmatization

Masculine generics

using masculine nouns and pronouns to refer to all people in a gender-neutral sense—have long been used in English.

how do schools gender socialize

whether purposely or unwittingly, may transmit the information of gender role stereotypes. Research based on classroom observations in preschools and elementary schools indicates that teachers treat boys and girls differently. For example, teachers, on average, pay more attention to and interact more with boys (DeZolt & Hull, 2001; S. M. Jones & Dindia, 2004). Teachers also hold gender-stereotyped expectations for children's behavior, expecting better academic performance from girls than from boys and more misbehavior from boys than from girls (S. Jones & Myhill, 2004). These gender-stereotyped expectations may be especially strong among teachers of African American children receive implicit messages from teachers about how important the categories of gender are. In one field experiment in preschool classrooms, researchers began by measuring children's gender attitudes and preferences (Hilliard & Liben, 2010). Then, for a 2-week period, teachers either did or did not make gender salient in the classroom. Teachers in the gender salience condition did this in numerous ways, such as by saying, "Good morning, boys and girls" rather than "Good morning, children," by lining children up separately by gender, and by having different bulletin boards for boys and girls. At the end of the 2 weeks, children were tested again. Those in the high gender salience condition showed significantly increased gender stereotypes, less positive ratings of other-gender peers, and decreased "play with other-gender peers. Teachers make choices about how much they emphasize gender in the classroom, and these choices have an impact on children. Yet so many of these choices have become habitual, and it takes conscious effort to create a classroom in which gender isn't salient.

Why does Robin Lakoff theorized that men and women have different catogeries?

women and men don't differ in communication because they are innately different from one another, but because the social hierarchy makes them different. She argued that men use more assertive speech because they have power, whereas women use more tentative speech because they lack power.

Who is better at reading body language, women or men?

women are better than men at reading facial expressions of emotion (Hall & Matsumoto, 2004). The evidence indicates that this gender difference develops early in the lifespan and persists into adulthood.

Why are women better at encoding and decoding?

women differ not because they are inherently or innately different, but because they face pressure to adhere to different gender roles. In particular, the female role entails communality, or establishing and maintaining social relationships, which requires interpersonal sensitivity.

How do gender differ in interpersonal space?

women tend to be comfortable with a smaller distance between themselves and others. This is particularly evident in same-gender pairs. For example, when two women interact, they tend to sit or stand closer to one another than two men do. greater interpersonal distance from unfamiliar men than they do from unfamiliar women. Regardless of our own gender, we tend to need greater interpersonal space with men than with women in order to feel comfortab"

what did Eleanor Maccoby conclude about gender socialization?

gendered patterns of behavior are not solely the result of socialization by forces such as parents and the media. By 3 years of age, children have a tendency to seek out and play with other children of their own gender and to avoid playing with children of the other gender. The tendency grows stronger by the time children are in elementary school. It occurs regardless of the gender socialization principles in their families, and it occurs in villages in developing nations as much "as in the United States. The all-girl and all-boy groups differ in terms of their activities (Fabes et al., 2003). Boys' play is rougher and involves more risk, confrontation, and striving for dominance. The members of all-girl groups are more likely to use conflict-reducing strategies in negotiating with each other and to engage in more self-disclosure. Girls' groups also tend to maintain communication with adults, whereas boys separate themselves from adults, test the limits, and seek autonomy. Boys are attracted to boy groups in part because they adore the rough play, and girls avoid boy groups because they dislike rough play. Once in a boy group, boys are encouraged to play roughly. Boys may be attracted to rough, active play by their higher activity level, which, as we have seen, is present from infancy and may have a biological basis. Engaged in rough play, they become even more active. Girls are attracted to girl groups because they like the positive social network and the self-regulated style of play. Once they are in the group, self-regulation is encouraged. results from forces within the child—whether biological or psychological. (An example of the latter is the child's desire to maintain a positive gender identity by engaging in gender-typed activities.) Peer play "groups rapidly create the next generation of gender-typed children

Gender linked language effect (Mulac)

girls and women tends to be rated as more socially intelligent and aesthetically pleasing, whereas the verbal communication of boys and men is rated as more dynamic and aggressive.

preferential looking paradigm,

how long babies look at particular stimuli to assess which stimuli the baby prefers to look at. Research using this technique has found that, by 3 to 4 months, infants who have female caregivers prefer to look at female faces instead of male faces and by 5 months, infants are sensitive to the distinction between typical male bodies and typical female bodies.

Female-as-the-exception phenomenon

if a category is considered normatively male and there is a female example of the category, gender is noted because the female is the exception; byproduct of androcentrism

pubertal suppression

in which the adolescent takes medication that suppresses endogenous (that is, originating from within the body) pubertal changes (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). Essentially, pubertal suppression can be helpful because it buys kids some extra time to explore and feel confident about their gender identity before irreversible pubertal changes (e.g., deepening voice or changes in bone structure) take effect, either through endogenous puberty or as a result of undergoing gender-affirming hormone treatment, or before initiating invasive and permanent surgeries or procedures (e.g., mastectomy, also called top surgery)

what are expressions of uncertainity?

include disclaimers, like "I may be wrong, but . . ." or "This is just my opinion, but. . . ."

habituation paradigm

infant is shown the same stimulus (e.g., a picture of a face) repeatedly until the infant habituates or gets used to it. If a new stimulus is presented, the infant responds with interest and a change in heart rate. Thus, for example, a researcher could habituate a baby to a set of pictures of different female faces. When a new female face is presented, the baby still acts habituated because the stimulus belongs to the same category (i.e., female). But if a male face is presented, the infant shows interest and a change in heart rate. Such a pattern of responding would show that the baby responds to male faces as being in a different category than female face