EXP Final Exam
Heuristic Problem-Solving methods we have covered in lecture.
-Analogy -Mean-Ends -Hill-climbing
Functional Megnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
-Detect subtle differences in the way the brain processes language -More precise, better resolution and is faster than PET
Two components of PDP:
-Distributed (across the brain (spreading activation) -Simultaneous(All the processes happen at the same time. It is not limited to serial processing)
Name a desirable difficulty related to learning.
-Distributed Practice -Testing Effect
Three possible explanations for why incorrect beliefs about a person's ability based on their "group membership" actually leads to degraded performance.
-Interference with working memory -Mentally taxed from Thought Suppression -High arousal Interferes with performance
Both Prototype approach and exemplar approach
-Make similar predictions about semantic memory -Propose that you make decisions about category membership by comparing a new item against some stored representation of the category
Exemplar:
-Our stored representation is a collection of numerous specific members of the category -More suitable when you think about a category that has relatively few members (because it's too bulky)
Prototype:
-Our stored representation is a typical member of the category -More suitable when considering a category that has numerous members
What are the three different neuroscientific methods of studying the brain?
-PET -fMRI -ERP
Stages of writing
-Prewriting -Revision -Sentence Generation
Explicit memories:
-Retrieved consciously -Easy to verbalize
Implicit memories:
-Retrieved unconsciously and effortlessly. -Difficult to verbalize
From each of the following statements, select the ones that are true about the way experts perform problem-solving.
-They are more successful at applying the analogy approach than novices. -They process alternative solutions in parallel. -They have great domain-specific memory -They can successfully judge the difficulty of a problem.
Position Emission Tomography (PET)
-Used to study attention, memory, and language -Does not provide useful info about the time course of processing a stimulus in the environment
What are the findings related to mental rotation of an object?
-When people rotate a visual image, a large rotation takes them longer. Just as they take longer when making a large rotation with a physical stimulus. -It takes longer to rotate mental images that are 180 degrees than to rotate 90 degrees
What is being described here? A type of movement used during language production that rhythmically matches the prosody of the speaker.
A beat gesture
What is being described here? A type of movement used during language production that draws the listener's attention towards a region in space.
A deictic gesture
Forrest has always prepared a chocolate in a certain fashion. He is given an electric mixer that would make it more efficient to prepare the ingredients. However, he decides to follow his old, familiar order. What is this behavior an example of?
A mental set
All of the following are factors that influence successful acquisition of a second language, EXCEPT
Age you first learned the language
All of the following are factors that influence successful acquisition of a second language, except
Age you first learned the language
We take longer time to travel larger mental distances is evidence that navigational imagery is stored in this form.
Analog Code
Effortful, short, and simple speech that may result from a left frontal lobe.
Broca's Asphasia
An individual receives damage close to the frontal lobe. After recovery, their speech becomes very slow and simplistic. They show a lot of effort just to say a phrase like "How you to-day?" What might this individual have?
Broca's aphasia
Our current understanding of the brain regions involved with language processing suggest
Broca's area is active during language processing but may also be broadly involved with other cognitive systems.
event-related potential (ERP)
Can identify changes over a very brief period produced by populations of neurons in some regions of the brain
Noam Chomsky contributed greatly to theories about language and cognition. What was his greatest contribution?
Chomsky's theories emphasized humans' inborn skills in language.
Lanie has a long and difficult term paper to write. She decides to tackle this assignment by creating the following schedule: Monday - review different topics and choose one. Tuesday - collect articles related to her topic. Wednesday - read the articles chosen. Thursday - write the paper. Friday - revise it before submitting. Using the Means-End Heuristic, which of the following would Lanie find the most difficult to do?
Choose an entire new set of articles because her choices were inappropriate for the assignment
What is a challenge with the hill-climbing heuristic?
Choosing the most direct route at every choice point may fail to consider a better indirect route.
Theoretical perspective describing how speakers convey deliberate and specific meaning by carefully choosing words, intonation, and phrasing.
Cognitive-Functional Approach
What verbal cues do speakers use to draw listeners' attention to specific words that they want to emphasize?
Cognitive-functional investigation
Prior to communicating, a speaker should establish this to increase the likeliness the listener will correctly interpret what they say
Common Ground
What is the relationship between cognition and writing?
Concrete words activate the "visual" part of the visuospatial sketchpad when writing them
This component of a parallel distributed processing model strengths or weakens with every bit of new information the system encounters.
Connection weights
Understanding discourse by developing expectations about the direction of the story, character's motivations, and integrating that info with background knowledge.
Constructivist View (of Inferences)
How does new information that students learn get integrated with knowledge they already know?
Constructivist investigation
Measure of creativity in which a subject provides the single best subject provides the single best solution to a problem.
Convergent Production
Which of the following is true about creativity?
Creative solutions are ones that are both novel and useful.
Type of body movement intended to orient a listener's attention to something.
Deictic gesture
What affects encoding (its strength)?
Depth of processing, encoding specificity principle and emotional content (e.g., Pollyanna principle)
Understanding the meaning of a word without the use of subvocalization.
Direct-Route
During lunch Laura asks Joseph, "Can you pass me a napkin?" Joseph, snarkily replies "Yes, I can"; however, he doesn't actually pass the salt. Laura's phrase is an example of a
Directive
When you read a any kind of book, you read language units that are longer than an isolated paragraph. What is this kind of language called?
Discourse
Measurement tool that would be used if you wanted to know the time course of a specific cognitive process.
EEG or ERP
What does common ground mean in language?
Establishing the information and experiences the speakers shares with the listener.
Which of the following is an accurate description of how language is processed by the hemispheres of the brain?
For most people, the left hemisphere does a lot of the major language processing, but the right hemisphere processes some abstract and emotional components too.
What is divergent production?
Generating numerous different solutions to a test items.
Jung failed multiple times at completing a task correctly, but kept trying until he improved. Jung has demonstrated this personal/cognitive trait.
Growth Mindset
Implicit memories vs retroactive & proactive interference
Implicit memories have nothing to do with these interferences, because it is an automatic process. When someone is going through retroactive and/or proactive interference, they are being asked to produce or recognize a response. This active process is does not lead to implicit memories being retrieved.
example of implicit memory
In implicit memory tasks, the cognitive tests do not ask to recall or recognize specific info. What they do is: Verify if the participants behavior is different from when presented with another task and not the implicit memory task.
When processing language, we make judgements and predictions about sentence meaning before we have heard or read the entire sentence. What do we call this process?
Incremental interpretation
Solving this requires a change in representation, removal of incorrect assumptions, and use of unexpected approaches.
Insight Problem
Why are slips-of-the-tongue important to understanding language production?
It is difficult directly study this language process, so these mistakes provide insight into it.
How is the term prosody related to sentence production?
It is the intonation, rhythm, and emphasis with which we say a sentence.
How is the term gist related to sentence production?
It is the overall meaning of a message that we want to convey.
Julie & Ryan need to come up with an ice breaker activity for her next business meeting. If they do, they will get a bonus on their next paycheck. Julie believes that if they try hard enough, they will come up with a creative idea for the group. However, Ryan is not so confident but is willing to keep working on the task even though it is difficult. Which of the two individuals is likely to get a more creative idea?
Julie because she is demonstrating self-efficacy.
What does discourse mean?
Language units that are more than a sentence in length.
The notion that a process such as language is handled principally by a specific brain hemisphere
Lateralization
Lanie has a long and difficult term paper to write. She decides to tackle this assignment by creating the following schedule: Monday - review different topics and choose one. Tuesday - collect articles related to her topic. Wednesday - read the articles chosen. Thursday - write the paper. Friday - revise it before submitting. What type of problem-solving strategy is this?
Means-ends heuristic
Speech error in which units of meaning in a sentence are rearranged in the wrong position.
Morpheme error (Slip-of-the-tongue)
What has research on means-ends analysis in problem solving demonstrated?
Most people avoid actions that temporarily move them further away from the goal state.
Which brain area is most active when reading a question?
Neurolinguistics
Does visual imagery interfere with auditory imagery?
No because they are two different sensory modes.
Cognitive network that would be active when looking for an object in the environment.
Orienting Attention Network
Both ____ and _____ provide information about location
PET & fMRIs
Orienting Attention Network is located in the ....
Parietal (visual search)
Which of the following statements about the passive voice is correct?
People understand a sentence more quickly if the sentence is active, rather than passive.
Which of the following is not a stage of writing?
Phonemic encoding
At what age do we lose the ability to distinguish certain word sounds?
Phonemic investigation
Research claims this is the language component that age of acquisition does affect.
Phonology
During lunch Laura asks Joseph, "Can you pass me a napkin?" Joseph, snarkily replies "Yes, I can"; however, he doesn't actually pass the salt. What kind of communication characteristic is Joseph taking advantage of to not pass the napkin?
Pragmatics
Social context of communication in which one considers the rules of language and perspective of their listener.
Pragmatics
What is the term that describes social rules that guide the way language is produced?
Pragmatics
What social situations make people more comfortable using curse words while communicating?
Pragmatics investigation
Executive attention Network is located in the ....
Prefrontal cortex
The application of intonation that occurs in the final stages of language production.
Prosody
example of explicit memory
Recall (info you are asked to reproduce) Recognition (info you are asked to identify)
What are obstacles in problem solving?
Restrictions that are encountered between your goal state and initial state.
Julie needs to come up with an ice breaker activity for her next business meeting. Julie knows that if she tries hard enough, she will come up with a creative idea for the group. What personal characteristic is Julie displaying?
Self-Efficacy
This theoretical approach explains why Joseph is able to dance extraordinarily well in front of a mirror, but cannot pull off the same dance moves in public.
Situated Cognition
How is understanding relevant to problem solving?
Solutions require a close correspondence between the problem and your internal representation of the problem
When people try to solve problems, which feature of the problem should they emphasize the most?
Structural features
Suppose that you have solved a problem by letting the letter x represent one unknown and by letting the letter y represent another unknown. Which problem-solving method have you used?
Symbols
Unclear structure of the sentence leads to multiple interpretations.
Syntactic Ambiguity
When we read a novel or watch a movie, we form conclusions about characters' motivations, the direction of the story, and events that happen. As we progress through the story, we are able to integrate current information with prior information, forming a deeper understanding about what is happening or will likely happen. What theoretical perspective explains how we develop these deeper insights?
The constructionist view of inferences
Which of the following is an accurate description about our most current understanding on word recognition?
The dual-route explanation does a good job of explaining the use of both the direct- and indirect-access route.
What can we conclude about age of acquisition and mastery of a second language?
The research is not clear-cut; instead, the findings seem to depend upon factors such as the similarity between the first language and the second language.
A researcher observes a person solve a problem in a specific context. However, when a similar problem is presented to the same person in a novel context, the person struggles to solve it. This evidence would support what approach to problem solving?
The situated-cognition approach
What does not happen when we learn something new?
The strength of your connection weights when NOT learning something new (for that specific thing you're trying to learn) becomes weaker. Let's say you're trying to learn mathematical derivatives, if you don't continue practicing, those connection weights will significantly decrease.
Why are diagrams useful for problem-representation?
They convey abstract information without irrelevant detail.
Which of the following is true about bilingual individuals?
They perform better on concept-formation tasks than monolingual individuals.
Based on our class discussion about creativity, what is the typical character of individuals who end up developing really creative ideas?
They produce a lot of ideas at first (divergent thinking) and then combine the best parts of each into a final solution (convergent thinking).
What occurs if readers use the indirect-access route when recognizing written words?
They translate the visual stimuli into sound before locating a word's meaning.
During writing revision, this general cognitive process interferes with our ability to recognize errors in our text
Top Down Processing
Cognition is the acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge. Compared to more basic cognitive processes such as working memory, problem solving makes more use of which of those four processes?
Transformation of knowledge
Do we treat traveling mental space like an analog or a propositional code?
Traveling mental space is more like an analog code, because a propositional code would be inappropriate to use since it is a more detailed description of objects instead of a visual image (analog) code. (We treat mental images the same way we treat physical objects when we rotate them through space)
Forming an appropriate and well-organized mental representation is an essential first step.
Understanding
Which of the following statements about the revising process is false?
We can proofread our own papers more accurately than other people's papers.
What does the cognitive-functional approach suggest about language?
We use language strategically to convey specific meaning to other people.
Suppose that you ask a stranger what time it is, and he produces several wordy sentences that don't seem to make sense. Without knowing additional information, you would suspect that he has
Wernicke's aphasia.
Which of the following is true about understanding sentences?
When a sentence uses too much negation people's comprehension is only slightly better than chance level.
During what tasks is the orienting attention network most likely to be active?
When attention required for visual search, in which you must shift your attention around to various spatial locations
In which of the following cases are people most likely to draw inferences during reading?
When readers have a large working-memory span
When are people more likely to be creative?
When they have high intrinsic motivation for working on the task.
According to the chapter, when are you most likely to use the hill-climbing heuristic?
When you lack information on how to reach your goal.
What is memory encoding?
When you process info and represent it in your memory, which is stored in LTM.
Repetition priming task:
When you've been recently exposed to a word you'll think of that particular word when presented with a cue that could represent many other words
During what tasks is the executive attention network most likely to be active?
When.... -a task focuses on conflict e.g., Stroop task -Involved during top down control of attention -when acquiring skills in school
What is the most controversial issue concerning bilingualism and age of acquisition?
With respect to the mastery of grammar, do people who acquired a second language as adults differ from people who acquired a second language as children?
During sentence generation, your writing
alternates between hesitant phases and fluent phases.
In problem solving, a method that always produces a problem solution (though not necessarily very efficiently) is known as
an algorithm.
You are telling a story to a group of friends, when you notice that one of them is falling asleep. You loudly say, "Wouldn't you be more comfortable in your own bed, Jackie?" You are using a kind of directive known as
an indirect request.
What are desirable difficulties?
are challenges you want to have when using distributed practice. They help you become aware of the difficulties you might encounter on the actual test.
Early theories about bilingualism
argued that bilingualism produced a cognitive deficit.
One of the issues with using means-ends problem solving is that people generally
avoid increasing the difference between the current state and the goal state.
The whole-word approach to teaching reading encourages readers to
directly connect a written word with the word's meaning.
To be a more expert reviser during writing
focus more on transitions between ideas.
beat gestures
gestures that occur in a rhythm that matches the speech rate and prosodic content of speech
When looking at a bilingual child versus a monolingual you are likely to find that the bilingual child
has a better understanding of the structure of their first language.
What happens when we learn something new?
he connection weights of the nodes in the spreading activation become stronger. *Neurons that fire together tend to wire together*
A subject reads the word pairs EYE - SEA. When asked to remember the pair later they recall the semantically related pair "EYE - SEE." This result supports the hypotheses that the subject likely used the ______________ to store the meaning of the two words.
indirect-access route
According to the research discussed in the chapter, an explanation for why slips-of-the-tongue occur is
interference from inappropriate sounds that are highly active.
Does visual imagery interfere with visual perception?
it can when using the same sensory mode
During speech perception the _________________ of the brain is likely to be especially active.
left hemisphere
It is difficult to manipulate relevant independent variables in language production. This makes research on this process
more difficult to study than language comprehension.
Units of language such as pre-, and -s carry meaning and are known as
morphemes.
A teacher asks his students to revise their book reports. He is likely to find that
most students focus on checking spelling and grammar one sentence at a time.
Heather and Tom want to bake some blueberry muffins, but they do not have a muffin tin. So Heather takes some soda cans out of the recycling bin, Tom cuts the top 2 inches off of each can, and they use the bottoms of the cans to bake their muffins. Tom and Heather have demonstrated
overcoming functional fixedness.
diectic gestures
pointing, requesting
While walking on your college campus, a stranger asks you how to get to the library. Before answering, try to figure out whether this person is familiar with any of the landmarks at your university. Your concern about background information is most relevant for the aspect of language known as
pragmatics.
While walking on your college campus, a stranger asks you how to get to the library. Before answering, try to figure out whether this person is familiar with any of the landmarks at your university. Your concern about background information is most relevant for the aspect of language known as syntax.
pragmatics.
Compared to written language, spoken language is more likely to
require the use of working memory.
In problem solving, the term obstacles refers to
restrictions that are encountered in problem solving.
In order to test how subjects incrementally interpret text they read, researchers measure reaction times as subjects press a spacebar on a computer keyboard to make words appear one at a time. This procedure is an example of a
self-paced reading task.
Anne is 20 years old, and she has spoken English all her life. She has taken Spanish courses in both high school and college. She enrolls in a study-abroad program in Buenos Aires and becomes fluent in Spanish, before returning to the United States. Annes situation is an example of
sequential bilingualism.
Clea learned Haitian growing up in Jacmel. When she was 18, she moved to the United States where she became fluent in English. This is an example of
sequential bilingualism.
Understanding a problem requires understanding its underlying meaning. This basic core of a problem is called its
structural features.
What are some effects or learning techniques that implement desirable difficulties?
testing effect (being tested on material also increases memory for the material).
When comparing the two hemispheres of the brain, in general the right hemisphere is more likely to emphasize _______________ than the left hemisphere.
the interpretation of the emotional tone of a message
According to the research we have discussed, people are likely to be more creative if
they are high in intrinsic motivation
In functional fixedness,
we assign a particular use to an object, and that use tends to remain stable.
Embodied cognition is important to language production because
we often execute visible body movements alongside our speec
Compared to monolingual children, you would expect that in general bilingual children
would be better at following complex instructions.
Proactive interference happens when
you are unable to learn new material because old material keeps interfering.
Retroactive interference happens when
you cannot remember old material because new material keeps interfering.