Final Exam Business Research

Research process activities

Collect the data Enter the data Prepare the data: post coding data and editing data Examine the data

Appendices

Complex tables Statistical tests Supporting documents (research request for proposal and research contract) Copies of interview forms, observation checklists, measurement instruments Instruction to data collectors

Objects

Concepts defined by ordinary expensive

Management dependent variables

Conflict resolution Employee satisfaction Employee turnover

Construct validity

Consider both theory and measuring instrument being used

Classification questions

Cover demographic, economic, geographic, and sociological variables Can use screening and filter questions

independent; dependent

In regression analysis, the symbol X is commonly used for the ______ variable, and the symbol Y is commonly used for the ______ variable.

Metric

Interval Ratio

Oral and Written reports

Introduction Background Methodology Findings, insights and recommendations

Non-question elements assist the participant to answer the questions in the survey

Introduction Conclusion Transition Instruction

Findings, Insights, and Recommendations

Largest portion of report Determine the order of findings and insights Recommendations used for managerial action Include suggestions for alternatives supported by data and insights May recommend further initiatives

Actionable insights

Lead to recommendations Align with business goals and strategies Clearly communicated

Role of Researcher in Reporting

Make sure audience understands how insight was reached Provide correct and sufficient support Helps audience understand its value and embrace the insights

Marketing independent variables

Marketing mix: Price, product, promotion, distribution

Semantic Differential Scale

Measures the psychological meanings of an attitude object and produces interval data

Regression Analysis

Measuring the linear association between a dependent and an independent variable Regression is a dependent technique Makes a distinction between dependent and independent variables Specifies cause and effect relationships

Median

Midpoint of a distribution

0.05

Most common significance level in research is ______________.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value

r=0

No correlation

Nonmetric

Nominal Ordinal

nonmetric; metric

Nominal and ordinal scales are examples of ______ scales, while interval and ratio scales are examples of ______ scales.

Nominal

Numbers written on race cars, numbers assigned to object serve as tags to categorize or arrange objects in class

5 Factors of Unstructured/Structured questions

Objectives of the study Participants level of information about the topic Degree to which participant has thought through the topic Ease with which participant communities Participants motivation level to share information

Order Topics and Questions

Order topics based on participant interest, not research objective or investigative questions Order topics to establish participant rapport interest, and maintain engagement Cluster related topics together Order classification questions (not used as screens or filters) at the end of the instrument

Administrative questions identify

Participant Interviewer Interview location Research conditions

be easy raters

Participants tend to ________ when they make an error of leniency.

Introducrtion

Prepare audience for report Establishes researcher's credibility Contains: Title, researchers' profiles (name, title, company, educational, and experiential background), Executive Summary, and Table of Contents

Structured

Present the participants with a fixed set of choices; closed questions

marketing independent variable

Price, product, promotion and distribution can be categorized as ______________________.

Unstructured

Provide the participant with a frame of reference for their self-crafted answer; open-ended questions

Background

Provides audience with the following: Knowledge critical to interpreting the research findings Establish credibility Establish validity of the findings

Interval

Quantify the difference between values-temperature scale because difference between each value is the same- no true 0

Crafting Measurement Questions

Question coverage Question wording Question's frame of reference Question personalization Structure, number, or order of response alternatives

Data

Raw Unprocessed Collected quantitatively and qualitatively

Criterion-related validity

Reflects the success of measure used for prediction or estimation

Predict y using x values

Regression analysis seeks to ________.

Hypothesis testing

Relational hypotheses Differences of groups hypotheses Differences of standard hypotheses

Compiled Content and Style Infographs

Relatively new concept for written reports Blends data with design in picture format Receives more information visually then other senses Prime the audience and stimulates interest Makes information easy to understand Retention of data presented Visual elements can be utilized to represent relations between different types of data

Selecting a Measurement Scale

Research objectives Response types Number of dimensions Balanced or unbalanced Forced or unforced choices Number of scale points Rate errors

Significance levels and P-values

Researchers specify an acceptable significance level Most common level is .05 If p value resulting from statistical test is less than .05, hypothesis about difference is supported As the observed value or observed mean gets further away from standard mean, p value gets smaller: Indicates that researcher's hypothesis would be supported

Marketing dependent variables

Sales Volume

marketing dependent variable

Sales volume can be categorized as a ________________________.

Ratio

Sales, price, number of customers, market share, weight, height

Ordinal Scales

Scale with mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories, as well as the property of order, but not distance or unique origin

Nominal scales

Scale with mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories, but without the properties of order, distance, or unique origin

Interval Scales

Scales with the properties of order and equal distance between points and with mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories

How to start questions

Start topics with easier questions, followed by more complex questions Order topics from easier to answer to more difficult to answer

Types of target questions

Structured Unstructured

Methodology

Summarize sample design (including sample profile, margin of error and significance level) Describe research design How are data collected and rationale for using multiple methods for collecting data Data analysis to understand the findings Identify limitations

Conclusion

Thank participants, conclude that participation valuable, purpose of their data help determine.

-1 and +1

The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient ranges between

Interval

The Pearson product-moment correlation requires what type of scale for the data?

Parallel forms

The U.S. News and World Report is assessing the reliability of its measure of academic reputation used in its annual ranking of colleges and universities. To do so, it administers the same questions on academic reputation to its sample of academic administrators in March and again in June. If the U.S. News and World Report seeks to assess equivalence of alternate forms of measuring academic reputation, it should utilize a ________ type of test.

Test-retest

The U.S. News and World Report is assessing the reliability of its measure of academic reputation used in its annual ranking of colleges and universities. To do so, it administers the same questions on academic reputation to its sample of academic administrators in March and again in June. Which type of test is used in the U.S. News and World Report example to assess reliability?

Pearson's (product moment) correlation coefficient

The ________ is a statistic summarizing the strength of association between two continuous variables.

Scaling

The assignment of numbers or symbols to a property of objects according to value or magnitude is called ________.

Linearity

The assumption that data can be described by a straight line passing through the data array is called ________.

Content validity

The extent to which it provides adequate coverage of the investigative question guiding the study

Constant-Sum Scale

The participant allocates points to more than one attribute or property indicant, such that they total to 100 or 10

Research Objectives

To measure characteristics of the participant in the study To use participants as judges of the indicants of objects or properties presented to them

Pie graph

Uses sections of a circle to represent 100 percent of a frequency distribution of the subject being graphed

Hypothesis testing Procedure

Value is consistent with the hypothesis the hypothesis is supported Value is inconsistent with the hypothesis the hypothesis is not supported

management dependent variables

Variables that include conflict resolution, employee satisfaction, and employee turnover can be categorized as ____________________.

The direction of the relationship

What does the sign (+ or -) of the correlation coefficient signify?

Administrative questions

What type of question identifies the participant, interviewer, interview location, and conditions?

Unidimensional

When a measurement question seeks to measure only one attribute of the participant or object, it is said to be ________.

multiple regression analysis

When a researcher is attempting to predict sales volume by using building permits, amount of advertising, and the income levels of residents, the researcher is using _____.

Equivalence

When an instrument secures consistent results with repeated measures by the same investigator or different samples

increases; increases

When the correlation between two variables is +0.92, this means that as one variable ______ , the other variable ______.

independent; dependent

When the on-time performance of airlines is used to predict the number of customer complaints in a regression equation, on-time performance is the ______ variable and the number of customer complaints is the ______ variable.

Primacy effect

Which form of order bias occurs when a participant tends to choose the first alternative presented as his or her response to a closed-ended question?

Mean

Which measure of central tendency is appropriate for interval scales?

Encourage each participant to provide accurate responses

Which of the following goals should a good measurement instrument accomplish?

multivariate statistical analysis

Which type of analysis involves three or more variables?

Filter question

Which type of classification question determines whether a participant is asked or is excluded from answering one or more questions within a target question topic?

Error of strictness

Which type of rater error occurs when a participant consistently chooses the extreme response alternative at one end of the scale?

Coding scheme

________ involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so that the responses can be grouped into a limited number of categories.

Validity

________ is the extent to which a measurement tool actually measures what we wish to measure.

Histogram

a graphical bar chart that groups continuous data values into equal intervals with one bar for each interval

Bar graph

a graphical presentation technique that represents frequency data as horizontal or vertical bars vertical bars are most often used for time series and quantitative classifications

Intra-rater reliability

a measure of the consistency of the application of a coding scheme between raters of context across texts when multiple raters are used

Inter-rater reliability

a measure of the consistency of the application of a coding scheme by a single rater of content, across texts

Filter Questions

a question that determines whether a participant is asked one or more questions within a target question topic or excluded from answering

Rapport

a relationship characterized by agreement, mutual understanding or empathy that makes communication possible or easy

Mapping rules

a scheme for assigning numbers to aspects of an empirical event

Measurement instrument

a sequenced list of questions, crafted using carious scale options, complete with an introduction, section instructions and a conclusion

Bivariate Correlation Analysis

a statistical technique to assess the relationship of two continuous variables measured on an interval or ratio scale shows how much x will change when there is a change in y

Content analysis

a systematic, objective approach used to code message characteristics so researchers can treat diverse textual or verbal content quantitatively as they look for patterns and draw inferences

Boxplots

a visual image of the variables distribution location, spread, shape, tail length, and outliers

Target questions

address the investigative questions of a specific study. Represent the largest number and most important

Stem and Leaf Displays

an exploratory data analysis display for variables with continuous data that uses actual values to group data rather than equal intervals

Frequency table

arrays category codes from lowest value to highest value, with columns for count, percent, valid percent, and cumulative percent

Categorization

asks participants to put themselves or property indicants in groups or categories

Double-barreled question

asks two or more questions but provides the response option to answer only one

Primacy effect

choosing the first option given

Recency effect

choosing the last or most recent option

Ranking scales

constrain the study participant to making comparisons and determining order among two or more properties or objects

Coding scheme

contains each variable in the study and specifies the application of mapping rules to the response codes of each variable

Relational hypothesis

describes a relationship between two or more concepts/constructs

Screen Questions

determine whether a participant has the requisite level of knowledge to participate

Error of leniency

easy raters

Non question elements

enhance rapport

Introduction

first thing they see, eye appealing, time requirements included, encourage participants to answer truthfully

Unstructured Questions

free-response or open-ended questions which give participants the option of choosing their own words

Pareto Diagrams

graphical presentation that represents frequency data as a bar chart, ordered from most to least, overlaid with a line graph denoting the cumulative percentage at each variable level

Error of strictness

hard raters

Balanced rating scale

has an equal number of categories above and below the midpoint

Unbalanced rating scale

has an unequal number of favorable and unfavorable response choices

Dummy tables

helps researchers visualize the data that will be analyzed

Mean

interval or ratio variables

Simple regression

involves finding the best fit line, given the set of observations plotted in a two dimensional space

Unsupported assumption

is one that assumes (rightly or wrongly) an implied affirmative answer to an unasked question in order to answer the current question

Variate

mathematical way in which a set of variables can be represented with one equation

Classification questions

may be free-response, dichotomous choice, multiple choice, or rating questions

frequencies

nominal or ordinal variables

Question coverage

number of questions needs to adequately measure the variable as operationally defined Single question vs series of questions

Unidimensional scale

on seeks to measure only one attribute of the participant or object

error of central tendency

participants tendency to choose the middle option

p-value

probability of observing a sample value as extreme as or more extreme than the value actually observed, given that the null hypothesis is true

Unforced-choice rating scale

provides participants with an opportunity to express no opinion when they are unable to make a choice among the alternatives offered

Ordinal

rank or order- class rank, rating surveys

Multidimensional scale

recognizes that an object might be better described with several dimensions than on a unidimensional continuum

Measurement scale

refers to the type of measurement question a researcher choses to use to collect the data

Forced-choice rating scale

requires that participants select one of the offered alternatives

Sorting

requires that participants sort objects or properties on some criterion

Response alternatives

should cover 90% of participants expected answers

r=-1 or +1

strong correlation

Leading Question

suggests to the participant the desired answer; its biased phrasing makes the question worthless

Halo effect

systematic bias that the rater introduces by carrying over a generalized impression of the subject from one rating to another

Cross-tabulation

technique for comparing data from two or more variables that results in a table

data collection

the collective actions that field a measurement instrument

Measurement instrument

the compilation of measurement questions and non-question elements

Data entry

the process of converting information gathered by secondary or primary methods to a medium for viewing and manipulation

Pearson Correlation Coefficient

the r symbolizes the estimate of strength of linear association and its direction between interval and ratio variables

Rating scale

used when participants score an object, property, or its comparison without making a direct comparision to another object

Regression Analysis

uses simple and multiple predictions to predict y from x values

Measurement questions

what the researcher will ask the participant or record about cases during a research study

Internal consistency

Characteristic of an instrument in which the items are homogenous

Properties

Characteristics of objects that are measured

Structured Questions

Closed questions where the specific response alternatives are provided

Hypothesis testing Procedure

1. Hypothesis is derived from the research objectives 2. A sample is obtained and variable is measured 3. The measured value obtained in the sample is compared to the value either stated explicitly or implied in the hypothesis

· Audience-Centric Planning

1. Provide findings, insights and recommendations 2. Raise concerns about unknown problems 3. Showcase emerging opportunities 4. Convince audience to take action related to research objective

Coding Verbal Responses/ Content Analysis

1. Select the Content you want to analyze 2. Define units and categories of analysis 3. Develop set of rules for coding 4. Code text according to rules 5. Analyze results and draw conclusions

Mapping rule

A ________ is a scheme for assigning numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the event being measured.

Concept

A bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain concrete, unambiguous events, objects, conditions, or situations

Reliability

A characteristic of measurement concerned with accuracy, precision and consistency

Validity

A characteristic of measurement concerned with the extent that a test measures what the researcher actually wishes to measure

Variable

A characteristic, trait, or attribute that is measured

Operational Definition

A definition for a variable stated in terms of specific testing criteria or operations, specifying what must be counted, measured, or gathered through our senses

Regression analysis

A dependent variable y is lined to an independent variable x Attempts to predict the values of y a continuous interval-scaled dependent variable from specific values of the independent variable Simple regression involves finding the best fit line, given the set of observations plotted in a two dimensional space

Stapel Scale

A numerical scale with up two categories (half positive, half negative) in which the central position is an attribute. The higher the positive number

Editing

A process for verifying that variables have used the designated coding scheme and that all data collected is entered correctly

Numerical scale

A scale in which equal intervals separate the numeric scale points, while verbal anchors serve as labels fro extreme points

Graphic Rating Scale

A scale in which the participant places his or her response along a line or continuum

Multiple-choice, Multiple Response scale

A scale that offers the participant multiple options and solicits one or more answers

Multiple-choice, single response scale

A scale that poses more than two category responses but seeks a single answer, or one that seeks a single rating from a gradation of preferences, interest or agreement

Visual Graphic Rating Scale

A scale where participants mark their response at any point along a line between two response choices that are represented by images or symbols, rather than words

Ratio Scales

A scale with the properties of categorization, order, equal intervals, and unique origin

Simple category scale

A scale with two mutually exclusive response choices

Multiple Rating List Scale

A single interval or ordinal numerical scale where raters respond to a series of objects

Cross-tabulation

A statistical technique that describes two or more variables simultaneously and results in tables that reflect the joint distribution of two or more variables that have a limited number of categories or distinct values is a(n) ________.

Likert Scale Summated Rating

A variation of the summated rating scale, this scale asks a rater to agree or disagree with statements that express either favorable or unfavorable attitudes toward the object. The strength of attitude is reflected in the assigned score, and individual scores may be totaled for an overall attitude measure

Operational defintion

A(n) ________ defines a variable in terms of specific measurement criteria.

Internal validity

Ability of a research instrument to measure what is purported to measure

3 Question Types

Administrative Target Classification

Information

Aggregated Organized Applying rules of measurement Developing data visualization

Evaluating reliability estimates

All of the following activities except ________ are included in the data preparation process.

Assuring confidentiality Building participant interest in the topic Offering an incentive

All of the following can improve participant motivation to participate except ________.

Construct

An abstract idea specifically invested for a given research and/or theory-building purpose

Multiple Regression Analysis

Analyzing effects of two or more independent variables on a single, interval-scaled dependent variable Multiple independent variables include: price, seasonality, interest rates, advertising intensity, consumer income, other economic factors

Insights

Analyzing information Deduction or induction Actionable insights

Number of Scale points

As the ____ increases, the reliability of the measure increases May produce more valid results

Audience Analysis

Audience composition Research question knowledge Research predispositions Recommendation effects Audience effect Supplemental purposes

Balanced vs. Unbalanced

Balanced - same relative weight on each side of the frame Unbalanced - more relative weight on one side

Multivariate analysis

Business research studies involve many variables that must be organized for meaning Business problems involving this include: employee motivation research, customer psychographic profiles, market segment identification research

Selecting a Measurement Scale

Can influence reliability, validity and practivality

Stability

Characteristic of a measurement scale if it provides consistent results with repeated measures of the same person with the same instrument

Exploratory

Data analysis is ________ when patterns in the collected data guide the data analysis or suggest revisions to the preliminary data analysis plan.

Outliers

Data points that exceed plus 1.5 of the interquartile range are called ________.

Dispersion

Describes how scores cluster or scatter in a distribution

Transition

Descriptive statements that are designed to ask participant to a change in topic or a shift in question group

Research Report Plan

Desired audience effect Report structure Content and style

Pearson's product-moment correlation

Determines the degree to which a relationship is linear Measure of strength and direction of association between two variables No significant outliers Normally distributed Linearity Indicates how far away data points are from line of best fit Interval or ratio variables

3 Phases Developing the Measurement Instrument

Develop and refine the measurement questions Develop and refine the non-question elements Develop and refine the measurement instrument

Desired Audience effect

Earning the audience's embrace of findings, insights, and recommendations Connect to the audience Prep for the possibility of unreceptive or unsupportive audience reaction

Number of dimensions

Either unidimensional or multidimensional

Measurement instrument should accomplish

Encourage individual to participate Help establish and maintain rapport with the participant Encourage participant to provide accurate responses Encourage participant to provide adequate information Discourage participant from refusing to answer specific questions Discourage participant from early discontinuation of participation Leave participant with a positive attitude about survey participation

Rater errors

Error of central tendency Error of leniency Error of strictness Halo effect

Question wording

Every word you use in you question has the potential to bias your participant's response

Differences of Standard hypotheses

Examine how some variable differs from some preconceived standard

Differences of groups hypotheses

Examine how some variables varies from one group to another Common in casual designs and group differences in survey research

Data centric

Focus on data and sharing as much data was discovered Factual and statistical

Audience centric

Focus on gaining audience's embrace of data insights and recommendations Persuasive and tells a story Statistics are a tool, not a focus

Forced or Unforced Choices

Forced: requires that participants select one of the offered alternatives Unforced: provides participants with an opportunity to express no opinion when they are unable to make a choice among the alternatives offered

Response Types

Four types: rating, ranking, categorization and sorting

Types of Classification questions

Free-response Dichotomous choice Multiple choice Rating questions

research objectives

Hypotheses are derived from _________________.

Cluster Analysis

Identifies objects or individuals that are similar to one another in some respect Classifies individuals or objects into a small number of mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups Objects or individuals are assigned to groups Similarity exists within groups and not between groups: high internal (within cluster) homogeneity and high external (between cluster) heterogeneity

there is a strong negative relationship between the variables

If the correlation between two variables is - 0.85, this means that ____.

0

If there is no relationship between two variables, the correlation coefficient between them would be

homogeneity; heterogeneity

In cluster analysis, the researcher wants clusters to have high ______ within-clusters and high between-cluster ______.