Final Exam Child Dev

variations in onsets

(ranging from 1-6 years) of operational skills related to conservation and classification for some non-Western cultures i. E.g. Algeria, Senegal, Uganda ii. E.g. Papua New Guinea 1. Conservation of number is approximately 3 years later than in Western samples 2. Conservation of area and volume is approximately 6 years later

Positives of Left-Handedness

- Left-handed children are more likely to show exceptional verbal and math abilities - Likely to have strong visual-spatial abilities and more likely to become architects and artists

Reasons Why Children Became Friends

Main basis of friendship is similarity Selective Association: In social relations, the principle that people tend to prefer being around others are like themselves Sociability, Aggression, and Academic orientation

Gender Socialization

Often adamant and rigid in their perceptions of maleness and femaleness Gender Constancy and Gender Roles Parents, Fathers and Peers

Reasons Asthma Rates are High Among African Americans

Often live in urban neighborhoods where the air quality is poor (ii) Especially high rates of risk factors such as low birth weight and obesity

Mastery Oriented Attribution Style

1. Attributing successes to internal and stable causes (e.g. ability) a. Why? i. High expectancies of success and achievement motivation ii. High self-esteem 2. Attributing failures to internal and unstable causes (e.g. effort) a. Why? i. Don't have low expectancies of success or achievement motivation ii. Don't have low self-esteem 1. leads to high achievement motivation and high achievement a. Attribute successes to i. Internal and stable causes (e.g. ability) b. Attribute failures to: i. Internal and unstable causes (e.g. insufficient preparation or effort) ii. External causes (e.g. unusually hard test, biased grading) iii. Either way, failure can be overcome c. Achievement outcome/result of MO style: i. High expectancies of success ii. Persist in face of failure iii. Thrive despite challenge iv. Higher achievement

Theory-of-Mind Across Cultures

1. Children worldwide display synchrony (similarity) in onset of understanding other's mental states a. E.g. Perceptions, desires, beliefs, intentions: aka "Theory of Mind" (ToM) development i. Gradually understand behavior is guided by mental states, these can differ, and beliefs regarding reality can be false (i.e. an apple is actually an inedible candle) b. Majority attain a major milestone (e.g. pass a "false-belief" task) by 5 years (fundamental universal shift between 3-5 years of age) a. Found in many cultures i. Western (Canada, Australia) ii. Non-Western (India, Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea) iii. Traditional (Hunter-gatherer community in Cameroom West Africa, a Peruvian mountain village) b. Yet, older age (6-8 years) for some: i. Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines ii. Samoa c. Why delay: cultural norms and beliefs may shape i. E.g. Samoa has doctrine of "opacity of other minds" 1. People assume one cannot know what another is thinking unless that person talks about it 2. Less experience with mental state talk may explain delay in timing of ToM mastery a. When other "mind-reading" concepts considered: i. More complex story appears ii. Cultural variation not in onset of mastery (false belief) but also in sequence of ToM skills b. Typical order of mastery (Individualistic cultures): i. Diverse Desires ii. Diverse Beliefs iii. Knowledge Access/Ignorance iv. False Belief v. Hidden Emotion c. Collectivist mastery (China, Singapore, Iran): i. Diverse Desires ii. Knowledge Access/Ignorance iii. Diverse Beliefs iv. False Belief v. Hidden Emotion d. Why? i. Individualistic cultures promote autonomy and self-expression of opinion, which promotes understanding of "diverse beliefs" ii. Collectivistic cultures value respect, obedience, and elder knowledge, thus learn early about "knowledge access" e. Despite appeal of "collectivistic" vs. "individualistic" ToM development i. Within these broad groups, features of children's everyday lives appear to have impact 1. E.g. Content of interpersonal talk, parental "mind-mindedness" (inclination to view child as having mind of their own) a. Influential factors not fully understood

Outcomes Associated with Neglectful/Uninvolved Parents

1. Frequent temper tantrums and high in aggression by age 3 2. Poor academic performance later in childhood 3. By adolescence a. Selfish, hostile, rebellious b. Prone to commit antisocial, delinquent acts; prone to alcohol and drug abuse i. Seems to breed resentment and motivation to resist/strike back at authority figures

Outcomes Associated with Authoritarian Parents

1. Moody 2. Easily annoyed 3. Somewhat aimless 4. Less self-reliant 5. Less confident in decision-making ability 6. Average social skills 7. Average academic performance

Outcomes Associated with Permissive Parents

1. Poor self-control and often impulsive 2. Low social competencies (bossy, self-centered, often aggressive if male); poor peer acceptance 3. Rebellious 4. Aimless 5. Low cognitive competencies and low academic achievement

Outcomes Associated with Authoritative Parents

1. Secure attachments; potential confounding variable 2. Cheerful 3. Prosocial tendencies (socially responsible, cooperative); highest social skills 4. High Peer Acceptance 5. High academic competence and achievement-oriented 6. Self-reliant 7. Confident, high self-esteem

Learned Helplessness Attribution Style

1. leads to low achievement motivation and low achievement a. Attribute successes to: i. Internal and unstable causes (e.g. extra hard work) ii. External causes (e.g. easy test) iii. Either way, deny themselves pride and self-esteem that comes with perception of increased ability b. Attribute failures to: i. Internal and stable causes (e.g. low ability) c. Achievement outcome/result of LH: i. Low expectancies of success ii. Avoid challenge iii. Give up quickly (i.e. are quitters) iv. Low achievement

Reticular Formation

A part of the lower brain involved in attention - Myelination is completed by age 5

Self-Esteem

A person's overall sense of worth and well-being Physical appearance is the strongest contributor of this

Cerebellum

A structure at the base of the brain involved in balance and motor movements - Increased myelination enhances connections between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex, which underlies the child's increasing abilities to jump, run, climb, and throw a ball

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

2+ to 6 yrs Cognitive Achievements Language Achievements Cognitive Limitations

Emotional Understanding

Children become adept at understanding the sources of other people's expressed emotions By age 5, children are usually accurate in explaining the emotions of the situation and they are also adept at understanding how emotional states are the basis of subsequent actions

Peer Gender Socialization

Reinforce each other for gender-appropriate behavior reject peers who violate gender roles Boys who cry easily or who like to play with girls and engage in girls' games are likely to be ostracized by other boys

social information processing (SIP)

Rejected children tend to interpret their peers' behavior as hostile even when it is not, and they tend to blame others when there is conflict

Cultural Differences in Play

3-year-old children spent more time in play than in ay other activity The more work parents have to do, the earlier they involve children in work and the less time children have for play

Gender Identity

By age 3-4, children associate a variety of things with either males or females, including toys, games, clothes, household items, occupations, and even colors

Dental Care

By their third birthday, most children have a full set of 20 teeth Primary or "baby" teeth that will be replaced by 32 permanent teeth in the course of childhood, beginning at age 6 Replacement process lasts until age 14 Differences in Developed and Developing Countries

preoperational stage

Cognitive stage from age 2 to 7 during which the child becomes capable of representing the world symbolically (representational thought) - for example, through the use of language - but is still very limited in ability to use mental operations, which are cognitive procedures that follow certain logical rules Piaget specified a number of cognitive mistakes that are characteristics of this stage of development: Conservation, Egocentrism, and Classification

Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage

7 years - Puberty Cognitive Achievements Cognitive Limitations

Asthma in Developed Countries

Common features of today's family household contribute to asthma, including carpets, hairy pets, and airtight windows

Classification

A cognitive achievement also achieved, in which they used to run the difficulty when a classification problem requires a mental operation, but by age 8 or 9, most children perform this mental operation easily

Psychological Control

A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents. Related negatively to anxious, withdrawn, and aggressive behavior as well as problems with peers Contrasts with cultural beliefs about the value of thinking and behaving independently

Grammar

A language's distinctive system of rules - Without any formal training, children grasp the grammatical rules of their language with few errors simply by hearing and using the language in daily interactions - By age 4, it is estimated that children use correct grammar in 90% of their statements - The readiness with which children learn grammar indicates that they possess what Chomsky called a language acquisition device, which is an innate capacity for grasping quickly a language's rules Jean Berko

Dangerous North American Myth

A myth persists among many North American parents that kids in early childhood will only eat a small range of foods high in fat and sugar content Becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy, as children who eat foods high in sugar and fat lose their taste for healthier foods, leading parents to bribe their children to eat healthier foods Contribute to high rates of childhood obesity in developed countries - Rates of obesity for White (11.4%) and African American (11.7%) children are similar - Rate of obesity for Latino preschoolers (16%) and Native American children (19%) are higher

Emotional Self-Regulation

Ability to exercise control over one's emotions - Developing social relations often requires us to restrain our immediate impulses - Early childhood is a time when expectations for emotional self-regulation increases - From age 2-6, extremes of emotional expression such as temper tantrums, crying, and physical aggression decrease -- Development of the frontal cortex promotes this process -- Children learn strategies for regulating their emotions -- Some of the most effective strategies are leaving the situation, talking to themselves, redirecting their attention to a different activity, and seeking comfort from an attachment figure -- Effortful Control: Children focus their attention on managing their emotions Children vary in their success at achieving emotional regulation in early childhood: Undercontrol or Overcontrol Initiative vs. Guilt

Selective Attention

Ability to focus attention on relevant information and disregard what is irrelevant Being able to maintain attention becomes especially important once children enter school at about age 6 or 7, because the school setting requires children to pay attention to their teachers' instructions

Classification

Ability to understand that objects can be part of more than one cognitive group, for example, classifying "yellow flowers" with "flowers" - Cognitive limitations of centration and lack of reversibility are at the root of the error

Theory of Mind

Ability to understand thinking processes in one's self and others Involves knowing that one has a mind, the other people have minds, and that minds do certain things Appears very early in infancy - Through behavior, such as joint attention and the use of prelanguage vocalizations By age 2, children show increasing recognition that others have thoughts and emotions that can be contrasted with their own by using language By age 3, children know it is possible for them and others to imagine something that is not physically present Limits: Find it difficult to take others' perspectives Perspective-taking ability advances considerably from age 3 to 6 - Maturation of the prefrontal cortex and having siblings -- Older siblings was a benefit in developing theory of mind skills -- There is another child in the house with whom you have to negotiate, play, and generally get along with False-Belief Tasks Depends strongly on cultural context and language - Cultural Example: Chinese languages have several different forms of the world belief, with the use of these forms of belief in false-belief tasks make it easy for Chinese children to solve them - Langauge: Not all words signify mental states -- Children who do not have any terms, such as Quechua people of Peru, they do poorly on false-belief tasks

Prevalence of Child Labor

About 200 million children and adolescents are employed worldwide, and that 95% of them are in developing countries - Substantial number of them work in Latin America, Asia, and Middle East/North Africa, but the greatest number of child workers is found in sub-Saharan Africa -- Many children work in factories and shop where they perform labor Working conditions are often miserable Agricultural work is the most common form of child employment

Types of Popularity

About two-thirds of children in American samples fall into one of these (popular, neglected, rejected, controversial) categories in middle childhood Rest are rated as "average"

Physical Aggression

Abundant evidence that physical aggression peaks in toddlerhood and early childhood Peaks at 24-42 months - the second year of toddlerhood and the first year of early childhood - then declines Individual differences remain stable across time Parents who are especially patient, sensitive, and involved can reduce high aggression in early childhood to moderate aggression by middle childhood When aggression is high at the end of early childhood, it is a strong predictor of later aggressive in adolescence and adulthood Instrumental and Hostile

Child Maltreatment

Abuse or neglect of children, including physical, emotional, or sexual abuse

Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) & Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)

Academic performance in fourth grade is related mainly to countries' economic development rather than to differences in cultural beliefs and in educational practices Highest-performing countries have widely varying educational approaches, but they all have high levels of economic development - Most able to afford the resources that contribute to high academic performance, from good prenatal care to high-quality preschools to well-funded primary schools Financial resources are a factor that influences academic achievement and learning - Families who can afford good medical care and food and who can support children's educational development produce children who do better in school - Poverty is associated with poor grades and behavior in school

Younger sibling's response to older siblings

Admire their older siblings and model their behavior after them, trying to learn to do what their older siblings can do Young children with older siblings possess more advanced theory of mind understanding than children who have no older siblings - As siblings argue, compete, and cooperate, they learn better how to understand the thinking of others and accept that others have a point of view that may be different than their own

Genetic Determinants of Handedness

Adopted children are more likely to resemble their biological parents than their adoptive parents in their handedness Identical twins are more likely than ordinary siblings to differ in handedness - Twins usually lie in opposite ways within the uterus, whereas most singletons lie toward the left -- Lying toward one side allows for greater movement and greater development of the hand on the other side, so most twins end up with one being right-handed and one being left-handed, while most singletons end up right-handed

Evidence of Environmental Influence

Adoption Studies - Researchers recruited a sample of adopted children whose biological mothers were at two extremes, either under 95 or above 120 and they were adopted by parents who were above average in education and income - When tested in middle childhood, children in both groups were above average in IQ - However, the children whose biological mothers had IQs above 120 were significantly higher in IQ than the children whose biological mothers had IQs less than 95, even though children in both groups had an advantaged environment Poor children - Research indicates the influence of the environment on IQ is stronger for poor children than for children of affluent families Flynn Effect

Genetics and Intelligence

Adoption and Twin Studies - The more two people in a family are alike genetically, the higher the correlation in their IQs - Adopted siblings, who have none of their genotype in common have a relatively low correlation for IQ, about .24 - Parents and their biological children, who share half of their genotype in common, are correlated for IQ at about .30 to .40, slightly higher - Correlation for biological siblings is higher, about .50, and slightly higher still for DZ twins Biological siblings and DZ twins share the same proportion of their genotype in common as parents and biological children do, so the greater IQ similarity in DZ twins must be due to greater environmental similarity from the womb onward The highest IQ correlation of all, .85, is among MZ twins Even when they are adopted by separate families and reared apart, the correlation in IQ scores of MZ twins is about .75

Foster Care

Adults approved by the agency take over the care of the child - Children in here are at high risk for academic, social, and behavioral problems, especially if they experience multiple of these placements

Gross Motor Development

Advances from early to middle childhood Children's balance improves Coordination advances Greater ability Their reaction time becomes faster Increasing myelination of the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain accelerates reaction time in middle childhood for both gross and fine motor tasks Children can enjoy a wide range of games and activities

Ambivalence

Aggressive and hostile behavior is common, but so is helping, sharing, and teaching Continues with age - Middle-childhood siblings care for and teach their younger siblings but also command and dominate them, and sometimes physically punish them

Asthma in Developing Countries

Air pollution has become worse as a result of increased industrialization, and air pollution can trigger asthma

Bullying

An extreme form of peer rejection is a pattern of maltreatment of peers, including aggression; repetition, and power imbalance Prevalence rises through middle childhood and peaks in early adolescence An international phenomenon About 20% of children are victims of bullies at some point during middle childhood Boys bully using both physical and verbal attacks, but girls can be bullies, too, most often using verbal methods Bullies tend to have a problem controlling their aggressive behavior toward others and are at a higher risk than other children for depression

Illnesses in Developing Countries

An increasing proportion of children receive vaccinations in infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood

Margaret Mead

Anthropologist proposed a general scheme many decades ago that still applies well to how most of the world's children experience the social changes of childhood Classification of Childhood Stages: Lap Child, Knee Child, Yard Child

Sexual Abuse

Any kind of sexual contact with a minor

Discipline in Western Cultures

Approach to discipline in early childhood tends to emphasize the authoritative style of explaining the consequences of explaining the consequences of misbehavior and the reasons for discipline Parents also tend to use a lot of praise for compliant and obedient behavior, which is notable because the use of praise is very rare in other culture Discipline may involve taking away privileges or time out Parenting that uses shame and withdrawal has been described as psychological control Western Parent Researchers Recommendations

Divorce Mediation

Arrangement in which a professional mediator meets with divorcing parents to help them negotiate an agreement that both will find acceptable - Leads to better functioning in children following divorce and improved relationships between divorced parents and their children

Nutrition

As the rate of physical growth slows down, food consumption diminishes Children may have some meals, or even some whole days, where they eat very little Children generally learn to like whatever foods the adults in their environment like and provide for them Dangerous North American Myth

Filial Piety

Asian cultures have a tradition of this, meaning that children are expected to respect, obey, and revere their parents throughout life

Vocabulary

At age 6, the average child knows about 10,000 words, but by age 10 or 11, this sum has increased fourfold, to about 40,000 Part of this growth comes from children's growing abilities to understand the different forms words can take

Potential Causes of ADHD

At least partly inherited, as nearly 50% of children and adolescents with this also have a sibling or parent with the disorder Exposure to prenatal teratogens such as alcohol and tobacco Brains of children with this are slightly smaller and grow more slowly, compared to other children's brains Abnormalities in brain functioning of children with this, including restricted blood flow to the frontal cortex, which controls attention and inhibits behavior

Importance of Preschool Quality

Attending preschool is beneficial for young children - Cognitive benefits of attending preschool include higher verbal skills and stronger performance on measures of memory and listening comprehension -- Children from low-income families especially benefit cognitively from preschool Social benefits - Children who attend preschool are generally more independent and socially confident than children who remain home Preschool programs vary vastly in quality - Quality of preschool child care is more important than the fact of whether children are in preschool or not

ADHD in Europe

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Observational Research in Europe (ADORE) study, pediatricians and child psychiatrists across Europe collected observational data on children and adolescents at seven time points over two years, with data including diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes - Found higher rates of this among boys than among girls - Symptoms of this were similar among boys and girls, but girls with this were more likely than boys to have additional emotional problems and to be bullied by their peers, where boys with this were more likely than girls to have conduct problems - This resulted in frequent problems in their relations with peers, teachers, and parents - Parents reported frequent stress and strains due to children's and adolescents' behavior - European approaches to treatment were diverse: medications, psychotherapy, combination of meds and psychotherapy, other therapy, and no treatment

New Conceptualization of Parenting Dimensions

Autonomy Support vs. Control Structure vs. Ambiguity Warmth vs. Hostility

Bodily Growth in Developing Countries

Average heights and weights are considerably lower, due to lower nutrition and higher likelihood of childhood diseases Differences in SES influence gains in height and weight - Wealthier people have more access to nutritional foods, so their children are taller and weigh more than poorer children of the same age Given roughly equal levels of nutrition and health care, individual differences in height and weight gains during childhood are due to genetics

Preschool Teaching

Based on developmentally appropriate educational practice - Learning should involve exploring and discovering through relatively unstructured, hands-on experiences - Constructivist approach, or child-centered, like Montessori programs, benefits children's learning Children are allowed to explore and discover - through play, touch, art, and individual interest - in a largely self-paced and self-structured way - Teacher-directed approaches stress academic learning and are almost always given at a set pace, where all children must follow along

Magazines and Books

Become a part of children's media diets as they learn to read in middle childhood

Grammar

Becomes more complex in middle childhood They are more likely than younger children to use conditional sentences As in early childhood, there are SES differences in grammar development in middle childhood Children in higher SES families use more advanced grammatical forms than those in lower-SES families, and this experience may lead to higher reading scores and better performance in school

Early Head Start

Began in the 1990s Initiated for low-income families and their children under the age of 3 Goal: See if greater effects of cognitive and social development could be obtained by beginning the intervention at an early age

Cognitive Change

Between 5-7 years, it is common in all children i. Thought appears more logical, rather than only appearance-bound ii. Can decenter iii. Across most cultures, ability for some operational thinking 1. Presence of operational schemes: can perform some mental actions on objects 2. Capacity for transformational thought and reversibility a. Can imagine transformations: understand process of change b. Ability to mentally "undo" actions/transformations

Malnutrition

Bodies are stronger and more resilient, and immune systems are better developed For children who survive early malnutrition, the damage to their physical and cognitive development accumulates by middle childhood - Evidence in Guatemala, Ghana, and Other Countries Sensitive period for long-term effects of malnutrition: Second trimester of pregnancy through age 3

Gender Differences in Play

Boys generally engage in high-activity, aggressive, competitive "rough and tumble" play in their groups Girls' play tend to be quieter, more cooperative, and more likely to involve fantasy and role play

Boys and Girls' Differences in Gender Self-Perception

Boys increasingly describe themselves in terms of "masculine" traits - More likely to avoid activities that might be considered feminine Girls become more likely to attribute "masculine" characteristics but don't become less likely to describe themselves as having "feminine" traits - More likely to consider future occupations usually associated with men, whereas boys become less likely to consider future occupation associated with women

Gender Differences in Peers

Boys tend to have other boys as their peers and friends, and the social world of girls is populated mostly by other females

moral reasoning

By age 3 or 4, children are capable of making moral judgments that involve considerations of justice and fairness By age 4, they understand the difference between telling the truth and lying, and they believe it is wrong to tell lies - Moral reasoning tends to be rigid at this age Moral judgments tend to be based more on fear of punishment

Bilingual

Capable of using two languages Favorable to language development Longer to master second language after becoming fluent in first language, around 3-5 years Better metalinguistic skills

Reasons for Overall Increase in Overweight and Obesity Worldwide

Change in Diets Increase in TV Consumption Genetics

Physical Abuse

Child Risk Factors: Temperamentally difficult or if they are unusually aggressive or active and hence more difficult for parents to control Parent Risk Factors: Poverty, unemployment, and single motherhood, stepfathers, spouse abuse, parents who were abused themselves Destructive to young children - Impairs emotional and self-development, including self-regulation, empathy, and self-concept - Damaging to the development of friendships and social skills, because abused children find it difficult to trust others - Children are at risk for later emotional, social, and academic problems in adolescence and beyond

Lap Child

Children ages 0-2 to denote their near-constant dependence on the care and monitoring of others

Knee Child

Children ages 3-4 who spends time with other children, especially of the same gender

Yard Child

Children ages 5-6 who is given more scope to venture beyond the immediate family area and into the "yard", that is into a social world where parents are nearby but not always directly present

Writing

Children are able to write the letters of the alphabet, their own names, and numbers from 1 to 10 Able to make their letters smaller and neater with more consistent height and spacing Most children can learn to write in cursive

Evaluating Piaget's Theory

Children are capable of performing some tasks at an earlier than Piaget had claimed - The issue between Piaget and his critics on this issue is more a matter of definition, since Piaget claimed that child had to have complete mastery of the tasks associated with the stage Critics argued that with training and instruction, children under age 7 can learn to perform the tasks of concrete operations and also understand the underlying principles well enough to apply them to new tasks Transporting Piaget's tasks across cultures shows that acquiring an understanding of concrete operations depends on exposure to similar tasks and materials (E.g. Los Angeles children vs. Mayan culture of Mexico)

Gender Roles

Children at younger ages may be so insistent about maintaining these because they believe that changing external features like clothes or hairstyles could result in a change in gender

Social Costs of Attending Preschool

Children attending preschool have been observed to be less compliant, less respectful toward adults, and more aggressive than other children Negative social effects may endure long past preschool age Children who attended preschool for more than 10 hours per week were more disruptive in class once they entered school

Emotional Understanding

Children become better able to understand both their own and others' emotions They become aware that they can experience two contradictory emotions at once, an emotional state known as ambivalence Learn how to conceal their emotions intentionally - In Asian cultures, children learn the concept of "face", which means showing to others the appropriate and expected emotion regardless of how you actually feel Understand that other people may display emotional expressions that do not indicate what they actually feel Children become better cognitively at perspective-taking Parents can help children have better peer relationships through promoting self-understanding and positive interactions

Social Rules of Pragmatics

Children begin learning pragmatics through gestures By age 2, they know the pragmatics of a basic conversation, including taking turns speaking At this age, they have not yet grasped the pragmatics of sustaining a conversation on one topic, and they tend to change topics rapidly as new things occur to them, without much awareness of the other person's perspective By age 4, children are more sensitive to the characteristics of their conversational partner and will adjust their speech accordingly

Self-Esteem Becomes More Differentiated

Children have self-concepts for several specific areas, including academic competence, social competence, academic competence, and physical appearance Self-concept is differentiated into subareas (e.g. being good at baseball not basketball)

Cultures vary in their timing and approach to teaching math skills

Children in China learn math beginning in preschool, and there is a strong cultural emphasis on math as an important basis of future learning and success English preschools usually make little attempt to teach children math skills, in the belief that they are not ready to learn math until they enter formal schooling

Injuries

Children in early childhood have high activity levels and their motor development is advanced enough for them to be able to run, jump, and climb, but their cognitive development is not advanced enough for them to anticipate situations that might be dangerous - In the US: 1/3 of children under age 10 become injured badly enough to receive medical attention - Boys are more likely than girls to become injured because their play tends to be rougher and more physically active

Drawing

Children learn to indicate 3D depth by overlapping objects and making near objects smaller than distant ones Learn to draw objects in greater detail and to adjust the size and relation of objects in a drawing so that they fit together into one coherent whole

Consequences of Living in Single Parent Household

Children often contribute to the functioning of the family Greatly increases the likelihood of growing up in poverty, and growing up in poverty has a range of negative on children Children are generally at a higher risk for behavior problems and low school achievement when compared to their peers in two-parent families

Dental Care in Developed Countries

Children usually have their first visit to the dentist around age 3, with dental care consisting of fluoride rinses and sealants Most children learn how to brush their teeth 40% of North American children have at least one cavity by age 5 Due to inconsistent dental care and to diets that are heavy in sugars and starches that cause cavities.

Malnutrition Evidence in Guatemala, Ghana, and Other Countries

Children who were classified in early childhood as having "high nutrient levels" - More likely than children with "low nutrient levels" to explore new environments in middle childhood and to persist in a frustrating situation. - More energetic, less anxious, and showed more positive emotions Children who were classified in early childhood as having "low nutrient levels" - Demonstrate lower levels of cognitive development in middle childhood on standardized tests and in teacher ratings, compared to children who were not malnourished

Helping Abused Children in Traditional Cultures

Children with abusive parents may go to live with relatives with whom they have a more positive relationship

Sibling Relationships

Children with an older sibling often benefit from the siblings help with academic, peer, and parent issues Both older and young siblings benefit from mutual companionship and assistance Sibling conflict peaks in middle childhood - Most common source of conflict is personal possessions -- Sibling conflict is especially high when one sibling perceives the other as receiving more affection and material resources from the parents -- Other factors: Family financial stress and parents' marital conflict

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Children with especially notable difficulties in maintaining attention, which includes problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness - Children with this have difficulty following instructions and waiting their turn - In the US, it is estimated that 3-7% of children are diagnosed with this - Boys are about four times more likely than girls to have this - First diagnosed in middle childhood, once children enter school and are required to sit still for much of the day, but the majority of children with ADHD still have the disorder in adolescence

Decentering

Cognitive ability to take more than one aspect of a problem into account, such as width as well as length - Children can also perform the mental operations of reversibility to confirm that the quantity has not changed - Conservation of matter and liquid are attained by most children by ages 7 or 8, with conservation of length, area, weight, and volume following over the next few years - Key milestone of cognitive development, because it enables the child to perceive regularities and principles in the natural world, which is the basis of being able to think logically about how the world works

Learning Disability

Cognitive disorder that impedes the development of learning a specific skill such as reading or math

Egocentrism

Cognitive inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and another person's perspective - Piaget devised "three mountains task", in which children are shown a clay model of three different mountains of varying sizes, one with snow on top, one with a red cross, and one with a house -- At each of the doll's locations, the child is shown a series of photographs and asked which one indicates the doll's point of view -- In the early years of the preoperational stage, children tend to pick the photo that matches their own perspective, not the doll's Animism

Richard Shweder

Compared children, adolescents, and adults in US and India - Found that by about age 5, children already grasp the moral standards of their culture, and their views change little from childhood to adolescence to adulthood Similarities between cultures - At age 5, children in both countries have learned that it is wrong to take others' property or to inflict harm intentionally Differences between cultures - Young children in the United States view it as acceptable to eat beef, but young children in India view it as wrong - Young children in India view it as acceptable for more of a father's inheritance to go to his son than to his daughter, but young children in the United States view it as wrong

Downsides of Stepfather

Compared to children in nondivorced families, children in stepfamilies have lower academic achievement, lower self-esteem, and greater behavioral problems Girls respond more negatively than boys to remarriage, and the outcomes are worse for stepfathers who have their own children, which are known as blended stepfamily

Violence

Content analyses have found that children's programs are even more violent than programs for adults Portrayed as funny about 2/3 of the time, and in most cases, the victims were not shown experiencing pain and the perpetrator of the violence was not punished TV ___________ increases children's aggression

Physical Growth

Continues at a slow and steady rate about 2-3 inches per year in height and about 5-7 pounds per year in weight Of all age groups in the life span, 6- to 10-year-olds have the lowest body mass index (BMI) Boys continue to have somewhat more muscle than girls do, being stronger than girls Girls continue to have more body fat

Corporal Punishment among White Children in US

Correlation between physical punishment and a wide range of antisocial behavior in children Physical punishment in early childhood increases the likelihood of bullying and delinquency in adolescence and aggressive behavior in adulthood Physical punishment in early childhood increases children's compliance in the short run but damages their moral and mental health Physical punishment is likely to be combined with anger

Evaluating Piaget's Theory

Criticisms focus on two issues - Piaget underestimated children's cognitive capabilities -- With regard to conservation tasks, it has been shown that even 3-year-old children can give correct answers in conservation of number tasks, as long as only two or three items are used -- Regarding egocentrism, when the three mountains task is modified so that familiar objects are used instead of the three mountain model, children give less egocentric responses --- Toddlers show the beginnings of an ability to take others' perspective --- By age 4, children switch to shorter, simpler sentences when talking to toddlers or babies, showing a distinctly unegocentric ability to take the perspective of the younger children - Development is more continuous and less stagelike than he proposed -- Research has shown that the ability to perform mental operations changes gradually over the course of childhood

Criticism of Weschler Intelligence Test

Critics have complained that IQ tests assess only a narrow range of abilities and miss some of the most important aspects of intelligence, such as creativity IQ tests have been attacked as culturally biased, because some of the vocabulary and general knowledge would be more familiar to someone who was part of the middle-class culture Aspire to test raw intellectual abilities, but this would not be possible unless everyone was exposed to essentially the same environment in the years before taking the test, which is obviously not the same

Cognitive Development Across Cultures

Cross-Cultural Heterogeneity variations in onsets Delays Ecological Demands Children who receive formal schooling Commonality Across Culture Cognitive Change Western Culture Changes Children are categorized differently Treatment of Children Changes

Independent Self

Cultures that promote an independent, individualistic self also promote and encourage reflection about the self It was an American who first invented self-esteem US continues to be known to the rest of the world as a place where the independent self is valued and promoted

Electronic Games

Depends on access to a computer, and computer access is much more variable across countries Boys play electronic games more than girls do, and the kinds of games they prefer differ, with boys preferring fighting and sports games Girls prefer adventure and learning games - Could be played on handheld devices and mobile phones

Social Comparison

Describe themselves in relations to others - Reflect advances in the cognitive ability of seriation Also learn to rank themselves more accurately in abilities relative to other children

Illnesses

Developed and Developing Countries Reasons for ability to combat these Asthma

Siblings

Developing Countries: Breast-feeding often lasts at least two years, and breast-feeding acts as a natural contraceptive by suppressing the mother's ovulation Developed Countries: Parents often choose to space their children by 2-4 years Older ones response to younger ones: Jealousy and Ambivalence Younger sibling's response to older siblings

Changes in Self-Esteem

Declines slightly in the transition from early childhood to middle childhood, as children enter a school environment in which social comparisons are a daily experience

Responsiveness

Degree to which parents are sensitive to their children's needs and express love, warmth, and concern for them

Demandingness

Degree to which parents set down rules and expectations for behavior and require their children to comply with them

High Scope Preschool Project

Demonstrate that intensive, high-quality early intervention program can have profound and lasting effects Entailed a full-day two-year preschool program for children from low-income families Effectiveness - Familiar pattern of an initial gain in IQ and academic achievement followed by a decline, but they demonstrated many other benefits of the program - In adolescence, the girls were less likely to become pregnant and the boys were less likely to be arrested, and both boys and girls were more likely to graduate from high school and attend college - At age 40, participants displayed benefits of the programs in a wide range of areas

Empathy

Develops further in early childhood Children become better at perspective-taking, and being able to understand how others think and feel Promotes prosocial behavior, such as being generous or helpful Contributes to the moral understanding of principles such as avoiding harm and being fair, because children understand how their behavior would make another person feel children learn moral rules so early

Schools Around the World

Different approaches to socialization and other functions of school - Primary function of school is for children to learn social skills with peers and authority figures who are unrelated to them - Differences among countries based on individualistic or collectivistic cultural beliefs Barbara Rogoff has described the collectivistic socialization contexts of schools in Guatemala In some countries such as the Middle East, school is also a place where children learn about their religion State-sponsored education in Western countries tend not to include religious education, but religion may be emphasized in private schools

Externalizing Problems

Difficulty with emotional regulation that involves expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled physical or verbal outbursts, as by lashing out at other people or breaking things. More common among males

Internalizing Problems

Difficulty with emotional regulation that involves turning one's emotional distress inward, as by feeling excessively guilty, ashamed, or worthless. More common among females

Important Factors to Choose High-Quality Preschools

Education and Training of Teachers: Preschool teachers who have training in early childhood education provide a better social and cognitive environment Class Size and Child-Teacher Ratio: Experts recommend no more than 20 children in a class, and a ratio of children to preschool teachers no higher than 5-10 3-year-olds per teacher or 7-10 4-year-olds per teacher Age-Appropriate Materials and Activities: Children learn more through active engagement with materials Teacher-child interactions: Teachers should spend most of their time in interactions with the children rather than with each other

Music

Emerges as a major media source

Combatting Learned Attribution Style

Emphasize Learning Goals specific "process praise" Attribution "Retraining"

Collectivistic Cultural Beliefs in Asian Schools

Emphasizes obedience and cooperation Children are required to wear uniforms - Custom complex, since it underscores individuality and emphasizing conformity to the group Children are required to help to maintain the cleanliness and order of the school, emphasizing the collectivistic cultural value of contributing to the well-being of the community Children often work in groups

Aggression

Encounter more competition for resources and this competition leads to conflict and aggression Types: Physical (Instrumental and Hostile) and Verbal (Relational) frequently a component of children's play in early and middle childhood, especially for boys

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's middle childhood stage, in which the alternatives are to learn to work effectively with cultural materials or, if adults are too critical, develop a sense of being incapable of working effectively

Self-Esteem and American Individualism

Even among Western countries, Americans value high self-esteem to a greater extent than people in other countries, and the gap between Americans and non-Western countries in this respect is especially great

Reaction Range

Every child has a genetically based reaction range for intelligence, meaning a range of possible developmental paths With a healthy, stimulating environment, children reach the top of their reaction range for intelligence; with a poor, unhealthy, or chaotic environment, children are likely to develop a level of intelligence toward the bottom of the reaction range

Genetics and Environment

Evidence of Genetics Evidence of Environmental Influence Reaction Range

Nurse-Family Partnership

Expectant mothers who have many of the risk factors for abuse receive regular home visits by a trained nurse for two years. The nurse provides information and advice about how to manage crises

Western Parent Researchers Recommendations

Explaining the reason for discipline Being consistent so that the consequences will be predictable to the child Exercising discipline at the time of behavior so that the connection will be clear to the child If a parent's request to a young child is ignored or disobeyed, the parent counts a warning, and if the request is not obeyed by "three", the child is then put in time out, 1 minute for each year of their age

Gross Motor Development

Extends abilities that first appeared in toddlerhood Young children learn to make more hops in a row and to hop on one foot Children learn to jump farther from a standing position and to make a running jump Children learn to climb stairs without support Children learn to throw a ball farther and more accurately, and they become better at catching a ball Children increase their running speed and their ability to stop suddenly or change direction Gender differences: Boys are generally better at skills emphasizing strength or size, girls become better at body-coordination skills and fine motor skills

Neglect

Failure to meet children's basic needs of food, shelter, clothing, medical attention, and supervision

Stepfamily

Family with children in which one of the parents is not biologically related to the children but has married a parent who is biologically related to the children - Because mothers retain custody of the children in about 90% of divorces, most stepfamilies involve the entrance of a stepfather into the family

Symbolic Function Substage

First substage of the preoperational stage, lasting from about age 2 to age 4, when the child first becomes capable of representational thought and of using symbols to represent the world - Language is the most important indicator of the capacity to think in terms of symbols and play

Dental Care in Developing Countries

Less likely to have diets with sugars and starches Less likely to have fluoride in their water systems and less likely to have access to regular dental care that would provide fluoride rinses and sealants More tooth decay

Interventions for Rejected Children

Focus on social skills, training, they learn how to initiate friendly interactions with their peers, social information processing They have often shown success in the short term, improving their social understanding and the quality of their peer interactions, but it is unknown whether the gains from the programs are deep enough to result in enduring improvements

Implications of Different Self-Esteem

For the rest of middle childhood, overall self-esteem is high for most children, reflecting the generally positive emotional states In Western countries, having low self-esteem in middle childhood is related to anxiety, depression, and antisocial behavior Inappropriately high self-esteem can also be a detriment for some children, particularly those with antisocial personality characteristics

Total Time Spent on Media Devices

Four to Six Hours of a Typical Day

Teeth

From age 6 to 12, children lose all of their "primary teeth" and new, permanent teeth replace them Two front teeth are first to go Permanent teeth are adult-sized teeth that do not grow much once they come in

Play

From toddlerhood through early childhood, solitary play and parallel play decline somewhat while simple social play and cooperative pretend play increase Cooperative pretend play becomes more complex in the course of early childhood, as children's imaginations bloom and they become more creative and adept at using symbols Even at age 5 or 6, most children display a variety of types of play

Gender Schema

Gender-based cognitive structure for organizing and processing information, comprising expectations for males' and females' appearance and behavior As a result of gender socialization, children use gender schemas as a way of understanding and interpreting the world around them Gender is one of our most important schemas from early childhood onward - We have learned to categorize a wide range of activities and objects and personality characteristics as "female" or "male" Influence how we interpret the behavior of others and what to expect from them Children tend to believe that their own preferences are true for everyone in their gender Young children also tend to remember in ways that reflect their gender schemas

Jealousy

Great variability in how parents responded - Physical punishment in Africa - Trying to comfort and reassure the jealous child in US

Cross-National Variations in Preschools

Great variation in how countries structure preschool and what they wish young children to learn - In some countries, such as China and the United States, learning basic academic skills is one of the primary goals of having children attend preschool - In other countries, such as Japan and most of Europe, preschool is mainly a time for learning social skills such as how to function as a member of a group -- Japanese students have long been at or near the top of international comparisons in reading, math, and science from middle childhood through high school - Preschools in Japan teach nothing about reading and numbers -- Focus is on group play, so children will learn the values of cooperation and sharing -- Through being introduced to these cultural practices in preschool, children also learn collectivistic Japanese values

Rules and Expectations of Moral Development

Greater awareness of the rule or expectation that evoked the approval or disapproval Young children are more capable at anticipating the potential consequences of their actions and avoiding behaviors that would be morally disapproved Young children do not inherently know the rules or expectations of their culture and must learn them, sometimes by unknowingly violating them and then observing the consequences in the responses of their parents and others

Consequences of Media

Light to moderate media use: Generally harmless and can even be positive, especially if the media content is educational, prosocial, or at least nonviolent Heavy media use: Associated with a variety of problems in middle childhood, including obesity, anxiety, poor school performance, and social isolation

Language Development

Growth in Children's Vocabulary - Average 3-year-old has a vocabulary of about 1,000 words - By age 6, the average vocabulary has increased to over 2,500 words Children in lower SES tend to lag behind children in the middle class in language development, which could lead to poor performance in school and are not exposed to as many different words, and they have smaller vocabularies and use simple grammar than children in the middle class Early childhood is a sensitive period for learning language As young children add new words to their vocabulary, they also continue to learn grammar

Jean Berko

Had young children respond to questions involving nonsense words - The children were able to apply the grammar of English and use nouns in plural and possessive forms

Educational TV

Have been developed that there are highly popular among young children - Sesame Street and other programs have shown impressive positive effects on young children's Programs to have other positive effects as well, such as promoting imaginative play Benefits: Academic skills and content is adapted to the culture in which the program is shown

Schools in Asian Countries

Have cultural traditions going back over 2 millenia emphasizing the importance and value of education and the traditions remain among today High standards are applied to all children, as people in these countries believe that educational success is derived mainly from hard work and any child can succeed who tries hard enough View academic striving as something they do not just for themselves but as a moral obligation in their families

Metalinguistic skills

Have greater awareness of the underlying structure of language - Bilingual children are better than single-language children in detecting mistakes in grammar and meaning - Bilingual children also score higher on more general measures of cognitive ability

Sensory Development

Hearing and Sight

Hygiene Hypothesis

High standards of cleanliness and sanitation expose children to fewer viruses and bacteria, and consequently, they have fewer illnesses in early year

Normal Distribution

IQ scores for a population-based sample usually fall into this, or bell curve, in which most people are near the middle of the distribution and the proportions decrease at the low and high extremes - Persons with IQs below 70 are classified as having mental retardation - Persons with IQS above 130 are classified as gifted

Evidence that learning a second language comes much easier in middle childhood

Immigrants from South Korea and China to US - Participants who had arrived in the US in early or middle childhood scored well on the test as native English speakers, but beyond those periods, the older the age at immigration, the less the person's grammatical knowledge Other Studies - Beyond the age of 12, it is difficult for people to learn a language well enough for them to sound like a native speaker, that is, to speak without a noticeable accent

Hearing

Improves because the tube in the inner ear has matured and is longer and narrower than it was before - Structural change makes it less likely for fluid contain bacteria to flow from the mouth to the ear, which in turn makes inner ear infections less likely

Education in Developing Countries

In Africa and South Asia, 20-40% of children ages 6-10 are not enrolled in primary school About ¼ of children do not attend primary school Gender Differences - School attendance requires school fees in many countries and some poor families would use their extremely limited resources for the boys' education - Girls were often kept home because it was believed that boys' education would be of greater benefit to the family - Gender differences has decreased recently, and girls are now almost as likely as boys to obtain primary education

Initiative vs. Guilt

In Erikson's lifespan theory, the early childhood stage in which the alternatives are learning to plan activities in a purposeful way, or being afflicted with excess guilt that undermines initiative Children need to learn emotional control but without being so tightly regulated that they feel excess guilt and their ability to initiate activities is undermined - Different cultures have different views of what the optimal level of emotional control is

Concrete Operations

In Piaget's theory, the cognitive stage in which children become capable using mental operations from ages 7-11, allowing them to organize and manipulate information mentally Decentering, Classification, Seriation

Middle Childhood and Work

In a large proportion of the world, middle childhood is the time when productive work begins - With the globalization of the world economy, many large companies have moved much of their manufacturing to developing countries, where labor costs are cheaper; cheapest of all is the labor of children

Children's Relationship to Fathers After Divorce

In about 90% of cases mothers retain custody of the children, so the father leaves the household and the children no longer see him on a daily basis Only 35-40% of children in mother-custody families still have at least weekly contact with their fathers within a few years of the divorce When fathers remain involved and loving, children have fewer postdivorce problems

Interdependent Self

In collectivistic cultures, an interdependent conception of the self prevails Interest of group - the family, the kinship group, the ethnic group, the nation, the religious institution are supposed to come first, before the needs of the individual People who think highly of themselves, who possess a high level of self-esteem, threaten the harmony of the group because they may be inclined to pursue their personal

TV Consumption

In early childhood, TV-viewing time per day varies from about 1.5 hours in Sweden and Germany to about 3 hours in Hungary, Turkey, and the United States African Americans are especially high in TV consumption, with rates of over 4 hours a day in childhood compared to about 3 hours a day in other American ethnic groups

Learn Morality Through Custom Complexes

Like people in many cultures, Indians believe that a woman's menstrual blood has potentially dangerous powers - By the end of early childhood, Indian children have learned not just that a menstruating women does not cook food or sleep with her husband but that it would be wrong for her to do so

Gross Motor Development: Wide range of games and activities

In many countries around the world, middle childhood is a time of playing physically active games with siblings and friends Children are more likely to be involved in organized sports - In the US and Canada, about half of children are involved in organized spots at least once between the ages of 5 and 14 - Boys are more likely than girls to play on sports teams in middle childhood but the rate of participation among girls has risen worldwide in recent decades Changes in amount of physical activity - Physically active games and sports compete with the electronic allurements of TV - In some places, schools are less likely than in the past to be a setting for physical activity - In the US, the percentage of children involved in daily PE programs during middle childhood decreased from 80% in 1969 to just 8% in 2005

Cultural Learning

In many cultures, the end of early childhood, ages 5-6, is the time when children are first given important responsibilities in the family for food preparation, child care, and animal care During early childhood, they acquire the cultural learning necessary for these duties, sometimes through direct instruction but more often through observing and participating in adults' activities Children in Western countries are also encouraged to speak up and hold conversations Asian to Northern Canada: Silence is valued, especially in children, and children who talk frequently are viewed as immature and low in intelligence Two factors make cultural learning in developed countries different from cultural learning in traditional learning - Children in developed countries are often apart from their families for a substantial part of the day, in a preschool or another group-care setting -- More direct kind of instruction rather than the cultural learning that takes place through guided participation in daily activities within the family - The activities of adults in a complex economy are less accessible to children's learning than the activities that children learning through guided participation in traditional cultures, such as child care, tending animals, and food preparation -- Most jobs in a complex economy require advanced skills of reading, analyzing info, and using technology

False-Belief Task

In one experiment testing understanding of false beliefs, children are shown a doll named Maxi who places chocolate in a cabinet and then leaves the room Next another doll, his mother, enters the room and moves the chocolate tot a different place - Most 3-year-old children answer erroneously that Maxi will look for the chocolate in the new place, where his mother stored it - By age 4, most children recognized that Maxi will believe falsely that the chocolate is in the cabinet where he left it - By age 5, understanding of task increases Children are shown a box that appears to contain a kind of candy called "Smarties" and asked what they think is in the box. After they answer "candy" or "Smarties", they are shown that the box in fact contains pencils. Then they are asked what another person, who has not been shown the contents, will think is in the box."Candy" or "Smarties" is the correct answer, showing theory of mind; "pencils" is incorrect - Most children pass the test by the time they are 4 or 5 years old - By age 6, nearly all children solve false-beliefs easily

Multilingual

In some countries, such as India, many children are not just bilingual, which is the capability of speaking three or more languages E.g. Children in India are exposed to multiple languages within different contexts (school, home, work), and they are able to coordinate them effectively

History of Education Among Children (200 years ago - Present )

In the US, it is estimated that prior to 1800, only about half of children attended school and even for those who did, it lasted only a few years Enrollment increased steadily over the 19th century, as industrialization created jobs that required literacy and people migrated from farms to urban areas, and by 1900, most children completed several years of schooling Early classroom settings: Mixed children of a wide range of ages By early 20th century, all US states required children to complete elementary school - When education is required, boys and girls attend at equal rates, unlike in many countries where school is required of all children

Only Child

In the United States, about 20% of children have no siblings Their self-esteem, social maturity, and intelligence tends to be somewhat higher than children with siblings, perhaps because they have more interactions with adults Somewhat less successful in social relations with peers, because children with siblings gain peerlike practice in social relations Especially common in China - In 1978, the Chinese government instituted a "one-child policy", making it illegal for parents to have more than one child without special government approval - Demonstrate several advantages over children with siblings, including higher cognitive development, higher emotional security, and higher likeability - Show no deficits in social skills or peer acceptance - Girls have more opportunities in education than they did when they had to compete with brothers for family resources

Advertising

In the United States, the average child sees about 40,000 TV commercials each year Young children are especially susceptible to advertising - Most do not perceive a distinction between a program and an advertisement until about age 5 - Because most of the products children see advertised are unhealthy foods, concern has grown that TV advertising is one influence behind the growing international epidemic of obesity in children

Sensitive Period

In the course of development, a period when the capacity for learning in a specific area is especially pronounced - Young children add new words to their vocabulary through a process known as fast mapping -- As young children learn new words, they begin to form a mental map of interconnected sets of word categories The kinds of words children fast-map depends on the language - Children learning Eastern languages, such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean tend to learn more verbs than nouns at first, because sentences often emphasize verbs but only imply the nouns without speaking them - Children learning English and other Western languages fast-map nouns earlier than verbs, because nouns are prominent in these languages - In both Eastern and Western languages, modifiers (such as large and narrow) are added more slowly than nouns and verbs

Gender Segregation and Play

In traditional and developed cultures, gender-segregated play is a consequence of the gender-specific work boys and girls are each doing by middle childhood When boys' and girls' play groups do interact in middle childhood, it tends to be in a manner that is at once quasi-romantic and antagonistic - "Border Work": Gender play classified by Thorne and Luria and see its function as classifying gender boundaries during middle childhood

Controversial Children

Liked by some children but disliked by others; they may be aggressive at times but are friendly at other times Have good social skills Their social skills make them popular with some children High in aggression

Gender Roles

In traditional cultures, the daily activities of men and women are very different, and the activities of boys and girls become more differentiated in middle childhood as they begin to take part in their parents' work - During middle childhood, boys increasingly learn how to do boy things and girls increasingly learn to do what women do - Boys and not only learn gender-specific tasks in middle childhood, they are socialized to develop personality characteristics that enhance performance on those tasks -- Independence and toughness for boys and nurturance and compliance for girls In modern developed countries, children's gender attitudes and behaviors become more stereotyped in middle childhood - Children increasingly view personality traits as associated with one gender or the other rather than both - Both boys and girls come to see occupations they associate with men (such as firefighter) as having higher status than occupations they associate with women (such as nurse) - Children perceive some school subjects as boys' areas and others as girls' areas -- Boys come to feel more competent than girls at math and science and girls come to feel more competent than boys at verbal skills

Sight

Incidence of myopia (nearsighted) rises sharply in middle childhood - Highest rates in developed countries, where children are most likely to have access to books and computers - The eyes finish developing by age 10 so the effects of using the eyes to do a lot of close work on computers or in reading can interfere with development and lead to this condition - Partly genetic

Social Consequences of Obesity

Increases the likelihood that a child will be socially excluded and the object of ridicule by peers Other children tend to associate obesity with undesirable characteristics, such as being lazy, sloppy, ugly, and stupid Risk of emotional and behavioral problems

Single Motherhood

Increasingly common for children to be raised in this environment - The US is one of the countries where the increase has been greatest Marriage in the US is at an all-time low: in 2010, barely half of all American adults were married Increased among both Whites and African Americans - Highest among African Americans; over 70% of African American children are born to a single mother - Rates of single motherhood are also high in northern Europe

Changes in Achievement Motivation

Infancy Preoperational Children (Toddlers and Early Childhood) Concrete Operational Children (Middle Childhood)

Fine Motor Development

Involves a similar extension of skills that arose in toddlerhood Learn to pick up things more quickly and precisely Learn to draw something that is recognizable to others New skills Putting on and removing clothes, using scissors, and using a knife to cut soft food Allows them to learn to do many things their parents had been doing for them Culturally specific efforts have been made to base the norms for motor milestones on local cultural patterns

Rehearsal

Involves repeating the information over and over, which is a simple but effective mnemonics - At each age, rehearses recalled the objects much more accurately than non-rehearsers

Elaboration

Involves transforming bits of information in a way that connects them and hence makes them easier to remember (e.g. EGBDF)

Work in Developed Countries

It is illegal to employ children in middle childhood

Helping Abused Children in Western Cultures

It is more often the formal legal system that intervenes in cases of child abuse State agency can place the child in foster care Children to live in a group home staffed by the state agency that oversees child abuse and neglect cases - Usually a temporary alternative until the child can be placed in foster care or with relatives Nurse-Family Partnership

Gender Constancy

It is not until age 6 or 7 that children attain this, which is the understanding that maleness and femaleness are biological and cannot change

Malnutrition in Developing Countries

It's the norm 80% of children lack sufficient food or essential nutrition Two most common types of malnutrition - Protein: Experienced by 25% of children under age 5 worldwide, and can result in marasmus (infancy) and kwashiorkor (toddlerhood) - Iron (Anemia): Causes problems such as fatigue, irritability, and attention difficulties. -- Experienced by majority of children under age 5 -- Foods rich in iron include most meats as well as veggies such as potatoes, peas, and beets, and grains

Discipline in Japanese Cultures

Japan provides an interesting example of a culture where shame and withdrawal of love is the core of discipline in early childhood Express disappointment and withdraw their love temporarily - The child feels shame, which is a powerful inducement not to disobey again Japanese children have low rates of behavioral problems, and high rates of academic achievement - They grow up to be Japanese adults who have low rates of crime Amae fits neatly into a larger system of beliefs about duty and obligations to others, especially to family

Project Head Start

Largest early intervention program in US Began in 1965 1 million American children enrolled each year Provides one or two years of preschool, but it also provides children receive free meals and health care, free health care as well as job=training services Parents are also directly involved in the program Designed to serve children ages 4-6 years old Effectiveness of Programs Children in Head Start show a boost in IQ and academic achievement after their participation in the program IQ and achievement gains fade within 2 or 3 years of entering elementary school Children who have participated in Head Start are less likely to be placed in special education or to repeat a grade The more parents are involved in the program, the more their child demonstrates benefits in terms of academic and social skills

Familismo

Latino cultural belief that emphasizes the love, closeness, and mutual obligations among family members

Dyslexia

Learning disability that includes difficulty sounding out letters, difficulty learning to spell words, and a tendency to misperceive the order of letters in words Learning Disability Children with this disorder are not necessarily any less intelligent than other children' their cognitive problem is manifested in the skill of reading and is linked to problems in auditory and visual processing Boys are three times as likely as girls have the disability, suggesting a genetic link to the Y chromosome

Fine Motor Development

Makes great advances Tie shoes successfully and use chopsticks successfully In many developing countries, children become valuable as factory workers in middle childhood, because of their abilities to perform intricate fine motor tasks such as weaving rugs Advances in drawing and writing By the end of middle childhood, their fine motor abilities have nearly reached adult maturity, whereas gross motor development will continue to advance for many years to come

Negatives of Left-Handedness

Many cultures have viewed left-handedness as dangerous and evil and have suppressed its development in children Negative cultural beliefs about left-handedness developed because people noticed that left-handedness was associated with a greater likelihood of various problems - Left-handed infants are more likely to be born prematurely or to experience an unusually difficult birth, and there is evidence that brain damage prenatally or during birth - In early and mid-childhood, lefthanders are more likely to have problems learning to read and to have other verbal learning disabilities -- Due to the fact that about ¼ of left-handers process language in both hemispheres rather than primarily in the left hemisphere - In adulthood, people who are left-handed have lower life expectancy and are more likely to die in motor vehicle accidents

Malnutrition in Developed Countries

Many have specific nutritional deficiencies despite living in cultures where food is abundant Calcium: Most common nutritional deficiency in US - 1/3 of American 3-year-olds consuming less than the amount recommended by health authorities - Especially important for the growth of bones and teeth and is found in foods such as beans, peas, broccoli, and dairy products

Upsides of Stepfathers

Many stepfathers and stepchildren form harmonious, close relationships Stepfather is warm and open to his stepchildren and does not immediately try to assert stern authority The younger the children are, the more open they tend to be to accepting the stepfather The likelihood of conflict between stepfathers and stepchildren increases with the children's age

Conservation

Mental ability to understand that the quantity of a substance or material remains the same even if its appearance changes - Example: Piaget showed young children two identical glasses holding equal amounts of water and asked them if the two amounts of water were equal -- Piaget then poured the contents from one of the glasses into a taller, thinner glass, and asked the children again if the two amounts of water were equal -- The children failed to understand that the amount of water remained the same even though the appearance of the water changed. (same with other examples) - Piaget interpreted children's mistakes on conservation tasks as indicative of two kinds of cognitive deficiencies: centration and reversability

Whole-Langauge Approach

Method of teaching reading in which the emphasis is on the meaning of written language in whole passages, rather than breaking down words to their smallest components - Children are encouraged to guess at the meaning of words they do not know, based on the context of the word within the written material - Once children have begun to read, they can also benefit from supplementing phonics instruction with this approach, with its emphasis on the larger meanings of written language and on using material from school subjects

Phonics Approach

Method of teaching reading that advocates breaking down words in their component sounds, called phonics, then putting the phonics together into words - Learning gradually more complex units - Evidence is substantial that this approach is more effective at teaching children who are first learning to read

Injuries

Middle childhood is in many ways the safest, healthiest time; death rates are lower during middle childhood than at any other period of the life span Children are more agile and better at anticipating situations that may cause injury Most common cause of injury in middle childhood is automobile accidents, followed by bicycle accidents - The use of bicycle helmets has become common in middle childhood in recent decades, and this practice has led to a sharp decrease in the number of head injuries experienced during these years

Emotional Self-Regulation

Middle childhood is in some ways a golden age emotionally, a time of high well-being and relatively low volatility By middle childhood, the frequency of such negative emotions as declined substantially Experience Sampling Method (ESM) Middle childhood is often a time of moving into new contexts (primary school, civic orgs, sports teams, and music groups

Illness and Disease in Developed Countries

Minor illnesses are common in early childhood, with most children experiencing 7-10 per year Minor illnesses help build up the immune system, so that children typically experience them less frequently

Reasons Children Learn Moral Rules Early

Moral rules are taught explicitly - Parents often rely on religious institutions as sources of correct moral behavior Morality is taught through stories in both formal settings, like Sunday school, and informal settings, like the dinner table - Barbara Rogoff gives examples of storytelling as a moral instruction in a variety of cultures -- Among the Xhosa, it is usually the elders that tell the stories, but the stories have been told many times before, and even young children soon learn the stories and participate in the narrative

Father Gender Socialization

More insistent about conformity to gender roles than mothers are, especially for boys

Value Placed on Particular Achievement

More likely to strive hard to achieve goals we care about vs. unimportant goals

Organization

Placing things into meaningful strategies - Numerous studies have shown that if children are given a list of items to remember, they are more likely to group them into categories in middle childhood - Highly effective memory strategy, because each category serves as a retrieval cue for the items within the category, so that if the category can be remembered, all the items within the category are likely to be remembered as well

Children's Response to Divorce

Most children have recovered from the impact of the divorce within two years - Within first two years, many children display increases in both externalizing and internalizing problems - The low point for most children came 1 year after divorce By middle childhood, most children are less egocentric and more capable of understanding that their parents may have reasons for divorcing that have nothing to do with them - Researchers classified 25% of the children in divorced families as having severe emotional or behavioral problems, compared to 10% of children in two-parent nondivorced families - By two years postdivorce, girls were mostly back to normal - Boys' problems were still evident even five years after divorce

Increase in TV Consumption

Most children in most developed countries watch at least two hours a day TV watching predicts gains in body fat, since the more time children watch TV, the less time they spend in physical exercise Rates are especially high among African Americans and Latino children in part because those are also the children that tend to watch the most TV per day

Injuries in Developing Countries

Most of the injuries and deaths that place in early childhood occur not due to high activity levels but as a consequence of the prevalence of automobile travel Rates of early childhood injury and death due to accidents are higher Disease is a far greater danger - Only 3% of deaths of children under 5 are due to injuries and virtually all the other 97% are due to illness and disease

Rejected children

Most often disliked and rarely liked by other children. Disliked mainly for being overly aggressively, but in about 10-20% of cases, they are shy are shy and withdrawn Usually more aggressive than other children and their aggressiveness leads to conflicts Tend to be impulsive and have difficulty controlling their emotional reactions Lack of social skills and social understanding leads to conflict with others Often fail in their social information processing (SIP) Actually well-adjusted Withdrawn children may be shy and even fearful of other children More likely to have internalizing problems Because other children exclude them from their play and they have few or no friends, they often feel lonely and they dislike going to school Predictive of later conduct problems

Victims

Most often rejected, withdrawn children who are low in self-esteem and social skills Often have no allies when bullies begin victimizing them Cry easily in response to bullying More likely to be depressed and lonely - Their low moods and loneliness may be partly a response of being bullied, but these are also characteristics that may make bullies regard them as early targets

Approaches to Reading

Must learn a whole new way of processing language, via reading, and for most children, learning to read takes direct instruction Relatively new development in human history - Until about 200 years ago, most people were illiterate all their lives - Because most human economic activity involved simple agriculture or hunting or fishing -- Learning to read was unnecessary for most people Today, in a globalized, information-based economy, learning to read is an essential skill for most economic activity, across cultures Children almost learn to read, usually beginning around age 6 or 7 and become able readers by grade 3 Two major approaches for reading have emerged: Phonics Approach and Whole-Language Approach

Reason for ability to combat illnesses

Natural immune systems have become stronger, and their bodies are bigger, stronger, and more resilient

ADHD in United States

Nearly 9 of 10 children and adolescents diagnosed with this receive Ritalin or other meds to suppress their hyperactivity and help them concentrate better Meds are often effective in controlling the symptoms of this - Side effects: Slower physical growth and higher risk of depression Behavioral therapies are also effective, and the combo of medication and behavioral therapy is more effective than either treatment alone - Effective behavioral therapies: Parent training, classroom interventions, and summer programs

Illnesses in Developed Countries

Nearly all children have been vaccinated against the diseases that may have been fatal in either eras Even rates of minor illnesses have declined in middle childhood Food production has become cleaner and safer, and food content more closely regulated by government agencies Air and water have become cleaner due to laws and restrictions by government

Reasons Governments Allow Child Labor

Nearly all countries do have laws prohibiting child labor, but some developing countries do not enforce them, because of bribes from the companies employing the children or because they do not wish to incur the wrath of parents who need their children's income

Across Cultures

Non-Western cultures East Asian Cultures Incremental vs. Entity View of Ability Different Lay Theories

Influences on Intelligence

Normal Distribution Genetics and Environment

Gay couples

Now allowed to adopt children in some American states and some European countries Over 20% of them and one-third of lesbian couples were living with children Children are similar to those who are raised by heterosexual parents

Moral Development

One sociomoral emotion that is especially important to moral development in early childhood is empathy Advances further as children gain a more detailed and complex understanding of the rules and expectations of their cultures Example of cultural learning of morality can be found in the research of Richard Shweder Immigrant children learning rules of expectations of the cultural groups they are engaged in - The rules for proper behavior at home are different from the rules at school Young children also learn morality through custom complexes Modeling Young children begin to display the rudiments of moral reasoning Teaching moral rules is a large part of parenting young children

Popular Children

Ones who are most often rated as "liked" and rarely rated as "disliked"

Bullying Intervention by Peers

Other children intervened to help a victim about half the time, and when they did, the bullies usually backed off

Music

Over half of parents of young children report singing to or playing music for them each day On average, children ages 2-7 listen to music for about 45 minutes per day

Obesity

Overweight: Children ages 6-10 are considered this if their BMI exceeds 18 Obese: Children ages 6-10 are considered this if their BMI exceeds 21 Differences in Rates within Affluent and Nonaffluent Countries United States Differences in Rates Reasons for Overall Increase in Rates Worldwide Social Consequences Physical Consequences How to Reverse Patterns

Cultural Differences in Self and Parenting

Parents in most places and times have been more worried that their children would become too selfish so they discouraged self-inflation as a part of family socialization - Parenting works differently if it is part of a cultural norm than if it is an exception Children from Asian cultures are discouraged from valuing the self highly, yet they generally have high levels of academic performance and low levels of psychological problems Children within the American majority culture who are exposed to parenting that is critical and negative show negative effects such as depression and poor academic performance

Authoritative Parents

Parents who are high in demandingness and high in responsiveness Set clear rules and expectations for their children - Make clear what the consequences will be if their children do not comply, and they make those consequences stick if necessary Explain the reasons for their rules and expectations to their children, and they willingly engage in discussion with their children over issues of discipline, sometimes leading to negotiation and compromise. Parents are loving and warm toward their children, and they respond to what their children need and desire Associated with the most favorable outcomes - Children tend to be independent, self-assured, creative, and socially skilled Within American society, the authoritative style is mainly dominant among White, middle-class families

Authoritarian Parents

Parents who are high in demandingness and low in responsiveness - Expect their commands to be followed without dispute, or they would be punished - Show little in the way of love or warmth toward their children Leads to children who are less self-assured, less creative, and less socially adept Most American minority cultures, have been classified by researchers as this , but this is inaccurate - All minority cultures tend to emphasize obeying parental authority rather than encouraging explanation and negotiation

Disengaged Parents

Parents who are low in both demandingness and responsiveness - Require little of their children and rarely bother to correct their behavior - Express little in the way of love or concern for their children Leads to children who are impulsive, resulting in higher rates of behavior problems

Permissive Parents

Parents who are low in demandingness and high in responsiveness - Few clear expectations for their children's behavior, and they rarely discipline them - May see discipline and control as having the potential to damage their children's healthy tendencies for developing creativity and expressing themselves leads to children that are immature and lack self-control, leading to them having difficulty getting along with peers and teachers

Change in Diets

People have become less likely to prepare meals at home and more likely to buy meals away from home, especially "fast foods", which are high in fat contents Rates are rising in population of developing countries in part because their diets are becoming more likely the diets of people in developed countries

Self-Concept

Person's perception and evaluation of him- or herself Changes during childhood from the external to the internal and from the physical to the psychological - In the course of middle childhood, they add more internal, psychological, personality-related traits to their self-descriptions (e.g. "I'm shy") and also mention characteristics that are not like me (e.g. "I'm not shy") Toward the end of middle childhood, their descriptions become more complex as they recognize that they may be different on different occasions Social Comparison

Peers

Persons who share some aspect of their status in common, such as age) By this age, children are more capable of understanding and describing what a friendship entails By age 5 or 6, they also understand that friendship is characterized by mutual trust and support, and that a friend is someone you can rely on over time

Corporal Punishment

Physical punishment of children Common in most parts of the world Although most countries still allow parents to spank their young children, nearly all outlaw beatings and other harsh forms of physical punishment, which the historical record shows was quite common until about 100 years ago

Corporal Punishment in Traditional Cultures and African Americans

Physical punishment on young children did not prevent them from growing up well-behaved, productive, mentally healthy adults The use of physical punishment in early childhood is widespread - Mild in degree and is delivered not in an angry rage but calmly and sternly Physical punishment is often combined with parental warmth so that children understand their parents' behavior not as a frightening and threatening loss of parental control but as a practice intended to teach them right from wrong and the importance of obeying their parents

Hostile Aggression

Physical type of aggression that entails signs of anger and intent to inflict pain or harm on others

Instrumental Aggression

Physical type of aggression when a child wants something and uses aggressive behavior or words to get it

Parenting Styles

Practices that parents exhibit in relation to their children and their beliefs about those practices Originated in the United States and has involved mainly American children and their parents Described in two dimensions: Demandingness and Responsiveness Four types: Authoritative Parents, Authoritarian Parents, Permissive Parents, Disengaged Parents a cultural model rooted in the American majority cultures and does not apply well to most other cultures Other cultures have their own culturally based forms of warmth and control, but across cultures, warmth rarely takes the form of explanation and negotiation

Handedness

Preference for using either the right or left hand in gross and fine motor activities - Even prenatally, fetuses show a definite preference for sucking the thumb or their right or left hand, with 90% preferring the right hand; this continues into childhood and throughout adulthood

Environmental Causes of Flynn Effect

Prenatal care is better now than in the early 20th century, and better prenatal care leads to better intellectual development, including higher IQs Families are generally smaller now than in the early 20th century, and in general, the fewer children in a family, the higher their IQs Far more children attend preschool now than was true in 1932, and preschool enhances young children's intellectual development Watching educational TV enhances young children's intellectual development Decline of infectious diseases > They compete for physical energy by activating the body's immune system and interfering with the body's processing of food during years when the brain is growing and developing rapidly > The higher a country's infectious disease burden, the lower the country's median IQ > Flynn effect may have been primarily due to the elimination of major infectious diseases in developed countries

Self-Socialization

Process by which people seek to maintain consistency between their gender schemas and their behavior Boys become quite insistent about doing things they regard as boy things and avoiding things that girls do; girls become equally intent on avoiding boy things and doing things they regard as appropriate for girls Children strive to conform to the gender expectations they perceive in the culture around them

Early Intervention Program

Program directed at young children, particularly from low-income families, who are at risk for later problems, intended to prevent problems from developing Goal: Give these children extra cognitive stimulation in early childhood so that they will have a better opportunity to succeed once they enter school Project Head Start and Early Head Start High Scope Preschool Project

Positive Effects of Media

Prosocial content in children's TV shows had positive effects on four areas of children's functioning: altruism, positive social interactions, self-control, and combating negative stereotypes The Internet has been shown to be a valuable resource for children to learn about a wide range of topics

Neglected Children

Rarely mentioned as either liked or disliked; other children have trouble remembering who they are. Girls are more likely to be this

Parenting In Other Cultures

Rarity of authoritative parenting style in non-Western cultures - In traditional cultures, parents expect that their authority will be obeyed, without question and without requiring an explanation -- The fact that they are parents and their children are children is viewed as sufficient justification for their authority Filial Piety and Familismo The dominant approach to parenting in a culture reflects certain things about the underlying cultural beliefs, such as the value of independence vs. interdependence and the status of parental authority over children

United States Differences in Obesity Rates

Rates are high in the least affluent ethnic minority groups, including African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans

Differences in Obesity Rates within Affluent and Nonaffluent Countries

Rates are highest in affluent regions Rates are lowest in poorer regions

Differences in Divorce Rates

Rates of divorce have risen dramatically over the past century in the US, Canada, and northern Europe - Close to half of children in many of these countries experience their parents' divorce by the time they reach middle childhood Rates of divorce are rare in southern Europe and in non-Western countries

Genetics

Recent research have identified a specific gene, called FTO, that sharply increases children's risk for obesity Not a definite destiny - Evidence from Pima Indians in Arizona and Mexico Mexico: Live in a remote region and still maintain their traditional ways, including a traditional cultural diet that is high in veggies and low in fats and sugars Arizona: Change in diets to be more like American mainstream, resulting in BMI that is 50% higher than their counterparts

How to Reverse Obesity Pattern

Recognize the problem Public policies have begun the address the problem of childhood obesity - In US, school lunches have been notoriously unhealthy for decades but national standards are currently being revised to provide healthier school lunches that are lower in fats and sugars

Two general types of bullies

Rejected children who are bully-victims - They are bullied by children who are higher in status and they in turn look for lower-status victims to bully - Come from families where the parents are harsh or even physically abuse Controversial children - Have high peer status for their physical appearance, athletic abilities, or social skills, but who are resented and feared for their bullying behavior toward some children

Coregulation

Relationship between parents and children in which parents provide broad guidelines for behavior but children are capable of a substantial amount of independent, self-directed behavior In developed countries, children spend substantially less time with their parents in middle childhood - Children respond more to parents' rules and reasoning, due to advances in cognitive development and self-regulation - Parents begin to give their children simple daily chores In traditional cultures, parents and children also move toward coregulation in middle childhood - Children have learned family rules and routines and will often carry out their family duties without having to be told or urged by their parents - Children are allowed to play and explore further from home - Boys are allowed more of this freedom than girls are, in part because girls are assigned more daily responsibilities in middle childhood

Changes in Friendship from Early to Middle Childhood

Relative balance of activities and trust Children name fewer of their peers as friends, and friendships last longer Your friends are kids who not only like to do things you like to do, but also whom you can rely on to be nice to you almost all the time, and whom you can trust with information you would not reveal to just anyone Gender Differences - Girls prize trust in middle childhood friendships more than boys do, and that boys' friendships focus more on shared activities, although for both genders trust is more important in middle childhood Breeches of trust become the main reason for ending friendship

TV

Remains the most-used media forms, but time watching TV rises substantially in middle childhood to about 3 hours a day in the US In most countries, children watch TV for at least two hours a day

Reasons for Children's Negative Response to Remarriage

Remarriage represents another disruption that requires adjustment Stepfathers may be perceived by children as coming in between them and their mothers, especially by girls, who may have become closer to their moms following divorce Children may resent and resist their stepfathers' attempts to exercise authority and discipline

Experience Sampling Method (ESM)

Research method pioneered by Reed Larson that involves having people wear beepers, usually for a period of 1 week' when they are beeped at random times during the day, they record a variety of characteristics of their experience at that moment Conclusion: Middle childhood report being "very happy" 28% of the time, a far higher percentage than for adolescents or adults

Physical Consequences of Obesity

Result in diabetes, which can eventually lead to problems such as blindness, kidney failure, and stroke 80% of obese children remains overweight as adults

Emotional Abuse

Ridicule and humiliation as well as behavior causing emotional trauma

Computer Use

Rises to about an hour a day

Weschler Intelligence Test

Scales consist of 11 subtests, of which six are Verbal subtests and five are Performance subtests Results provide an overall intelligence quotient (IQ), which is calculated relative to the performance of other people of the same age, with 100 as the median score - Can be broken down into a Verbal IQ score, a performance IQ score, and scores for each of the 11 subtests - Could be good predictors of success in adulthood IQ tests were originally developed to test children's abilities as they enter school, and IQ has proven to be a good predictor of children's school performance

Age-Graded

Schools are usually this, which means that students at a given grade level tend to be the same age

Intuitive Thought Substage

Second substage of the preoperational stage, lasting from age 4-7, during which children begin to understand how one event leads to another event but cannot say why they know what they know They have begun to think logically

Playing with Friends

Simple social play or cooperative pretend play Becomes more complex and rule-based - May be more elaborate rules about the powers and limitations of the characters (E.g. Pokémon) - More cognitively challenging than the games younger children play (E.g. Card and Board Games) -- Children develop an interest in hobbies such as collecting certain types of objects or constructing and building things -- Electronic games have become a highly popular type of game Children continue to enjoy simple games, such as hide-and-seek and tag, are popular all over the world and also games from their local environments

Media Multitasking

Simultaneous use of more than one media form, such as playing an electronic game while watching TV

Pragmatics

Social and cultural context of language that guides people as to what is appropriate to say and not to say in a given social situation Social Rules and Cultural Rules

Variety of Family Environments

Some children have parents who are married Others are in single-parent, divorced, or blended families Some children are raised by heterosexual parents while others are raised by gay or lesbian parents Others live with extended family members or in multigenerational families Some are adopted or live with relatives other than their parents

Cultural Rules of Pragmatics

Some cultures require children to address adults with respectful titles, such as "Mr." for adult men Many cultures have words that are classified as "bad words" that are supposed to be spoken By middle childhood, most children learn when it is culturally appropriate to speak and when it is best to keep your thoughts to yourself Adults understand intuitively that young children lack a sense of pragmatics, so they tend to find such moments amusing

Numeracy

Some nonhuman animals have a primitive awareness of this, which means understanding the meaning of numbers In human infants, the beginning of numeracy appears surprisingly early Children begin to count around age 2 Begin able to do simple addition and subtraction around age 5 In middle childhood as they become more adept readers, they typically advance their math skills, moving to division and multiplication and increasing their speed of processing in response to math problems Children who have problems learning to read frequently have problems mastering early math skills

Asian Children in Schools

Spend more time on a typical school day learning academic subjects than American children do Japanese children are expected to focus on developing academic skills Both the school year and school day are longer

American Children in Schools

Spend only about half as much of their school time in academic activities as children in China and Japan do

Flynn Effect

Steep rise in the median IQ score in Western countries during the 20th century, named after James Flynn, who first identified it - From 1932 to 1997, the median IQ score among children in the US rose by 20 points -- Means that a child whose IQ was average in 1932 would be way below average by today's standard Causes are environmental

Influences on Motivation Style

Stimulating Home Environment Value Placed on Particular Achievement Parenting Styles Attributions for Success and Failure Attribution Style

Social Skills

Strongest influence on popularity is social skills, such as being friendly, helpful, cooperative, and considerate - Children with these skills are good at perspective-taking; consequently, they are good at understanding and responding to other children's needs and interests

Hippocampus

Structure involved in the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory Myelination is completed by age 5, which could explain why autobiographical memory is limited prior to this age, since myelination is gradual

Beatrice Whiting and Carolyn Edwards

Studied children ages 2-10 in 12 different cultures in places around the world, including Africa, Asia, South America, and the US Found substantial worldwide in how cultures socialize young children and structure their social environments Gradual lessening of dependence on the mother and a gradual move into the social orbit of peers and older children - Knee children are expected to stop breast-feeding and to have less bodily contact with the mother -- Parents and older children expect knee children to be toilet trained, to have basic manners, and to perform minor chores -- Perceived as better able to understand and follow commands

Aggression

Studied the most extensively Programs depicted an average of eight acts of violence per hour, higher than the rare on shows for adults Many parents and scholars have expressed concern about the possibility that TV violence may cause aggression in children Children's social behavior has been observed following exposure to violent TV - Observations of the boys' social behavior showed that the boys who watched the violent films were more likely than the boys in the nonviolent film group to display physical and verbal aggression Watching high amounts of violent TV in middle childhood predicts aggressive behavior at later life stages High levels of exposure to TV violence at age 6 predicted aggressive behavior at age 11

Schools in United States

Tend to believe that educational success is due mainly to innate ability, so when a child does poorly they tend to believe there is not much that can be done Children tend to view academic achievement as a mark of individual success

Seriation

The ability to arrange things in a logical order, such as shortest to longest, thinnest to thickest, or lightest to darkest - By age 7, most children can accurately arrange six to eight sticks by length - Piaget also found that during concrete operations, children have developed the ability to seriate mentally Transitive Inference

Reversability

The ability to reverse an action mentally

Corpus Callosum

The band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex - Allows for coordination of activity between the two hemispheres, so increased myelination of this area enhances the speed of functioning throughout the cerebral cortex.

Memory

The capacity of working memory enlarges Middle childhood is the period when children first learn to use mnemonics (memory strategies), such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration Even in middle childhood and beyond, relatively few people use memory strategies on a regular basis - Instead they rely on more concrete, practical methods Children's knowledge base expands, and the more you know, the easier it is to remember new information that is related to what you know Advances in understanding how memory works, or metamemory - Children develop more accurate assessments of their memory abilities

Illness and Disease in Developing Countries

The cause of death in early childhood are usually illnesses and diseases, especially pneumonia, malaria, and measles Malnutrition is believed to be indirectly responsible for about half of early childhood deaths, because lack of sufficient food reduces the effectiveness of the body's immune system From 1960-2006, the number of deaths worldwide of children under age 5 declined from 20 million to under 10 million - Decline is due to improved food production and increased prevalence of childhood vaccines

Time Out

The child is required to sit still in a designated place for a brief period usually a few minutes, which has shown to be effective with young children who have behavioral problems

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to remember anything that happened prior to age 2 Two theories - Autobiographical memory before age 2 is limited because the awareness of self becomes stable at about age 2 and serves as a new organizer around which events can be encoded, stored, and retrieved in memory as personal - Encoding memories is promoted by language development, because language allows us to tell ourselves a narrative of events and experiences; consequently, most autobiographical memory is encoded after language development accelerates at age 2 Cultural Reason: The greater individualism of British and American cultures promotes greater attention to individual experiences and consequently more and earlier autobiographical memories

Transitive Inference

The mental ability to place objects in a logical order, and he considered the achievement of this skill to be a key part of learning to think logically and systematically

Social Skill Differences in Play

The more preschool experience children have, the more successful they are at taking part in social play Some children enjoy playing by themselves

Injuries in Developed Countries

The most common cause of injury and death is motor vehicle accidents More stringent safety codes Accidental injuries are the leading cause of death for young children because so few of them die from illness

Signs of Positive Changes in Child Labor

The number of child laborers ages 5-11 is declining - Decline has taken place because the issue of child and adolescent labor has received increased attention from the world media, governments, and international organizations - Legislative action has taken in many countries to raise the number of years children are legally required to attend school and to enforce the often-ignored laws against employing children younger than their midteens

Family Process

The quality of the relationships between family members before, during, and after the divorce - During the divorce, parents should encourage children to express their thoughts and feelings about the divorce - When parents divorce with minimal conflict or when parents are able to keep their conflicts private, children show far fewer problems - If divorce results in a transition from a high-conflict household to a low-conflict household, children's functioning often improves rather than deteriorates

Brain Development

The size of the brain continues to increase gradually - At age 3, the brain is about 70% of its adult weight - At age 6, the brain is about 90% of its adult weight - Brain growth outpaces the rest of the body The frontal lobes grow faster than the rest of the cerebral cortex - Underlies the advances in emotional regulation, foresight, and organizing that takes place during the preschool years --Tantrums usually subside and children are able to express and understand a range of emotions -Growth from ages 3-15 takes place in spurts within the different lobes, followed by periods of vigorous synaptic pruning Increase in dendritic connections between neurons and myelination - Four parts of the brain notable for their myelination: Corpus Callosum, Cerebellum, Reticular Formation, Hippocampus

Pragmatics

The social context and conventions of language The understanding of pragmatics grows substantially Can be seen in children's sense of humor - A substantial amount of humor in middle childhood involves violating the expectations set by pragmatics Culturally grounded, which is why jokes don't travel well between cultures To know the pragmatics of a language, you have to know well the culture of the people using the language

Animism

The tendency to attribute human thoughts and feelings to inanimate objects and forces - Reflects egocentrism, in that they are attributing the thoughts and feelings that they might have themselves to things that are inanimate. - E.g. Children's play with stuffed animals

Bodily Growth in Developed Countries

The typical American child grows 2-3 inches per year and adds 5 to 7 lbs Boys are slightly taller and heavier than girls Most children lose their remaining "baby fat" and their bodily proportions become similar to those of adults - add more muscle

Work in Developing Countries

The work that children do in middle childhood is often not merely a form of play as it was, but a serious and sometimes perilous contribution to the family; children are generally prohibited from work

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

There are eight distinct types of intelligence - In Gardner's view, only two of them, linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences, are evaluated - Six other types: Spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal - Each involves distinct cognitive skills, that each can be destroyed by damage to a particular part of the brain, and that each appears in extremes in geniuses an well as in idiots savants - Schools should give more attention to the development of all eight kinds of intelligence and design programs that would be tailored to each child's individual profile of intelligence - Neither Gardner nor others have developed reliable and valid methods for analyzing the intelligence he proposes - Criticized for extending the boundaries of intelligence too widely

Parent Gender Socialization

They continue to give their children the clothes and toys they believe are gender appropriate Express approval when their children behave in gender-appropriate ways and disapproval when their children violate gender expectations They also communicate indirectly, by approving or not contradicting their children's gender statements Provide models through their own behavior, language, and appearance, of how males and females are supposed to be different in their culture

Reasons Parents Allow Child Labor

They need the money Poor families in developing countries often depend on children's contributions to the family income for basic necessities like food and clothing

Children's Relationship to the Mother After Divorce

They now have full responsibility for household tasks and child care Increased financial stress - Mothers often receive less than full child support from their ex-husbands Relationships between boys and their mothers - Sometimes sucked into a coercive cycle following divorce, in which boys' less compliant behavior evokes harsh responses from mothers which in turn makes boys even more resistant to their mothers' control, evoking even harsher responses

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Three distinct but related forms of intelligence - Analytical Intelligence: Kind of intelligence that IQ tests, which involves acquiring, storing, analyzing, and retrieving information - Creative Intelligence: Kind of intelligence which involves the ability to combine information in original ways to produce new insights, ideas, and problem-solving strategies - Practical Intelligence: Kind of intelligence that involves the ability to apply information to the kinds of problems faced in everyday life, including the capacity to evaluate social situations - Proposes that the three components are universal and contribute to intelligent performance in all cultures but so far the theory has been tested little outside US.

Relational/Social Aggression

Type of aggression that involves damaging another person's reputation among peers through social exclusion and malicious gossip - Rises across childhood - As children become more adept at using words, they grow capable of applying their verbal abilities Children learn that adults regard physical aggression as unacceptable and as children become more capable of restraining their physically aggressive impulses Children become more capable of understanding the complexities of social and cognitive understanding, understanding that words could hurt more than a hit Slightly more common than physical aggression among girls but the difference is minor

American Schools Reflect Individualistic Beliefs

Typically do not wear uniforms, are not required to help with school maintenance, and spend more time working along

Cultural Differences in Peers

Western countries: Mixed-age peer play groups are relatively rare Traditional cultures: Children often play in mixed-age groups that may include children in toddlerhood, early childhood, and middle childhood

Social Status

When children are in a social environment with children of different ages, age is a key determinant of this, in that older children tend to have more authority than younger children

Bilingualism is favorable to language development

When children learn two languages, they usually become adept at using both Learning a second language does not interfere with mastering the primary language Can easily learn to keep their two languages separate, although they may intentionally import some words from one language when speaking in the other

Diversity of Single-Parent Families

When the mother makes enough money so the family is not in poverty, children in single-parent families function as well as children in two-parent In many African American families, the grandma is highly involved and provides child care, household help, and financial support to the single mother

Reasons for increasing bilingualism

With increased migration between countries, children are more likely to be exposed early to two languages, one spoken at home and one spoken with friends, teachers, and others outside the home School systems increasingly seek to teach children a second language to enhance their ability to participate in the global economy - Because the US is the most influential country in the world economy, English is the most common second language for children around the world

Modeling

Young children tend to model their behavior after the behavior of others they observe Children are especially likely to model their behavior after another person if the other person's behavior is rewarded - More likely to model their behavior after adults who are warm and responsive or who are viewed as having authority

Centration

Young children's thinking is centered or focused on one noticeable aspect of a cognitive problem to the exclusion of other important aspects

Body Mass Index (BMI)

a measure of the ratio of weight to height

Child-effects

a. (biological, temperamentalists) i. Argues children have primary influence on parents 1. E.g. easygoing, manageable children promote authoritative parenting 2. E.g. stubborn, impulsive children elicit more coercive authoritarian parenting

Parent-Effects Interpretation

a. (not widely agreed upon by devpsych) i. Assumes influences can run from parent to child

Ecological Demands

a. (particularly those which are uniform, e.g. subsistence economies), help explain heterogeneity i. Comparison of data from 5 cultures: 1. Aranda of Australia (indigenous Aboriginal tribe) 2. Inuit of Canada 3. Ebrié of Cote d'Ivoire - West Africa 4. Baoulé of Cote d'Ivoire - West Africa 5. Kikuyu of Kenya 6. Strictly sedentary, agricultural groups (Baoulé, Kikuyu) a. Relatively rapid development of conservation reasoning due to its meaningfulness 7. Nomadic, hunting/gathering groups (Aranda, Inuit) a. More rapid development of spatial reasoning due to its importance ii. "Ecocultural relevance" matters = extent to which skills are valuable and adaptive 1. Seems to influence timing and domains of operational reasoning

Child Outcomes

a. Baumrind's longitudinal (early childhood to adolescence) research on outcomes of parenting styles confirmed child differences depending on parenting styles

Authoritarian Style Across Cultures

a. wrongly applied to other cultures? i. Control/demandingness (in Baumrind's framework) 1. Emphasizes reasons for discipline and explanation of consequences; even includes negotiation 2. Rather than assertion of parental authority ii. Warmth/responsiveness (in Baumrind's framework) 1. Include praise (which is rare in other cultures) 2. "Warmth" often communicated in non-physical ways (especially in high-context, vs. low-context, cultures)

Parenting Styles

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved

Problems with Conceptualization

a. Conceive of control as occurring in multiple forms - confusing i. E.g. Baumrind (1970s) - authoritative control vs. authoritarian 1. Both emphasize firm enforcement = requiring compliance, not being coerced by children, enforcing compliance after initial noncompliance (beneficial) 2. Authoritarian = additionally includes failure to share decision-making power with children, assuming stance of infallibility, and becoming inaccessible (detrimental) ii. E.g. Baumrind (2013) - confrontive vs. coercive (behavioral) control 1. Confrontive control = demanding, firm, and goal-directed and reasonable, yet power-assertive (beneficial) [Authoritative Parents] 2. Coercive control = intrusive, manipulative, punitive, autonomy undermining and restrictive (detrimental) [Authoritarian Parents] iii. E.g. Barber, Steinberg (1990s) - behavioral vs. psychological control 1. Behavioral control (i.e. strictness - supervision) a. = Efforts to manage or control child's behavior b. E.g. setting limits, monitoring behavior inside/outside of home, involvement in decision-making c. Beneficial to development (predicts less externalizing symptoms and increased achievement 2. Psychological control a. = Intrusions on psychological and emotional world of child (e.g. thinking processes, self-expression, attachment to parent) b. E.g. love withdrawal, guilt induction c. Detrimental (predicts increased internalizing symptoms and psychological problems)

Preoperational Stages Across Cultures

a. Cross-cultural observations confirm Piaget's depiction of preoperational thinking among young children world-wide i. Suggests it's mostly biologically/maturationally driven ii. Examples: 1. Rapid development of language during this period regardless of culture a. By age 5, psycholinguistics confirm that children aroud the globe master most of the basic rules of syntax of their native language 2. Burgeoning symbolic play (i.e. pretense) during this age period, worldwide a. E.g. Baoule of West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire) and French children displayed similar shift from conventional to symbolic play, even though content differed (e.g. bows and arrows, not cars and trains) b. NOTE: Frequency of pretend play across cultures varies (due to divergent adult attitudes regarding value and purpose of play, children's work load) i. E.g. South Korean toddlers have variable opportunity for pretend play, while American preschoolers have more opportunity for pretend play 3. Universally, young children's thinking may be accurately described as appearance- or stimulus-bound a. 3-5 year olds from disparate cultures display similar patterns of errors (and age improvements) in distinguishing appearance from reality b. (Young children around the globe also readily believe in imaginary characters promoted by elders, such as Santa) 4. Cross-cultural studies confirm preoperational-age children across wide-ranging cultures fail logical problem-solving tasks (i.e. fail conservation, classification, seriation tasks) a. Yet item familiarity, simplicity, training can improve performance 5. Regardless of whether in preliterate or modern culture, young children all show tendency for egocentric responses - a trend that reverses with age a. E.g. Hassau in Northwestern Nigeria, Zinacanteco Mayan, Brazilian deaf children i. Cross cultural tasks are different from three-mountain task, which are contingent on the children's everyday experiences ii. Regardless of adaptation, children have difficulty with task the younger they are b. Some scholars suggest tendency for egocentrism may have evolutionary adaptive value for children's learning i. One benefit: Inability to take the person of another means it's difficult to see yourself as you're learning, making you feel more embarrassed when making learning mistakes 1. E.g. Potentially learn language because you're willing to keep practicing in order to communicate with loved ones at young age

Western changes

a. Long before Piagetian postulations regarding cognitive stages, Western cultures made changes in treatment of children at ages 6 or 7 i. E.g. Beginning of serious schooling ii. E.g. Catholic law held child capable of knowing right from wrong and capable of confession at age 7

specific "process praise"

a. doesn't suggest performance as reflecting fixed trait/ability i. Reminds children that performance varies from time-to-time and one's skills can keep growing ii. "Trait praise" makes them feel like performance comes only from natural endowment and skills can't change

Commonality Across Cultures

a. even without formal schooling; suggested by: i. Observation that tasks which are more difficult for Western children also are more difficult for many groups ii. Eventual achievement of concrete operations for most groups

Cross-Cultural Heterogeneity

a. evident at Piaget's 3rd cognitive stage (concrete operations) i. Variation in rate of development (and also qualitative progression) ii. Disparate findings not simply explained by Western vs. non-Western distinction

Delays

a. exacerbated by: i. Lack of familiarity of task materials, especially ii. Use of non-native language iii. Fewer years of schooling

Non-Western Cultures

a. may not have same issue with LH Attribution Style undermining learning and achievement motivation i. Because they don't rely on praise to communicate warmth (often because not a "low context" culture) 1. Thus, they don't make the person-praise errors we do

Authoritative Style Across Cultures

a. rare in non-Western cultures i. E.g. Parental explanation of reasons (i.e. rationales) uncommon 1. Asian countries a. Filial piety tradition (belief children should respect, obey, and revere parents) b. So parental role has greater inherent authority; sufficient justification without explanation of rules 2. Latin American cultures a. Similar assumption of authority, at least with father ii. E.g. Praise (e.g. "good job") uncommon iii. Physical punishment common

Different Lay Theories

a. regarding potential for high intelligence i. E.g. South Asian Indian vs. US 1. Universal theory: Everyone is born with potential to become highly intelligent a. Life circumstances alter whether they realize their potential 2. Non-universal: Only some people have potential for high intelligence a. Regardless of effort or education, only some capable b. Reasons underlying the cultural prevalence of particular "lay" theories regarding intelligence not fully understood

East Asian Cultures

a. share Confucian belief that learning is a moral obligation; no quitting (remember article on parental control) i. Learning rests in "moral" domain (Turiel) ii. Not merely "socio-conventional" (practical norms) or "personal-psychological" (affecting only self) domain violation

Children who receive formal schooling

a. strikingly similar patterns of emerging operations (i.e., commonality) regardless of SES) i. In Western cultures (E.g. Britain, Australia, Greece) and non-Western cultures (e.g. Pakistan, Kenya, Nigeria, Zambia) 1. Similarities by average age of onset 2. Similarities in order in which properties are mastered (e.g. conservation of number, length, liquid, area, volume last)

Asthma

chronic illness of the lungs characterized by wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath Periodic "asthma attacks" in which breathing is especially difficult - Can be triggered by cold weather, exercise, illnesses, allergies, emotional stress, or for no clear reason - Reduced through the use of medical injections and inhalers Rates are highest in middle childhood and are increasing worldwide Risk factors: boys, low birth weight, having a parent who smokes, living in poverty, obesity, and genetic inheritance Hygiene Hypothesis HIgh Among African Americans

Cognitive Limitations

i. "Concrete" thinkers only 1. Can only think about situations/objects that are not real or readily imagined 2. Difficulty with abstract ideas a. E.g. What is love? 3. Difficulty with hypothetical propositions a. E.g. What if scientists discovered way for humans to time travel? 4. No systematic thinking a. If house could be painted any combination of three colors: Y, W, G, what are all the possibilities? 5. No deductive reasoning a. Reasoning from general premise to specific instance 6. No inductive reasoning a. Reasoning from specific observations to generalizations ii. Impact: 1. No abstract logic 2. No scientific reasoning and systematic hypothesis testing

Cognitive Limitations

i. "Perceptually-bound" (appearance-bound) thinking 1. Rely on perceptions when thinking and making judgments a. Reasoning based on how things appear, not logic 2. Difficulty distinguishing "appearance" vs. "reality" (even if its imaginary) a. Fooled by appearances 3. Thus, impact of Disneyland characters, Halloween costumes, dreams, seem real (may scare child because costumes transform someone) ii. Perceptions are centered (aka "centration") 1. Focus on one feature at a time, one-dimensional focusing a. E.g. Don't notice that Disney princes princesses are the only ones who speak.. not Mickey or Minnie iii. Perceptual Salience 1. Understanding dominated by what is most perceptually obvious a. E.g. Don't ask why Mickey isn't talking iv. Lack of "operational" schemes 1. Unable to perform mental operations (i.e. mental actions) a. E.g. Math v. Evidenced by static thought 1. Failure to understand transformations from one state to another (i.e. process of change): end-state focusing not the middle a. E.g. Can't arrange pictures of a flower growing or of baking cookies vi. Evidenced by irreversibility 1. Can't mentally "undo" an action

Attribution Style

i. (2) Dimensions of Attributions: 1. Locus of Control (LOC) Dimension a. Internal = personal qualities (e.g. ability, effort) b. External = environmental factors (e.g. actions of others, task characteristics, luck) 2. Stability Dimension a. Stable (Fixed) = factors that don't change (e.g. trait) b. Unstable (Changeable) = factors that can readily vary across situations (e.g. effort, preparation, luck) ii. Together: 4 types of causal attributions

Longitudinal studies of parents and children

i. 1.5 - 3 year olds: 1. Authoritative moms who dealt firmly but patiently with non-compliance and emphasized "dos" a. Greater compliance and cooperation over time 2. Authoritarian mothers who used power-assertion and emphasized "don'ts" a. Less compliance and cooperation, and increase in problem behaviors over time

Cognitive Achievements

i. = All the previous limitations of the prior preoperational stage ii. Presence of operational schemes; thus, ability for operational thinking 1. Can perform mental actions (mental operations) on mental objects 2. Evidenced by transformational thought a. Understand process of change: can imagine transformations b. E.g. draw falling pencil c. E.g. Arrange pictures of flower growing 3. Evidenced by reversibility a. Can mentally "undo" actions/transformations b. E.g. Halloween costumes being removed c. E.g. Graham crackers going back together after being split d. E.g. +/- & x/division iii. Can decenter 1. E.g. "b" vs. "d" (correct shape and direction) iv. Less egocentric 1. "Theory of mind" more sophisticated v. Thought is logical, rather than perception-bound 1. Conclusions based on logic, not appearances 2. E.g. Stop believing in tooth-fairy, etc. vi. Impact 1. Can seriate a. E.g. height, length, weight, intensity, etc. 2. Can do class inclusion/classification a. E.g. blue vs. red, then by shape 3. Can think through logical consequences of actions 4. Improved causal reasoning 5. Master tests of logical reasoning, such as those involving "conservation" a. = Principle that properties (related to amount) remain same despite changes in appearances b. Includes liquid, number, mass/matter, etc. i. Have ability to conserve

Treatment of Children Changes

i. Assume important responsibilities, e.g., 1. Care of younger children 2. Tending animals 3. Carrying out household chores 4. Gathering important materials ii. Expectation that one is teachable iii. Methods of discipline/punishment often change

Transactional Model of Influence

i. Assumes some reciprocal influence; aka bidirectional effects ii. Yet longitudinal studies imply parenting patterns influence children more than the reverse

Recasting Baumrind's Parenting Types

i. Authoritative = high structure (guidance, monitoring, firm enforcement), high autonomy support (encouragement of independence/individuality), high warmth (low hostility); beneficial ii. Authoritarian = high structure (many rules, high monitoring, firm enforcement), low autonomy support (low encouragement of volition), low warmth (high hostility); detrimental iii. Permissive = low structure (few rules, low enforcement), high autonomy support (encouragement of independence/individuality), high warmth (low hostility); detrimental

Preoperational Children (Toddlers and Early Childhood)

i. By age 2: expect approval/disapproval 1. Capable of evaluating performances as successes/failures ii. By age 3: feel pride/shame iii. Yet, still persistent learners iv. Why? Many cognitive limitations: 1. Egocentrism/poor perspective-taking 2. End-state/static reasoning: appearance-bound 3. Limited capacity for temporal and social comparison (e.g. can't evaluate temporal stability, or infer enduring traits) 4. Unable to analyze causes of successes and failures v. Cognitive limitations promote persistence in learning: 1. Expect success 2. Evaluate competencies favorably 3. Ignorance encourages them to practice skills to a greater degree

Concrete Operational Children (Middle Childhood)

i. By age 7, clear differences in children's achievement motivation and level of achievement 1. Display an achievement style

Parenting and Discipline Becomes Relevant

i. By early childhood (ages 3 - 6), socialization is fully underway 1. Parents must manage children's behavior and instill propriety and self-control; require children to follow rules and expectations 2. Issues of discipline are prominent; little indulgence world-wide ii. Parenting behavior (beyond attachment-relevant moments), matters greatly to children's development

Impact of Cognitive Limitations

i. Can't think through logical consequences of actions ii. Transductive (immature) causal reasoning [superstition] 1. Assumption that if two events occur near same time (i.e. correlated events), one is cause of the other 2. E.g. Tooth fairy; parents giving money iii. Cognition appears intuitive rather than logical iv. Animism 1. Objects that move on own (especially unfamiliar ones) have lifelike qualities v. Egocentrism (aka "egocentric") 1. Cannot take the perspective of another (i.e. can't perceive another's point of view) a. E.g. Hide and Seek b. E.g. How many brothers and sisters? How many children does your mother have? c. E.g. Gift for others 2. Modern research shows that preoperational children do not remain as totally egocentric as Piaget depicted a. Improvements occur within this period (2-6 years) i. E.g. Improvement between 3-5 years in visual-perspective taking tasks, and false-belief tasks 3. Researchers now recognize complexity in children's understanding of others' mental life (desires, beliefs, perceptions, intentions, etc.): Now studied as "theory of mind" research vi. Fail tests of logical reasoning, such as those involving "conservation" 1. Principle that properties (related to amount) remain same despite changes in appearance a. Includes liquid, number, mass/mater, length, etc. 2. Lack ability to conserve i. Difficulty with class inclusion/classification 1. = Relations between categories (e.g. "parts" included within "whole" when classifying objects) a. E.g. 5 dogs vs. 2 cats: More animals or more dogs? b. E.g. Give me all the big blue pencils i. If asked to get both big and blue pencils, the kids get stuck ii. Difficult with seriation 1. = Arranging items along quantifiable dimension a. E.g. smallest to biggest b. E.g. Lightest to darkest

Attributions for Success and Failure

i. Causal explanations for outcomes ii. Influence future expectancies of success and achievement motivation: 1. We're more motivated to achieve when believe capable of succeeding vs. small chance of success

Authoritative Profile (Dolphin Parenting)

i. Combines high control/demandingness and high warmth/responsiveness ii. Types of behavior: 1. Responsive to child's needs and point of view 2. Set clear rules that are reasonable 3. Consistently enforce them 4. Provide rationales for rules 5. Involve children in family decision-making 6. Respectful, "democratic", but clearly in charge 7. Affectionate, encouraging 8. Praise when expectations met

Authoritarian Style (Tiger Parenting)

i. Combines high control/demandingness and low warmth/responsiveness ii. Types of behavior: 1. Impose many rules and demands 2. Expect strict obedience 3. Rarely explain why child should comply with rules 4. Little sensitivity to child's needs and perspectives 5. Often rely on physical punishment to gain compliance 6. Low in affection

Permissive Style (Jellyfish Parenting)

i. Combines low control/demandingness and high warmth/responsiveness ii. Types of behavior: 1. Make relatively few demands 2. Rarely exert control over child's behavior 3. Indulgent; encourage children to express feelings and impulses 4. Affectionate 5. Supportive

Neglectful/Uninvolved Style

i. Combines low control/demandingness and low warmth/responsiveness ii. Types of behavior: 1. Relatively uninvolved 2. Seem not to care 3. Or overwhelmed by own problems; don't devote sufficient energy and time to setting and enforcing rules 4. Low in affection 5. Little sensitivity to child's needs

Problems with Baumrind's View

i. Confusing distinctions regarding good vs. bad control ii. Doesn't distinguish dimensions with targets 1. E.g. Psychological control taps into intrusive/dominating parenting dimension regarding what children think and feel; behavioral control involves guiding dimension in regards to actions iii. Detached from broader theories; processes underlying effects of different forms of control are unclear

Children are categorized differently

i. E.g. Belief that "sense" comes to the child among Sisala of WEset Central Africa ii. E.g. Beginning at 7 or 8, children expected to have "reason" among Dusun of Borneo

Incremental vs. Entity View of Ability

i. E.g. South Asian Indian vs. US ii. E.g. East Asian vs. North American 1. American educators and parents emphasize inherent ability as a primary determinant of academic outcomes; thus, accept ability as a limiting factor

Stimulating Home Environment

i. Encourages mastery of challenges ii. Fosters intrinsic motivation to satisfy personal needs for competence/mastery (e.g. joy of problem-solving)

Achievement Style Before 7

i. Even after repeated poor performances, children less susceptible to LH ii. Why? 1. Young children (< 7) have incremental view of ability (aka "growth mindset") a. Don't understand ability as stable capacity b. Believe ability is changeable quality 2. Promotes learning goals a. i.e. want to learn so as to improve ability

Advantages of New Conceptualization

i. Facilitates clearer conclusions regarding effects of parental control (and other dimensions) 1. E.g. Clarifies potentially misleading conclusion that control is beneficial in dangerous environments a. E.g. Baldwin, Baldwin, and Cole (1990) i. Although quantity of rules had more positive effects when risk was high, the extent to which rules were characterized by parental domination (opposite of democracy) had negative effects regardless of risk 2. Can differentiate control OR structuring of behavior OR psyche a. E.g. Is psychological control truly buffered by cultural belief system (e.g. amae in Japan)? 3. May help study how cultural context alters meaning and consequences of dimensions (i.e. interaction effects) a. E.g. Normalization of physical discipline, academic oversight 4. May help clarify effects of anger (e.g. rejection?) when combined with physical punishment a. E.g. Does spanking, regardless of parental hostility/anger have positive effects for African American youth?

Parenting Styles

i. Guidance/scaffolding ii. Praise successes (in the right way) iii. Not critical iv. Autonomy-supportive

Tendency to shift to Learned Helplessness and Performance Goals

i. Influences include: 1. Cognitive development (i.e. move into concrete operations) a. Able to analyze causes of successes and failures b. Able to infer enduring traits from behaviors 2. Capacity for temporal and social comparison 3. Emphasis on performance goals a. E.g. "Show grandma what you can do" 4. Accumulated feedback in school a. Grades; ability appraisals 5. The way we over-praise/give compliments a. Person praise = praise focusing/labeling ability as a trait: i. e.g. "You're so smart!" "You're a great hitter!" ii. Promotes performance goals (objective is to display one's competencies iii. Trait praise makes children feel like performance comes only from natural endowment and skills can't change 6. More adaptive to be specific a. Process-oriented praise = praise the formulation of good approaches/strategies/choices b. Promotes learning goals (improvement is the objective; ever-increasing task-mastery is ultimate goal) c. Specific praise reminds children that performance can vary from time-to-time and that one's skills can keep growing

Infancy

i. Inherent desire to master environment 1. Known as "effectance motivation" or "mastery motivation"

Language Achievements

i. Learn most fundament rules for grammar and syntax by age 5 1. Sentences sound adult-like ii. Thus, form (i.e. use) grammatically correct words and word order in sentences iii. Specifically, master "grammatical morphemes" (smallest meaningful language units) 1. = Prefixes, suffixes, prepositions, auxiliary verbs that modify precise meaning of words and sentences a. E.g. Add -s for plural "The cats are soft" b. E.g. Add -ed for past tense "The cats jumped on the couch 2. Problem: Don't know rules; Evidenced by over-regularization a. Over-apply new rules to irregular cases i. E.g. Add -s for plural "tooths" ii. E.g. Add -ed to signal past tense "runned" b. Use correct irregular form first due to imitation c. Then infer rule and over-apply it (when fail to retrieve irregular form) iv. Also master "transformational grammar" 1. = Rules of syntax for transforming declarative sentences into questions, negatives, etc. a. E.g. Proper placement of auxiliary verbs; never get word order wrong! i. "What is mommy cooking?" "Daddy is cooking tonight?" 2. Syntax = Rules for word order (i.e. how to combine words into sentences) 3. Beginning of complex sentences and storytelling a. i.e. conjunctions and embedded sentences i. E.g. "Everybody likes prizes, but we don't like to wait for them"

Autonomy Support vs. Control

i. No such thing as "good" control; all parental control is detrimental ii. Control = behaviors characterized by pressure, coercion, dominance or intrusiveness [in order to get children to think, feel, or behave in specific ways] 1. Includes attempts at forcing children to meet demands, solving problems for children, and taking a parental rather than child perspective 2. Captures previous labels: psychological control, authoritarianism, power assertive discipline, coercive control

Achievement Style After Age 7

i. Older children to acquire an entity view of ability (aka "fixed mindset") 1. Believe ability is stable quality that can't be altered ii. Promotes performance goals 1. i.e. strive to prove one's ability and avoid being judged "dumb", "untalented", etc.

Warmth vs. Hostility

i. Parental love and affection still a foundation for caregiving; beneficial 1. But not necessarily praise (in fact, too much praise, and vague praise that implies possession of fixed traits, undermines perseverance) ii. Cultures have their own forms/ways of displaying warmth

Structure vs. Ambiguity

i. Parental structure (e.g. guidance, regulations) is beneficial ii. Structure = organization of parental behavior and environment to facilitate children's competence 1. Includes clear/consistent guidance, expectations, and rules; also includes predictable consequences and clear feedback regarding actions 2. Captures previous labels: firm control, firm enforcement, and behavioral control iii. Ambiguity = failure to provide children with organization, leading to confusion regarding how to proceed or how to solve problems on own 1. Captures previous labels: lax control, low enforcement, and permissive

Emphasize Learning Goals

i. Prepare them for mistakes/failures 1. Normalize failure! i. Frame act of working on task as an opportunity to gain competence

Attribution "Retraining"

i. Regarding Failures 1. Encourage children to believe they can overcome incompetence through some change in effort, focus, etc. ii. Regarding Successes 1. Encourage children to see themselves as capable and improving - notice improvements in ability

Cognitive Achievements

i. Symbolic Schemes Flourish 1. Symbolic Capacity = ability to make one thing (word/object/image) stand for (i.e. represent) something else 2. Internal mental symbols used to represent experiences are abundant ii. Internally "think" in conventional sense 1. Can reflect on absent objects and people, recall the past, present and future iii. Fully Symbolic Thinking/Functioning 1. Pervasive, enduring, and flexible use of symbolism (to mentally represent objects and experiences) 2. Evidenced by delayed, complex imitation (e.g. tantrums) 3. Evidenced by pretend play a. Stick = magic wand b. Play "restaurant", "school", etc. c. Imaginary friends: Conjured in your head! 4. Evidenced by relatively sophisticated language a. Not just simple things or in the present; can talk in past and future tenses!

Two Dimensions

i. Warmth/Responsiveness: Extend parent is supportive, provides affection and praise vs. rejection and cold-heartedness ii. Control/Demandingness: Captures how much control over decisions and childs' behavior lies with parent vs. child iii. Aka restrictiveness, discipline a. Yield 4 Basic Patterns/Styles (Baumrind)

Reciprocal/Bidirectional Effects

in relations between two persons, the principle that each of them affects the other Children may evoke certain behaviors from their parents Parents have beliefs about what is best for their children, and they try to express those beliefs through their parenting behavior Parents' actual behavior is affected not only by what they believe is best but also by how their children behavior toward them and respond to their parenting

Overcontrol

trait of having excessive emotional self-regulation, which could lead to internalizing problems

Undercontrol

trait of having inadequate emotional self-regulation At risk for externalizing problems