Final Study Guide ENSP

Describe Marine Protected Areas within the context of the U.S. Magnuson-Stevens Act (MSA) z(1996). Provide specific terminology used in MSA as relating to MPAs.

"...to promote the protection of essential fish habitat in the review of projects conducted under Federal permits, licenses, or other authorities that affect" Essential fish habitat- those waters and substrate necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, or growth to maturity

Briefly explain national goals of coastal and marine spatial planning as outlined in the 2010 National Ocean Policy.

(i) protect, maintain, and restore the health and biological diversity of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes ecosystems and resources; (ii) improve the resiliency of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes ecosystems, communities, and economies; (iii) bolster the conservation and sustainable uses of land in ways that will improve the health of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes ecosystems; (iv) use the best available science and knowledge to inform decisions affecting the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes, and enhance humanity's capacity to understand, respond, and adapt to a changing global environment; (v) support sustainable, safe, secure, and productive access to, and uses of the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes; (vi) respect and preserve our Nation's maritime heritage, including our social, cultural, recreational, and historical values; (vii) exercise rights and jurisdiction and perform duties in accordance with applicable international law, including respect for and preservation of navigational rights and freedoms, which are essential for the global economy and international peace and security; (viii) increase scientific understanding of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes ecosystems as part of the global interconnected systems of air, land, ice, and water, including their relationships to humans and their activities; (ix) improve our understanding and awareness of changing environmental conditions, trends, and their causes, and of human activities taking place in ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes waters; and (x) foster a public understanding of the value of the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes to build a foundation for improved stewardship.

Briefly describe the progress of marine climate change preparedness in Australia's coastal communities, including drivers of progress.

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Describe the global trend in per capita wild fish supply since 1970. How have consumers been shielded from this trend?

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8. Explain how local management efforts can address coastal ecosystems impacted by multiple stressors.

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Provide examples of how oyster harvesters perceive multiple stressors and impacts to the fishery, including local and global stressors.

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Describe how public perception and willingness to invest in solutions is impacted by understanding of environmental stressors and impacts, using Adelaide, Australia as an example.

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In March 2015 the National Ocean Council released a report on implementation of the National Ocean Policy. In your opinion, did this report demonstrate clear progress towards implementation of the National Ocean Policy?

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According to Jackson et al., 2001 "Overfishing precedes all other pervasive human disturbance to coastal ecosystems, including pollution, degradation of water quality, and anthropogenic climate change." Describe the rationale for this statement.

*Mention the mapping, I don't really know what he wants for this at all

Describe how coastal development in the Newport Bay Watershed of Orange County, California has led to elevated selenium concentrations in Newport Bay and its tributaries.

- 1850 there was a huge swamp and ephemeral lake. This was the main drainage feature of the watershed. Under huge storm events, the overflowed swamp flowing into the Santa Ana River rather than the bay. Over time the swamp was drained to facilitate agriculture. More channels were built to continue to de-water the aquifer to promote development and for stormwater control. By 1915 the swamp was nearly all drained and by 1987 everything was brought by the channels to the bay. - At first the channels were deep enough to drain the aquifer. Over time they were eroded and became deeper, lowering the water table. Now they're concrete lined to reduce erosion. - Outcrops along the boundaries of the watershed are naturally higher in levels of selenium. Before, they were transported to the swamp and the selenium was sequestered. Draining the marsh oxidized the sediments and mobilized the selenium. Was also routed it all into the channels and into the bay. - Lateral groundwater flow - huge convergence zones where groundwater is coming into the channels. Extra water not leaving by groundwater flow comes into the channels full of high-selenium sediments. - Dewatering projects - dump water high in selenium from aquifers and into the channels - Groundwater discharging into these creeks - TMDL EPA 2002, enforced by regional boards, Sta Anna regional water quality control board - At same time controlling groundwater discharge is challenging if not impossible - An alternative compliance plan, getting groups of legislators and consultants to figure out more ways to control

Define additive, antagonistic and synergistic biological responses to multiple stressors. Provide rough estimates of the percentage of multiple stressor relationships in marine systems for each.

- Additive - impact is direct addition of each stressor acting alone (26%) - Antagonistic - impact is less than the addition of the stressors acting alone (38%) - Synergistic - impact is greater than the additive impact (36%)

Describe ecological impacts of artificial island creation, using the Dubai coastline as an example

- Majority of dense coral habitat has now been buried or heavily impacted - Dredge and fill procedures to make these artificial islands generate long lasting sediment plumes - Permanently modify coastal water movement and sediment transport; results in large scale and long term effects on benthic community composition - New habitat for broad range of species adapted to rocky shores, reefs, shallow sandy lagoons - Introduce significant local physical, chemical changes that degrade habitat quality and favor undesirable species or prevent colonization of desired ones - Benthic footprint extends more than 800 meters beyond the outer crescent breakwater

What area(s) of the world are driving growth in desalination? Why?

- Middle East is the focus worldwide - shortage of freshwater, expanding economies, abundance of fossil fuels - Also growing in USA, Europe, China, and Australia as droughts are forcing communities to investage other options for freshwater supplies

Describe multiple stressors impacting the Chesapeake Bay, including interaction(s) among the stressors.

- Nutrient loading leading to.. - Hypoxia - Conowingo - Industrial contamination- Baltimore contaminated dredging deposited on island ehre, - oyster and blue crab over fishing- lack of filtration and ecosystem engineer removal, shift to benthic communities - invasive species- green porcelain crab- impacts the recovery efforts for the oysters - Caribbean creep

Describe the concept of "sunken billions" as relating to overfishing.

- Sunken Billions is a concept representing the economic loss from overfishing. - Since management plans, no matter how logical are often not implemented due to the economic importance of the fishery at the time, they end up losing money in the long run. - Key economic figures in global fisheries: o Global fisheries lose 50 billion dollars a year due to overfishing o 80 billion tons of fish now vs. rebuilding fisheries could be 89 billion o Catch value would go from 88 billion to 101 billion while simultaneously reducing subsides.

Halpern et al. (2008) produced a global map of cumulative human impact in ocean ecosystems. What area(s) exhibited the highest impact? Why?

- The highest impacted areas are continental shelf and slopes because they're subject to both land and ocean impacts since they're right off the land. - Include North and Norwegian Seas, China Seas, North American Eastern seaboard, Mediterranean, Bering Sea, Sri Lanka

Briefly describe the "levels of protection" provided under the U.S. National System of Marine Protected areas, and a general estimate of the percentage of U.S. coastal waters within each.

- Uniform Multiple-use; MPAs or zones with a consistent level of protection, allowable activities or restrictions throughout the protected area. Extractive may be restricted for natural or cultural resources examples: most common type include sanctuaries, natural and state parks - Zoned Multiple-Uses: MPAs that allow some extractive activities throughout the entire site, but that use marine zoning to allocate specific uses compatible places to times in order to reduce user conflicts and adverse impacts. Examples: increasingly common, marine sanctuaries etc. - No take: MPAs or zones that allow human access and even some potentially harmful uses, but that totally prohibit the extraction or significant destruction of natural and cultural resources .This includes Papahanamakuakea Marine National Monument, which allows very limited subsistence fish activates by native Hawaiians by permit. - No Impact- allow human access but that prohibit all activities that could harm the sites resources. Eg fishing or extraction of any kind - No access- MPAs or zones that restrict all human access to the area in order to prevent potential ecological disturbance unless specifically designated special uses eg research.

List and describe the primary drivers of coastal community vulnerability to sea level rise. What areas of the world are most vulnerable?

- Vulnerability due to magnitude of sea-level rise, coastal population, and coastal development. - Asia has densely populated deltas and high populations in low-lying areas; - Africa has low elevations of development and expectation of rapid population growth. - Small island states experience the largest impacts (Maldives, Tuvalu).

Explain the overall general emerging pattern of marine defaunation.

- vulnerability of large long-lived vertebrates (manatees, sea turtles, large fish, sharks) - collapse of ecosystem engineers that maintain habitat (reef-building coral, sea grasses, oysters, kelp) - time lag between effects of overfishing and collapse of ecosystem engineers - fishing down food webs. smaller and smaller fishes (sea urchins, lobsters, shrimps) replace larger animals - rise of microbes. fishing down marine food webs and increasing pollution from land (ex. eutrophication)

List and describe three environmental impacts of coastal aquaculture production.

1- Habitat loss/ modification- 70-80% of Mangroves in Phillipines or Vietnam now ponds for shrimp and other sea foods 2- Waste Release- antibiotics, chemicals, excess nutirents 3- Overfishing- wild seed, broodstock, fish meal and fish oil 4- Salinization

Briefly explain the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, including objective(s) or the convention and the general framework.

1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) First Convention 4 treaties in 1958, left Open breadth of territorial waters Another one Formation on peaceful using of sea bed, 1973 Conference ended 1982 agreeing to new UN convention Comprehensive treaty- 1. Navigation rights 2. Limits on zones 3. Continental shelf 4. Deep sea mining 5. Protection of environment 6. Marine research 7. Settling disputes

Describe United Nations objectives for increasing Marine Protected Areas and progress towards reaching those objectives.

1992 UN CBD Rio Earth Summit - agenda 21 calls on coastal states to maintain biological diversity and productivity under national jurisdiction through management of protected areas 2002 Rio +10 calls for establishment of MPAs by 2012 as part of suite of tools to promote ocean conservation 2006 - CBD adopts target for at least 10% of each of the world's marine and coastal ecological regions to be effectively conserved by 2010 (extended to 2020) Progress - total ocean are protected rose by over 150% from 2003-2010, equal to 1.2% of marine areas, with focus on continental shelf areas (4.3%), fully protected or no-take areas cover only a small portion of MPAs (large proportion are ineffective or only partially effective), not distributed evenly across ecoregions

Describe the history of marine spatial planning as a component of U.S. National Ocean Policy, focusing on 2009 to present.

2010 - National Ocean Policy - came out of June 2009 presidential memorandum that calls for recommended framework for effective marine/coastal spatial planning • National Ocean Task Force • Final recommendations July 2010 adopted by executive order which established the National Ocean Council (replaces U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy) • Regional planning bodies June 2013 - NOP Implementation Plan July 2013 - Marine Planning Handbook March 2015 - Report on Implementation of NOP

Using the Atlantic cod moratorium as an example, explain how conservation efforts focused on one species can have beneficial effects on other species in the ecosystem.

4 years- shrimp quadrupled and other things go up, FISHING DOWN FOOD WEB Now concerns of shellfish overfishing Capelin was its prey so it probably has been growing in population

Describe observed impact(s) of aboriginal fishing on marine species, using the California Channel Islands as an example.

Aboriginal Phase- primitive watercraft and fishing tech 10-15 thousand years ago. Saw extinction of large terrestrial species, no evidence of same effect in oceans, but there is an observed decrease in size of certain species, abundance and range. Large ecosystem modifications and collapses example from CA extinction of large terrestrial species decrease in size abundance in range large ecosystem modifications resources collapse California Channel Islands: First colonized 300,000 yrs ago and by Europeans in 1542 1820 abalone completely removed. Productivity supported by upwelling of nutrient rich water. Kelp supports diverse food web. Shellfish eat kelp, including mussels and sea urchins. Those are eaten by lobsters, sea otters, and birds. Sea otters generally control shellfish population. Large increase in number of abalone shells, due to increase in hunting of sea otters for pelts. Shellfish then becomes larger part of diet as sea otters are hunted. AS sea otters decrease, the kelp is destroyed by urchin explosion. Increase barren areas called "sea urchin barrens" aboriginal phase: seemed temporary, fluctuations, not long lasting. Sea otters reduced but continued to be hunted until European colonial phase. (they also hunted otters bald eagles and others till near extinction) Local fisheries enter period of near extinction and collapse

Describe the zoning approach used to manage the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.

Breaks up the reef area into zones - general use, habitat protection, conservation park, buffer, national park, and preservation · 1975 - designated the Great Barrier Reef as a multiple-use marine park · 1981 - first plan · Zoning maps required to reach objectives · Try to facilitate multiple uses and minimize conflicts · Between 1990 and 2004 - Existing zones were recognized as not effective for tourism and wanted to maintain tourism in high-use areas. Also can better map out areas through GPS Through process of updating, national park zone increased dramatically

List and briefly describe three U.S. federal laws providing for Marine Protected Areas.

Coastal Zone Management Act (1972) - grants available for states to protect coastal resources, established National Estuarine Research Reserve Systems National Marine Sanctuaries Act (1972) - sanctuaries protect areas of special conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, aesthetic, or other value The Antiquities Act (1906) gives the president authority to protect natural and cultural objects through designation of a national monument - 2009 Marine National Monument Program - marine protected area 3x larger than California created under the Antiquities Act

Provide examples of demonstrated ecological benefits of Marine Protected Area(s).

Coral cover - there is more coral cover in MPAs because fish eat algae and when you have less of those fish the algae can come in and affect coral from rebounding from bleaching events. Can cope better with extreme weather that damage corals. MPAs support larger fish populations

Describe Regional Fishery Council and NOAA roles in conserving essential fish habitat, including specific action(s) taken by each.

Council role 1. Describe and identify EFH by life stage 2. Develop maps to display geographic locations of EFH 3. Designate habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs) 4. Minimize adverse effects of fishing 5. Review and update EFH information every 5 years 6. Consult with NOAA on federal actions or proposed actions that may impact EFH Optional: Weigh in on non-fishing actions that may NOAA ROLE: Consult on non fishing actions that may adversely affect EFH

Describe the Republican response to President Obama's National Ocean Policy, as articulated by the House Committee on Natural Resources.

Criticizes the plan of "zoning the oceans" or "ocean zoning", as well as imposing more bureaucracy and top down politics on states. They said the website isn't updated, and the Appendix to the National Ocean Policy Plan needs to be more clear. Some sort of paper came out responding to all the concerns?

Describe criticisms of the concept of marine spatial planning, both from the perspective of ocean conservationists and users of marine space (e.g., oil and gas developers, boaters).

Currently, very few management efforts address multiple stressors in such a holistic manner. Rather, management, even that which begins on a basis of integrated coastal and ocean management and an ecosystem approach, continues to proceed largely on an issue-specific or sectoral basis. Statoil Company - specifically, we are concerned with how CMSP will be implemented on the Outer Continental Shelf, an area already subject to rigorous planning and balancing under the OCS Lands Act. In order to prevent unnecessary delays and duplicative permitting requirements, the NOC should exempt the shelf and associated areas from the scope of anticipated CMSP activities Boat Owners Association - in order for CMSP to receive recreational boating stakeholder support the benefits of such activities must be clearly articulated. Without a clear understanding of what CMSP is and is not, boaters will likely draw the conclusion that such planning is only being undertaken to exclude them from large areas to which they currently have access or in some ill-defined objective of 'protection.'

List and describe management options available to address overfishing.

Decrease Fishing- decrease gear, capacity reduction by reducing amount of boats, better monitoring and tracking to reduce amount of allowable catch per boat, close off areas completely, catch shares dedicated access privileges, fisheries certification (sustainable labels and sold at higher price), +'s most important in each part of world

Compare and explain the history of terrestrial and marine defaunation, including similarities and differences, providing explanations for each.

Defaunation: Loss of species and populations of wildlife, as well as local declines in abundance of individuals. Closer and closer today, more marine species being lost. Similar to the same type of huge species loss on land 10 thousand to 100 thousand years ago. Similarities: Human caused (began when humans started to populate or exploit the resources), Loss from initially hunting then from habitat loss Differences: terrestrial defaunation primarily occurred 10 to 100 thousand years ago. "Defaunation has ancient origins on land but has intensified only within the last several hundred years in the oceans" Examples: Can we just say something like mammoths and seaturtles like on the graph or did he give us any specific species?

List and describe projected impacts of sea-level rise on coastal ecosystems.

Disappearance of some low-lying islands Submergence and increases in flooding of coastal land Saltwater intrusion Increased erosion Habitat destruction in coastal areas As water rises: f. High tides will become higher (increased risk of flooding) g. Waves that reach the coast are larger (can create a lot of damage) h. Wave energy reaching coast is greater i. Ability of the waves to destroy (erode) the land is greater j. Flooding along the coast will be more widespread k. High tides will become higher (increased risk of flooding) l. Waves that reach the coast are larger (can create a lot of damage) m. Wave energy reaching coast is greater n. Ability of the waves to destroy (erode) the land is greater o. Flooding along the coast will be more widespread

1. Describe the Newfoundland Atlantic Cod case study as an example of overfishing. Include the following: (1) driver(s) of overfishing, (2) history of the total catch from the 1800s to present, (3) history of fishing methods, (4) the role of Canadian fishery policies and the total allowable catch (TAC); (4) the impact(s) of Canadian and foreign fishing; (5) Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) computer fishing models; (6) impacts of the Cod fishery closure; and (7) multiple stressors impacting Atlantic Cod populations.

Drivers of overfishing: Anyone know any other drivers? Near religious belief of abundance of cod based on 500 years of collective memory Fish landings increasing from 1850-1960 HUGE increase in 1950s HUGE decrease in 60's to 80's Then total collapse in 1990s Grand Banks fishery around Newfoundland, Gulf stream and mixing of currents, overall churning Not as much stratification , moving nutrients Atlantic cod spawn on floor and huge fishery can be here on the shelf History of Total Catch from 1800s to present: 1986-1990: Battles over the TAC 1986 (266,000 tonnes): Newfoundland Inshore Fisheries Association commissions critical scientific review of DFO stock estimates and TAC — Keats report; DFO ignores. 1988 (266,000 tonnes): Canada's scientific advisory group advised 125,000 tonnes; would have been devastating' to Newfoundland fishing communities 1990 (190,000 tonnes): Compromise between ecological and economic/social interests John Crosbie — Minister of Fisheries and Oceans: "We have opted for the upper end of the scientific advice, always striving to get the last pound of fish." History of Fishing Methods - Colonial fishing: Net or line fishing. Smaller boats went out from bigger boats May from September. Lowered in morning gathered at night. - Industrial Trawlers: First foreign trawler after WWII to Newfoundland area, Trawlers drag along bottom, o 1954 when first trawler was there o English soviets west Germans tripled fish landings due to trawlers, peaked in 1966 - 1900's industrialization of grand bank fishery, Also had drift nets along with trawlers 1960's-1970's fish stock tanks and employment with it due to overfishing and foreign fishing - 1977 EEZ o Push foreigners out. Candians thought that with sole access to the fisheries it would recover o Subsidies and fishing gear improvements has Canada improve its fishing capabilities mid 1980's o Second peak Role of Canadian Fishery policies and TAC: mostly ignoring the advice of scientists in favor of sustaining the economy of the fishery. They believed the EEZ would be enough, Created more fishing and a second peak in catch after the EEZ was put into place by providing subsidies to Canadian fishermen Subsidies and fishing gear improvements has Canada improve its fishing capabilities mid 1980's The computer fishing models: Models to Determine How Many Atlantic Cod are in the Grand Banks Data (recreation, commercial, and scientific reporting) -> model -> incorporate all data into model of knowledge of science assessing status of stocks better assessments based on better data leads to regulations grounded in sound science-> Setting Catch targets Model limitations · Data uncertainty (commercial v. scientific observations · Scientific uncertainty and biological assumptions · Single species vs multispecies ecosystem connections · Assumptions regarding ocean environmental factors (homogenous stationary) · Ignored that recruitment was falling as spawning stock declines Fish being decimated in some areas but fishers just moving, therefore having them report how many fish they are catching as a model for sustainable fishing was not a good measure They thought 266,000 was sustainable and populations were okay but scientists disagreed. Model was wrong and that was ignored into 1990. Impacts of the Cod Closure: help Multiple Stressors Atlantic Cod Collapse due to Multiple Stressors Over fishing Habitat disturbance (bottom trawlers) Climatic variability (regional water coolers) Prey abundance (capelin) Predator abundance (harp seals) Migration

List two benefits of marine spatial planning each for ecological/environmental benefits, economic benefits, and social benefits.

Ecological/ Environmental benefits: identification of biological and ecological important area, biodiversity objectives incorporated into planned decision-making, identification and reduction of conflicts between human use and nature, allocation of space for biodiversity and nature conservation, establish context for planning a network of marine protected areas, and identification and reduction of the cumulative effects of human activities on marine ecosystems Economic benefits: greater certainty of access to desirable areas for new private sector investments, frequently amortized over 20-30 years, identification of compatible uses within the same area of development, reduction of conflicts between incompatible uses, improved capacity to plan for new and changing human activities, including emerging technologies and heir associated effects, better safety during operations of human activities, promotion of the efficient use of resources and space, and streamlining and transparency in permit and licensing procedure. Social benefits: improved opportunities for community and citizen participation, identification of impacts of decisions on the allocation of ocean space (eg. closure areas for certain uses, protected areas) for communities and economics onshore (eg. employment, distribution of income), identification and improved protection of cultural heritage, identification and preservation of social and spiritual values related to ocean use

Describe recent congressional effort(s) to alter the Magnuson Stevens Act.

Expired at end of 2013- interest in reauthorization, every time there is a debate on amendments. Bills in congress would relax requirements

Provide one example of habitat restoration techniques to restore coastal/marine fisheries.

Fisheries Management Tools How to enforce the MSY · Gear · Boats · Total allowable catch reduction · Areas that are closed · Subsidies

List and briefly explain three examples of conflicts between different users of marine areas.

I have been looking for a while for this one but can't find anything in the notes. I am thinking something along the lines of: fishing industry, oil extraction, and environmentalists in conflict with one another each wanting to reserve space in the area for their specific interest.

Describe U.S. EPA ballast water regulations, including consistency with U.S. Coast Guard ballast water regulations.

If you follow USCG regulations you will be in tandem with EPA regulations When a vessel has adequately undertaken these measures, as well as any other reasonably available or appropriate measures under the circumstances to minimize the extent or the effects of the VGP ballast water numeric discharge exceedance, EPA will consider such violations of the 2013 VGP ballast water numeric discharge limit a low enforcement priority

Briefly describe the philosophy behind marine spatial planning/area-based planning.

Instead of focusing on one species or habitat it looks at the whole ecosystem for sustainability plans. Ecosystem based management "comprehensive integrated management of human activities based on the best available science knowledge about the ecosystem and its dynamics in order to id and take action on influences which are critical to the health of marine ecosystems, thereby achieving sustainable use of goods and services and maintenance of ecosystem integrity Marine Spatial Planning- Strategic forward looking planning, Increasing use of marine space, potential for conflict between interests, Major outcome to minimize conflict

Describe the lionfish invasion of the Atlantic, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, including (1) introduction vector; (2) history of invasion; (3) potential future range; (4) ecosystem impacts; (5) reasons why the lionfish is a the consummate invader; (6) and management options to address invasion.

Introduction Vector: popular ornamental fish and was released off East Florida Coast via the aquarium trade History of Invasion: dispersal was accomplished though ocean currents when fish were in eggs/ larval stages Potential Future Range- as far north as Carolinas and as far south as the coast of Brazil Ecosystem Impacts: - Coral reef systems- under pressure already, so the introduction of a predatory reef fish reduces forage fish biomass, and has the potential to increase algal growth, and competition with native reef fish - Capable of removing all forage fish biomass in certain systems. Might fish down the food web afterwards. - Occupy vacant ecological niche of fish eaters- hard to bring thos populations back from human overfishing problems. Bad for fish stock rebuilding programs Why lionfish is a consummate Invader: - Broad diet, high physical tolerance, fast growth, large native range, high tropic status, long lifespan, large reproductive season, large egg diameter - Mostly found on coral reefs but has ability to live in different habitats including sea grass beds, mangroves, and artificial structures - Unique and effective predators of smaller fish (1-2 an hour) Impervious to predation, defend with long venomous fin spines. - Resistant to parasites Management Options: import basins, localized efforts (lionfish derbies), develop fast action removal teams for areas of high ecological and economic importance, establish temporary lionfish fisheries and markets, employ existing snapper-grouper fishery resources to offset closures, develop ne fishery methods, regional control via natural agents of biotic resistance (pathogens, parasite, predators), fishing restrictions/ marine reserves for lionfish

Which marine animals face the greatest extinction threat? Why?

Large species with terrestrial contact are the most at risk (eg sea turtles) Some species that have been winners, smaller and faster reproducing, due to harvesting of their predators (eg marine invertebrates). Most likely a temporary effect As their predators disappear, start fishing down food web and then they will become affected.

List and define three alternative types of marine extinction other than complete global species extinction.

Local extinction - geographic range constriction; 90% of large pelagic fish Ecological Extinction: reductions in abundance to point where species no longer perform functional roles ("empty reefs", "empty estuaries") Commercial extinction: no longer economically viable to harvest (ex. grey whales) not all animals subject to commercial extinction never too rare to be fished (ex. bluefin tuna, rare sea cucumbers)

Describe historical trends from 1950 to present of the total amount of global marine fish capture production and aquaculture.

Loss of Marine Habitat is accelerating [trends graph we see all the time] Increasing trends dramatic since 1950: Nitrogen fixation, Haber process and eutrophication. Coral loss and hypoxic zones. Focus on wild fish harvest. No data before 1950 but a huge increase after that time. Increase was steady, then abruptly stopped in 1990s and fluctuating around that level since Invasive species All in all a large increase in last 56 years Concern that we are about to have a huge loss in biodiversity in the ocean primarily due to overfishing

Describe the concept of maximum sustainable yield (MSY), including how fish populations are assumed to be effected when fishing below, at, or above the MSY.

Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) - the largest average catch of yield that can continuously be taken from a stock under existing environmental conditions. How Populations are Affected: Above MSY: Overfishing- occurs whenever a fishery is subjected to a rate of fish mortality that jeopardizes the capacity of a stock to produce MSY on a continuing basis (when level>MSY) • Exploitation rate- proportion of population at beginning of a given time period that is caught during a time period (usually annually) eg 72000 fish were caught during year from a population of 1 million at beginning of year exploitation rate would be 0.72 At MSY- point of maximum catch where the fishery can still be considered sustainable Below MSY- Rebuilding, intentionally fishing below the MSY in order to restore fish stocks or population. Recruitment- amount of fish added to exploitable stock each year from growth and/ or migration. EG fish that grow and more look at glossary Fisheries Management- MSY % of Maximum and exploitation rate MSY at top of arch Increase in Overfishing 1974-2011 Any species considered under fished are not desirable 71% overfished? Tapped out ability to catch more fish. Most stocks overfished or fully fished Able to fish more if we REBUILD POPULATIONS

Be prepared to describe in one or two sentences the progress (or lack thereof) of each of the nine regional planning bodies in developing a regional Coastal and Marine Spatial Plan consistent with the original intent of the National Ocean Policy.

Mid-Atlantic Yes. Has created and approved a regional planning framework. Has created a timeline to create an action plan but needs more stakeholder and public opinions, as well as funding. Caribbean- null Great Lakes yes • 2006: GLRC issues GLRC Implementation Framework • 2010: Obama issues National Ocean Policy and CMSP Zones • 2013: National Ocean Council unveils National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan • 2013: State and tribal agencies in the process of organizing comprehensive team to carry out CMSP Implementation Plan Pacific Islands- null South Atlantic yes, under own governing body The South Atlantic was recognized by the March 2015 White House Report as one of the regions that did not make a "regional planning body." They instead choose to set up their own governing body to implement CMSP in the Governors South Atlantic Alliance. Alaska/ Arctic No This region has not formed a regional planning body because the state of Alaska believes that the CMSP would place unnecessary regulatory burden on fishermen and developers. However the Executive Order also enacted a Strategic Action Plan that addresses environmental issues in the Arctic. Gulf of Mexico North East West Coast

Describe the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, criticisms, and impacts on coastal development.

Minimum federal building standards for flood-prone areas and federally backed flood insurance Managed by FEMA Program has been criticized for promoting vulnerable development o Premiums not high enough o Grandfathering low premiums o Spending more money that it recovers through premiums o 2012 amendments to address some of these issues (biggert-waters act) o 2014 amendments to remove some of the 2012 amendments improve affordability (homeowner flood insurance affordability act)

How do subsidies impact overfishing? Describe the most important subsidy.

Most important: fuel subsidies Subsidies- In certain parts of world (eg africa and asia) computing not mandated by federal bureaucracies Reduction in subsidies , primarily fuel price reduction subsides reduction. If industries paying full price of diesel fuel they wouldn't be overfishing as much. Issues with Subsidies: beneficial vs. non beneficial (capacity enhancing eg. Developing ports, tax exemptions, storage, most important is fuel subsidy difference in price in fuel paid by fishers and national price, influenced by political or social concerns without concerns for sustainability)

Describe U.S. Coast Guard ballast water regulations.

Must use one of the following methods to ensure the removal of potential invasive species: - Install and operate a USCG- approved ballast water management system - Use only water from a US public water system ballast - Perform ballast water exchange 200 NM from shore until a vessel is required to use an approved ballast water management system - Retain all ballast water onboard the vessel - Discharge ballast to an onshore treatment facility or another vessel for treatment Vessels may request extensions, excludes domestic port-to-port transit, CG-approved technologies aren't yet available and there are currently no land-based treatment systems.

How are non-fishing activities covered under the Magnuson-Stevens Act essential fish habitat? Provide an example.

NOAA advises on non fishing actions that may adversely affect the EFH, examples include oil rigs and community development

Provide and briefly explain examples of invasive species introduced by the following vectors: (1) purposeful introduction; (2) canals; (3) marine aquarium trade.

Purposeful Introduction: Chinook salmon in South America purposefully introduced to try to create a fishery. The salmon increased in range- reducing diversity, altering disease transmission, re distributing pollutants and disrupting the food web. Canals: Red sea species invaded the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal which opened in 1869, 50-90% of fish biomass was overwhelmed by invasive species. Increasing salinity and sea water temperatures make Red Sea Species more successful over native species. Marine Aquarium Trade: green algae caulerpa taxifolia in CA from aquarium trade

Describe the selected approach to mitigate elevated selenium in Newport Bay and its tributaries, including challenges with this approach.

Santa Ana Delhi Channel diversion project - water flows to the sanitation district and to the ocean outfalls Problems - the ocean outfall was at it selenium limit to comply with NPDES permits, but need to increase the amount of selenium that's eventually going to the ocean outfall.

Describe the objective of ballast water exchange, how it works, and limitations.

Ship takes on coastal ballast water in one port. As it crosses the coastal water for mid ocean water, when ship reaches its next ort, it discharges the mid-ocean water. Eliminates 70-99% of organisms, takes many hours, using extra fuel and adding time, in some cases is unsafe so cannot be conducted, short coastal trips must deviate

Describe the history of the Chesapeake Bay oyster fishery from the 1800s to present, and the most important ecosystem-level impact of oyster overfishing.

THEM: • oyster reefs used to be major boating hazard • habitat and important ecosystem function - water column filtration • in 1880's it would only take 4 days to filter the bay • fisheries expand from population centers • fishing down the coasts YOU: Generally, overfishing began with "fishing down the coast" away from urban centers. Oysters are taken to reseed oyster beds in areas that have been depleted (is this just current?) - Before oyster reefs were major boating hazards because they were so large. Habitat and ecosystem function: o water column filtration o decreases microbial content of water o Addresses overall eutrophication issues. More oysters= less eutrophication o Filtering the Bay: 1880 only 3.6 days, 1988 228 days, 2003- 700 days - 1880 fishing from Chesapeake larger than anywhere on eastern shore - Collapse in late 1800's led to oyster fishing further south than the Chesapeake - Economically important until early 1900's reduced primarily due to overfishing - Currently operating at 1% of 19th century levels - Ecosystem engineers lost (oysters)- shift to benthic based ecosystems, this is an ecosystem level impact of over fishing - Entire ecosystem shifts to benthic based instead of oyster and shellfish (bigger) based - Failure to reestablish oyster beds, even though there have been efforts Ecosystem Level Impact Restoration Effort Effectiveness: - Tributary based approach instead of bay wide - Best tributaries to establish local oyster bed restoration - Goal of 20 restored tributaries by 2025 - Study leads to reduced goal of 10 restored tributaries by 2025

Describe hard stabilization and impacts to longshore drift, coastal deposition and erosion. Use the Santa Barbara Harbor as an example.

The Santa Barbara Harbor used a breakwater as a hard stabilization tool. The breakwater uses longshore drift along the coast to its advantage as the drift pushes sand up on the breakwater and develops new deposition in front of the water break. This also creates an area by erosion passed the water break.

Describe the composition and role of the U.S. National Ocean Council.

The council consists of- - the chair of the council on Environmental Quality and the Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, - Cabinet members (secretaries of state, defense, interior, health and human services, commerce, labor, transportation, energy, and Homeland Security, the attorney general, EPA admin, and more) - National security advisor - Federal gov employee designated by VP - Other designations Role: Council shall provide appropriate direction to ensure that executive departments', agencies', or offices' decisions and actions affecting the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes will be guided by the stewardship principles and national priority objectives set forth in the Final Recommendations, to the extent consistent with applicable law

Describe the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), including driver(s) of the law, objective of the act, and how it is implemented.

The main objectives are to preserve protect develop and where possible restore or enhance the resources of the nation's coastal zone. A key feature of CZMA was the creation of a partnership among federal, state local governments- the state coastal management program.

Describe Maryland's CZMA Coastal Management Program. (More is needed)

The program is designed to collaborate many different organizations and agencies to ensure proper management of Maryland's entire coast.

Briefly describe animal welfare implications of the Canadian commercial seal hunt, including the effectiveness of Canadian regulations.

There are many animal welfare concerns in the Canadian Commercial Seal Hunt mainly stemming from unclear and poorly enforced sealing regulations (Marine Mammal Regulations) that are inconsistent with accepted principles of humane slaughter making them very ineffective at preventing seal suffering, however they are effective at keeping the seal population sustainable.

How has global commercial shipping changed from the 1990s to present? What global route(s) have seen the greatest change?

There has been a lot of increase in shipping traffic all over the world since 1990. The world's busiest shipping lanes are concentrated in the Arabian Sea and bay of Bengal in Asia.

According to the Halpern et al. (2007) cumulative impact mapping study, what are the greatest environmental threats, and most threatened ecosystems?

Threats - increasing sea temperature, demersal destructive fishing, and point-source organic pollution Ecosystems - rock reef, coral reef, hard shelf, mangrove, and offshore epipelagic are most threatened

Describe the concept of "co-management" in regards to coastal management in Maine

Town managed and state managed clam-flats. Town managed clam-flats had many parties involved with concerns and needs of the town are met. State managed did not meet town's needs.

Describe the Caulerpa taxifola marine invasive species case study in California, including the introduction vector, policy response and observed effectiveness.

Vector - aquarium stores - single vector o Ornamental trade o Certain parts of the state decided to ban it o Not edible and fast growing o Cold water clone was developed o First invaded Mediterranean, then Australian o Millions of dollars of radical removal efforts o San Diego included entire genius - late 2001 o Study went to retail aquarium stores before and after ban No affect sales increased more after

Describe why Marine Spatial Planning is needed in the State of Washington as described by the Washington Department of Ecology.

Washington state needs spatial planning due to increasing pressures, demands of existing solutions, new uses, conflicts among uses and lots of governments and authorities. State law definition of marine spatial planning is a public process of analyzing and allocating the spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine environments to achieve ecological economic and social objectives.

Describe how ballast water discharge spreads invasive species.

When the ballast water is brought aboard the vessel, it is possible that species will be brought in with the waters as generally water near a port is abundant with species. Then, when the vessels goes to another port and releases its water, the species is introduced to a new environment and will use its abilities to survive in the new environment.

Describe observed/projected impact(s) of climate change on marine invasive species.

ncrease ocean temperatures - Change in ocean circulation and currents - Change in habitat as caused by rising sea level - Ocean acidification - Alteration of species range- warming - Increase in coral bleaching, dead coral habitat for seaweed species - Week 2: sea surface temps increase 1 degree since 1900 and already seeing these impacts - More submerge red habitat available - Invasive algae's more successful when native weakened by impacts of climate change - Local species extinction and pole ward migration - Turnovers over 60% consistent with increased number of species in North Sea - Tropics high rate of local extinction, sensitivity to temp, move to cooler habitats - Caribbean creep, invasion of bay and other waterways off coast of Georgia and Carolinas, invasion by tropical or subtropical species able to move north due to warmer temps - Green porecelean crab (interrupt natural food web, small crabs, serve as food source for native predators, huge increaces in predators, damage reef system), caprella acaura, creedonia succinea - Caribbean Creep reduced by temporary cold spells - With climate change, high latitude invasions may increase - Less sea ice and more transport, more invasion in these areas - Rigorously evaluate if species could survive in these colder regions bay barical

Describe the issue of 'tankbusters' as relating to the marine aquarium trade and invasive species, measure(s) to address this problem, and how these may effect aquarium businesses.

when aquarium stores are selling species that are inappropriate for most casual aquarium owners. More likely to release the fish when it grows out of the juvinille stage it was bought in and more likey to become an invasive species. Costly? Don't want to deal with it? Space?

List and describe five pathways for vectors for invasive species introduction.

· Ballast water: water withdrawn/ discharged by large tankers to manage ship level during transport · Biofouling: community of organisms that colonize and grown on vessel surface · Aquaculture · Live seafood · Ornamental species trade - accidental release due to consumers not knowing the true size of marine species, who then put them in the wild. ·Marine debris · Intentional release: stocking, seeding, biocontrol ·Canals

Describe ecological, economic, and human-health impacts of marine invasive species introduction.

· altered community structure/ecological function, food-web structure, nutrient dynamics; local extinction economic impacts on fisheries, infrastructure, tourism o great lakes zebra - mussel invasion o Chesapeake bay oyster fishery decline due to introduced marine pathogen Human health risks: increased in frequency of toxic red tide transfer of cholera to south and central America in ballast water tanks

List which part(s) of the world currently dominate global marine fish catch, and describe how fish capture trends are increasing, decreasing or are steady in different parts of the world.

• 40% of fisheries are for export o Main exporters are China Norway and Thailand o Importers Japan, US, China, and EU Union (all together is largest importer) o China- movement of human labor, fish caught around world are processed in China and shipped out again, sometimes to where they were from. Also driven by consumption of non-native consumption o Others are domestic consumption increases and declining fisheries, import fish mostly from asia

Describe ecological impacts of marine freshwater production (i.e., desalination).

• Brings in seawater, separates salts, provides freshwater to customers, and leaves salty concentrated brine wastewater. • Direct seawater intakes (2 gallons withdrawn for every 1 gallon of freshwater produced) o Impingement - fish and other large organisms are trapped on the intake screen, resulting in injury or death o Entrainment - organisms small enough to pass through the intake screen (plankton, fish eggs, larvae) killed during salt water processing o Impacts equal the loss of biological productivity of thousands of acres of habitat o Alternative is indirect intake (subsurface) - a pipe that goes underneath the sea bed or draws in water from saltwater intrusion zones • Brine disposal - release of chemical additives, salinity, heavy metals, increased temperature, low dissolved oxygen (regulated as a NPDES permit) • Energy intensive

Describe multiple stressors impacting coral reef systems, including interaction(s) among the stressors.

• Elevated seawater temperatures - increased because of El Nino and climate change, bleaching occurs • Sea-level change - projected sea-level rise rate is greater than coral reef growth rates • Storm impacts - predicted increase in frequency and severity of high energy storms could damage coral • Overfishing - removal of herbivores allows for macro-algae to overgrow corals • Coastal pollution - coral reefs sensitive to water quality changes including sediment, nutrients/hypoxia, reduced pH, herbicides/pesticides, metals • Invasive species - pathogens/parasites • Mass bleaching events are more common when a combination of stressors is present (synergistic) o Ocean acidification and ocean warming - acidification makes it more difficult to maintain their shells and to recover from bleaching events caused by warming o Coral bleaching more likely in high-nutrient waters o Metal pollution and invasive species o Hypoxia thresholds decrease with ocean warming

Describe the general approach for cumulative impact mapping. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach for evaluating multiple stressors?

• Expert surveys to rank impacts of multiple stressors to individual ecosystems • Map presence of stressors, map presence of ecosystems • For each location calculate cumulative stress (cumulative impact factor) based on presence of stressors, expert survey impacts, and presence of ecosystems • Correlate ground-truthed "human impact categories" Advantages Looking at the response of single species of organisms is not a good way to estimate how communities of species and larger ecosystems will respond to multiple stressors. By conducting these tests scientist can get a more holistic view Disadvantages - didn't account for marine debris or mercury, would be of limited usefulness for local/regional areas, results may be influenced by scientific expertise and geography of respondents

Describe specific methods for sustainable aquaculture.

• Farm siting- ability of environment to assimilate wastes, minimize important habitat loss • Farm and effluent management • Mangrove friendly aquaculture, integrate seaweed, bivalve, fish cages with mangrove habitat • Disease control • Low trophic level speceis (less fishmeal based pellets native species)

Describe the 2012 New York City plan: "A Stronger, More Resilient New York", including why the plan was developed, what it addresses, and proposed initiatives.

• For adaptation and resilience; developed in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy • Colony first developed in 1600s and was expanded as population increased. They moved outwards with development - filling in streams and marshes to be closer to ports. Built piers, wharves and docks. Over time they added land as well. Held the land in place by retaining walls, etc. at low elevation • Hurricane Sandy flooded NYC and subway system. 43 people died, primarily from drowning in areas where water rose rapidly. Destroyed hundreds of homes, impacted 70,000 business, developments lost power, heat, and hot water. Highlighted significant vulnerabilities of the infrastructure to flooding. • Ran many climate models (NYC panel on climate change) to project the flood plain in the future with sea-level rise. Increase of about 23% of floodplain area encompassing 800,000 people. By 2100 the NYC floodplain would be 72 square miles and over 100,000 buildings. • Initiatives for increasing resiliency o Climate analysis, coastal protection, buildings, insurance, utilities, liquid fuels, healthcare, community preparedness, transportation, environmental protection/remediation, water/wastewater o $20 billion - about what Sandy cost NYC

Describe the globalization of global fisheries from 1950 to 1990s, and what factor(s) led to expansion of fisheries during this time.

• Huge shift generally southwards from coast of Americans Canada and Europe to southern hemisphere waters and high seas further from coasts, o expansion at 1 degree latitudes per year greatest expansions in 1980s and 90s. • Populations increase and other increase drive fisheries further and further south and off shore. All this expansion explain blue graphs. • We have reached a point where there are no more productive fisheries left for use to expand into, hence concern o Only ones left are inaccessible arctic and unproductive open seas o Expansion only possible because of new fisheries to expand into, once that was all used up we reached peak production.

What is a Marine Spatial Plan? What should one expect to find within such a plan? How would the plan be used in practice?

• Marine spatial planning - analyzing and allocating parts of 3-dimensional marine spaces to specific uses or non-use, to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives that are usually specified through a political process • Characteristics of effective MSP o Ecosystem-based, balancing ecological, economic, and social goals towards sustainable development o Integrated, across sectors and agencies, and among levels of government o Place-based or area-based o Adaptive, capable of learning from experience o Strategic and anticipatory, focused on the long-term o Participatory, stakeholders actively involved in the process • Development and implementation o Identifying need and establishing authority, obtaining financial support, organizing through pre-planning, organizing stakeholder participation, defining and analyzing existing and future conditions, preparing and approving the plan

Describe the history of marine spatial planning in Massachusetts, including driver(s) for creating of the plan, goals and outcomes.

• Oceans Act of 2008 mandated development of comprehensive, integrated plan on a short timeline. • Goals include balance and protect the natural social cultural historic and economic interests of the marine ecosystem, recognize and protect biodiversity ecosystem health and the interdependence of ecosystems, support wise use of marine resources including renewable energy sustainable uses and infrastructure and incorporated new knowledge as the basis for management that adapts over time to address changing social technological and environmental conditions. • With hopeful outcomes including integrated ocean management plan, special sensitive unique resources identified and protected, areas and management standards for renewables and other uses

Describe objectives and methods of the U.S. National System of Marine Protected Areas.

• Purpose to strengthen the management, protection, and conservation or existing MPAs and establish new or expanded MPAs • Any area of marine environment that has been reserved for by Federal, state, territorial, tribal, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein • Doesn't create any new federal authorities or alter any existing laws/programs • Creates a registry of MPAs - defines different types of conservation and different levels of protection • Eligibility criteria o Area, marine environment, reserved, lasting, and protection o Have a management plan that addresses cultural and natural resources, as appropriate o Support at least one priority goal and conservation objective of the national system o Cultural heritage MPAs must also conform to criteria for including sites on the National Register of Historic Places

Describe the Magnuson Stevens Act (MSA). What is the overall objective of the law? How is it implemented?

• The MSA is the primary law governing marine fisheries management in United States federal waters. • was enacted to promote the U.S. fishing industry's optimal exploitation of coastal fisheries by "consolidating control over territorial waters" and establishing eight regional councils to manage fish stocks The MSA is a piece of US Federal Policy to set national annual catch limits based on best available science within each plan, best options, implement rebuilding plans a. Balance tension between long term resource and individual's right to fish; response to rapid increase in fishing b. States have authority over fishing 3 miles from shore c. US established Fishery Conservation Zone/ EEZ 200 miles from shore d. 8 regional fishery councils develop fishery management plans e. 1996 assessment of economic impacts rebuilding stocks required annual stock report f. 2006 mandates science based annual catch limits

Describe and explain trends from 1950 to present in trophic level of global marine fish capture.

• Trophic levels of marine food webs, mean trophic levels decreasing over time. • Overfish large species, more and more small species consumed, eg Shrimp and anchovies • Shift from long lived, large fish, high trophic level to low trophic level, short-lived fish • Fishing down food web

Describe the concept of "ecosystem-based fisheries management."

• multispecies vs. single species approach • recognizes that fishing creates many unintended effects on ecosystem structure and function • accounts for environmental stressors, species interactions, habitat loss Multi species vs. single species approach - Recognizes that fishing creates many unintended effects on ecosystem structure and function Accounts for environmental stressors, species interactions, habitat loss - Six conservation objectives 1. Ecosystem diversity 2. Species diversity 3. Genetic variability within species 4. Directly impacted species (DOESN'T KNOW) 5. Ecologically dependent species 6. Trophic level balance