fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval, or continuous reinforcement, Psychology - Operant and Classical Conditioning/Shaping & Chaining, Operant Conditioning, Psychology exam 1
Operational Definition
"A statement of the procedure used to define research variables" they should be: clear, concise, complete. operational definitions should improve reliability of observations.
Amygdala
"almond" consists of two lima bean-sized neural clusters. helps process emotions, especially fear and aggression
Wilhelm Wundt
"father of psychology" added two key elements help make psychology a science: 1.carefully measured observations 2. experiments
Hippocampus
"seahorse" processes conscious, episodic memories. works with the amygdala to form emotionally charged memories
Thalamus
"sensory switchboard" or the "router". these messages cross over from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain; made up of clusters of cell bodies or somas
cognitive psychology
(1960s) led the field back into early interests into mental processes. Scientifically explores how we perceive, process, and remember information
neural impulse
(Action potential) electrical signal traveling down the axon
classical conditioning
(also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell).
applied psychology
- first applied arm of psychology - concerened with every day, practical problems
of the following correlation coefficients, which one would allow the most accurate predictions of one variable based on the other variable? a: 0.00 b: +1.24 c: +0.65 d: -0.90
-0.90
siblings and parents share___ of their genes
50%
Stages of Sleep
90 minute cycles during 8 hours of sleep. duration of REM sleep increases the longer you remain asleep.
How was the process of classical conditioning achieved through the Duracell commercial a: UCS: inspirational story; UCR positive emotions; CS: Duracell battery; CR: positive emotion b: UCS: positive emotion; UCR: inspirational story; CS: positive emotion; CR: Duracell battery c: UCS: Duracell battery; UCR: positive emotion; CS:inspirational story; CR: positive emotion d: UCS: inspirational story; UCR: tendency to purchase batteries; CS deaf football player; CR:tendency to purchase batteries
;UCS: inspirational story; UCR positive emotions; CS: Duracell battery; CR: positive emotion
neurogenesis
? The formation of new neurons is most likely to occur in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus in humans and dentate gyrus of monkeys
continuous reinforcement
A car salesman who gets commission on each sale.
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned response to a neutral stimulus after the neutral and unconditioned stimulus has been paired
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A response that is normal and predictable - automatic, not learned
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior (Skinner, 1948).
Positive Reinforcement
ADDING a pleasant stimulus to INCREASE the likelihood of the behaviour repeating
Positive
ADDING a stimulus
Positive Punishment
ADDING an unpleasant stimulus to DECREASE the likelihood of the behaviour repeating
Latent Learning
Accidental learning - "learning" how to speak your native language
Punishment
An event that DECREASES the likelihood of a behaviour repeating
Reinforcement
An event that INCREASES the likelihood of a behaviour repeating
Sympathetic Nervous System
Arousing (Fight or Flight)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Based on the amount of time that goes by - happens at the same time - once every 24 hours
Continuous Schedule
Behavior is reinforced every single time - gives chocolate for doing something - extinction happens quickly
Partial schedule
Behavior is reinforced sometimes - won't know when to expect it - extinction takes longer
Behaviorism
Behaviorism: is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior; proposed that psychologists abandon the study of consciousness altogether and focus exclusively on behaviors that they could observe directly. nurture
Observational Learning
Behaviors learned from parents/the people somebody is around all the time
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Calming (Rest and Digest)
Introspection
Describing your subjective experience i.e. your sensations, using description as a way to speculate about how the mind works
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Does not cause a response
Chaining
Each step much be learned and lead to the next step - cheerleading, dealing with strong emotions
variable-interval
Every so often your friend comes in town to visit.
Change Blindness
Failing to notice changes in the environment
Right-Hemisphere
Feelings and intuition. language:tone, inflection, context. wholes, including the self.
Sigmund Freud
Founder of psychoanalysis thought processes and emotional response to childhood experiences affect our behavior
fixed-interval
Getting a small increase in an hourly wage every 6 months.
Punishment
Getting punched or something for what they did - take something they WANT away
Learned Helplessness
Giving up when you think that it is impossible for them to do something
Example of Negative Reinforcement
Hone receives a scholarship which pays for his student loan
fixed-interval
Honor roll is announced every 9 weeks and prizes are given out.
Negative Reinforcer
Increase of the frequency of the behavior that follows when they are removed - take an undesired item away so they want to repeat that behavior
Positive Reinforcer
Increases the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are applied - giving a person a reward for their behavior
Frontal Lobes
Involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements - largest lobe in the human brain - contains the principal areas that control the movement of muscles called the primary motor cortex
Example of Positive Punishment
Matilda gets a smack from her mum for being naughty
medial prefrontal cortex
Medial prefrontal cortex activity in social cognition tasks decreases during adolescence in 9 developmental fMRI studies; activity decreases during adolescent's period;
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Neutral stimulus that's been given meaning through the unconditioned stimulus - learned stimulus/taught behavior
how does extinction occur with a classically conditioned response
Occurs in classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus is consistently presented alone, without the unconditioned stimulus
Nature vs. Nurture
Psychology's biggest question
Negative Punishment
REMOVING a pleasant stimulus to DECREASE the likelihood of the behaviour repeating
Negative Reinforcement
REMOVING an unpleasant stimulus to INCREASE the likelihood of the behaviour repeating
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Random - very unpredictable
Variable-Interval Schedule
Random time set
Selective Inattention
Refers to our failure to notice part of our environment when our attention is directed elsewhere.
Negative
SUBTRACTING/REMOVING a stimulus
Primary Reinforcer
Satisfies biological needs such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual desire - giving a person food or something
major criticisms of Freud's theories
Scientists were offended and scandalized by Freud's emphasis on sex; unscientific explanation that would fade away
variable-interval
Slot machines at casinos payoff after a certain number of plays.
Secondary Reinforcer
Something that's paired with a primary reinforcer, classical conditioning - Money
variable-interval
Sometimes the mail is delivered at 1:00, sometimes at 3:00.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Stimulus that has a predictable response - automatic, not learned
How does introspection differ from stream of consciousness?
Stream of consciousness- flow of thoughts in the conscious mind Introspection- technique to understand the stream of consciousness
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Strict number of responses - every other time
fixed-interval
Students are released from class when the end-of-the-period bell rings.
variable-ratio
Sydney is trying to sell girl scout cookies door to door.
Example of Positive Reinforcement
Teremoana receives her first pay from her new job
Psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes
Nature
To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth?
Nurture
To what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment/experience?
Example of Negative Punishment
Toby's teacher confiscates his phone for using it during classtime
Structuralism
Using these introspective reports to build a view of the mind's structure
Shaping
Way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the total activity - complex behaviors - learning how to ride a bike
How does sampling bias impact research a: if the research participant wants to ensure he gives an appropriate or non- embarrassing response, the answer may not be accurate b: when the researchers expectations about the outcome of a study overcome objectivity, the results can be skewed in the researchers favor c: if research participants can figure out what the researcher is studying, the participants response might not be accurate d: When only certain people are likely to be included in a research study, it can provide data that is not representative of the population
When only certain people are likely to be included in a research study, it can provide data that is not representative of the population
who formed first psychology lab? what was his focus?
Wilhelm wundt; consciousness
fixed-ratio (continuous reinforcement)
You get a nickel for every soda can you return.
fixed-interval
You get paid every two weeks.
Corpus Callosum
a band of axons connecting the hemisphere. to end whole brain seizures, some people have had this severed.
Pons
a bridge of fibers that connects brainstem with the cerebellum; helps coordinate movement (make up brainstem with medulla)
higher order conditioning
a conditioned stimulus function as if it were an unconditioned stimulus :o Shows that classical conditioning does not depend on the presence of a genuine, natural US o In higher order conditioning, new conditioned responses are built on the foundation of already established conditioned responses
control group
a group that is the same in every way except the one variable we are changing.
synapse
a junction where info is transmitted from one neuron to another
conditioned response
a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning (salivation)
Survey
a method of gathering information about many people's thoughts or behaviors through self-report rather than observation
correlation coefficient
a number representing how closely and in what way two variables correlate. The direction can be positive or negative. -1.00 to 0.00 to +1.00
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response (the tone)
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (meat powder)
Correlation
an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other
unconditioned response
an unconditioned response is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning (salivation)
critisms of behaviorism
analysis of free will was often mistaken as an attack on the concept of free society
four key processes identified by bandura for observational learning
attention, retention , reproduction , motivation
bob loves Japanese food, and ate a lot at tokyo express. He got food poisoning and now when he sees smells or hears anything about asian food he feels sick. in this example what is the sick feeling when she encounters asian food a: an unconditioned response b: a conditioned response c: an unconditioned stimulus d: a conditioned stimulus
b: a conditioned response
Jermone has had a brain injury. once a courteous student, he has begun acting out in class and cant stop himself from shouting out in class. what part of his brain was likely affected by his injury? a: hippocampus b: prefrontal cortex c:thalamus c: cerebellum
b: prefrontal cortex
a large tiger walked into the room during your psyc 101 exam. likely your heart would start to race and may also begin to sweat. this is activating you ______________. as the tiger got bored and headed out of the room, you would find you heart slowing down and your breathing slowing down. this is your______________ at work. a:peripheral nervous system; central nervous system b: sympathetic nervous system; parasympathetic nervous system c: parasympathetic nervous system; sympathetic nervous system d: central nervous system; peripheral nervous system
b: sympathetic nervous system; parasympathetic nervous system
structuralism
based on idea that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related—structuralists wanted to identify and examine the fundamental components of conscious experience, like sensation, feelings, and images—research lab
functionalism
based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure—psychology should investigate the function rather than the structure of consciousness; James argued that structuralists missed mark as they were looking at points in the flow of consciousness whereas functionalism examines the flow itself—mental testing instead of sensation and perception
biopsychosocial
biology: genes, neurotransmitters, survival reflexes environment:social influences, culture, education psychology:thoughts, emotions, moods, choices, behaviors
Plasticity
brain is adaptable. the brain does not repair damaged neurons, but it can restore some functions.
clinical psychology
branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders
H.M. had his hippo-campus removed and had difficulty recalling certain memories. Based on your understanding of his case, what memory function is operated by the hippo campus a: short term storage of declarative memories b: long term storage of procedural memories c: consolidation of memories to long term storage d: retrieval of long term memories
c: consolidation of memories to long term storage
One of Freud's key contributions to the field of psychology was his introduction of the idea that ____ may play a role in the development of metal illness a: cognitions b: attitudes c: unconscious conflicts d: sexual behaviors
c: unconscious conflicts
introspection?
careful; systematic self- observation of ones own conscious experience
Sensory Neurons
carry messages in from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the CNS for processing
cerebrum
center of complex thought- sensing thinking learning emotion and voluntary movement - largest and most complex divided into two hemispheres
modern study of "consciousness" is referred to as?
cognitive perspective
Autonomic Nervous System
controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands
Medulla
controls the most basic functions such as heartbeat and breathing;hindbrain
Cerebellum
coordinate voluntary movement. enables nonverbal learning and memory.; depressed by alc; known as mini brain; hindbrain; movement and fine motor skills
Myelin Sheath
covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses; if it deteriorates, its signals may not be transmitted effectively
Opiate drugs bind onto the same receptor sites as the bodyies own endorphins and serve as agonists for endorphins. therefore opiate drugs tend to a: reduce anxiety b: increase the experience of pain c: increase anxiety and agitation d: relieve pain
d: relieve pain
rhaouls boss conducts quality control checkins by listening in on the phone calls about once a week. Rhaoul always makes sure he adheres to the phone call protocol in case his boss is listening in. this ins an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? a: fixed ratio b: variable ratio c: fixed interval d: variable interval
d: variable interval
sensory strip
deals with information from touch stimuli
prefrontal cortex development unique in adolescence
decision making planning inhibiting inappropriate behavior and social interaction -- shows that change a lot during adolescence gray matter volume increasing during childhood and peaks during early adolescence -- there is a decline in gray matter in the cortex
Positive correlation
direct relationship; both variables increase together
what neurotransmitter originates in the midbrain ?
dopamine -neurons that projects into various higher brain centers i. Dopamine system involved in the performance of voluntary movements ii. Decline in dopamine synthesis causes Parkinson's due to degeneration of a structure located in the midbrain
Limbic System
emotions such as fear and aggression. basic drives such as hunger and sex. the formation of episodic memories. loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas includes: hypothalamus, the hipposcampus, amygdala, olfactory bulb, and cingulate gyrus
Reticular Formation
enables alertness; runs through hindbrain and midbrain and is located a the central core of the brain stem; large roll in regulation of sleep and arousal
major tenets of evolutionary psychology?
examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of species over the course of many generations.
Case Study
examining one individual in depth
Functionalism
explored how mental and behavioral processes (i.e., what mental processes/behaviors DO), and who they enable the organism to adapt, survive and flourish
family studies twin studies adoption
family: to asses hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble on e another on a specific trait Twin: family members generally share not only genes but also similar environment adoption: to asses hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
gathers information from the body and sends CNS decisions out to the body
synaptic pruning
illuminatio of unwanted synapses
Temporal Lobes
include the auditory processing areas. auditory information is sent here.
Parietal Lobes
include the sensory cortex
Occipital Lobes
include the visual areas; they receive visual information from the opposite visual field-> crossover happens. deals with visual information
hindbrain:
includes cerebellum and medulla and pons
negative correlation
inverse relationship; as one increases the other decreases
Naturalistic Observation
just watching (and taking notes), and not trying to change anything. (describes behavior, does NOT explain behavior)
Hypothalamus
lies below ("hypo") thalamus. regulates body temperature and ensures adequate food and water intake (homeostasis), and is involved in sex drive-----the 4 f's fighting fleeing feeding and mating
why do adolescent take more risks than adults
limbic system is involved in things like reward and emotion processing gives kick out of taking risks- hypersensitive to reward feeling in adolescence-- still in development-- the prefrontal cortex stops the limbic system but is still in development
axon
long thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other muscles or glands
experimental group
manipulate the variable in this group of people
experimentation
manipulating one factor in a situation to determine its effect
brain plasticity
more malleable or changeable than assumed -- aspects of experience can actually shape features of brain structure
stimulus generalization
occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to a new stimulus that are similar to the original stimulus: Example: lady has bridge phobia because father scared her a a particular old bridge original fear was just that bridge but her far was ultimately generalized to all bridges
Consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
adolescence is defined by
period of life that starts with the biological hormonal and physical changes of puberty and ends at the age when an individual gains a stable independent role in society
What two disciplines was psychology born out of?
philosophy & physiology --how the mind and body react---
Sandra diets and receives compliments on her thinness, because of these compliments (which feel good to her) she continues to diet. Brian finds that when he excessively exercises, is anxiety about his body decreases, so he continues. Sandra's situation is an example of _______and Brian's is an example of________________
positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
genetic mapping
process of determining the location and chemical sequences of specific genes on specific genes on specific chromosomes
Dendrites
receive messages from other cells
evaluative conditioning
refers to changes in the liking of stimulus that results from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli-- involves the acquistion of likes and dislikes or preferences through classical conditioning
spontaneous recovery
resurrecting response- is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus-- research suggests that extinction somehow suppresses a conditioned response rather than erasing it or unlearning it
mid brain
segment of brain stem that lies between hindbrain and forebrain
Cerebral Cortex
separated into 4 lobes
Random Sampling
technique for making sure that every individual in a population has an equal chance in being your sample
structuralism is one of the early schools of thought in the field of psychology. At its core, structuralism focuses on ________________, and uses_______________ as its primary methodology a: the basic components of consciousness; introspection b: the purpose our behaviors and thoughts serve in the real world; behaviorism c: parts of the brain; stream of consciousness d: personality structures; psychoanalysis
the basic components of consciousness; introspection
Central Nervous System (CNS)
the brain and the spinal cord, the body's decision maker.
Selective Attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. skill that our brain is able to choose a focus and select what to notice.
forebrain
the largest and most complex region of the brain, including that hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum
Dual Processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
behaviorism
the scientific study of observable behavior. John B. Watson B.F. Skinner
epigenetics
the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence
humanism
theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth; optimistic view of human nature
Left-Hemisphere
thoughts and logic. language: words and definitions. pieces and details
classic conditioning
type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus; dog saliva
positive psychology
uses theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human nature
independent variable
variable we are able to manipulate independently of what the other variables are doing
dependent variable
variable we expect to experience a change which depends on the manipulation were doing
picturing the restaurants along Franklin as you try to decide where you want to go to dinner represents which component of working memory? a: phonological loop b: visuospatial sketchpad c: central executive d: episodic buffer
visuospatial sketchpad
