Gender

Adolescent gender development: gender intensification

Adolescents become: Highly intolerant of role violations Stereotyped in their thinking about the proper roles of males and females in adolescence Gender intensification Process where gender differences may be magnified by: Hormonal changes of puberty Increased pressure to conform to gender roles Adolescents must: Incorporate into their identities concepts of themselves as sexual males or females Figure out how to express their sexuality in relationships Become aware of one's sexual orientation

Why are there changes in sexual behavior as we age?

Diseases, disabilities, and drugs prescribed for them, can limit sexual functioning Social attitudes that view sexual activity in old age as ridiculous or inappropriate Negative attitudes may be internalized by elderly people Lack of partner

Sex vs. Gender

Biological sex: Physical characteristics that define female and male Originates from genes on X and Y chromosomes (regulatory) Sex-related biological traits enhanced during puberty Gender: Behavioral, mental, and physical characteristics that society associates with, and considers appropriate for, women and men A rigid, dichotomous social category (only two options) US culture

Biosocial theory of gender-role development

Biosocial theory of gender-role development: Biological events influence the development of girls and boys Early biological developments influence gender labeling Gender labeling influences how people react to a child socially Social reactions direct children's progress towards assuming gender roles Gender roles provide the basis for adult gender identity and role behavior

Female and Male categories central aspects

Central aspect of stereotypical male category member is agency Orientation toward individual action and achievement that emphasizes traits of dominance, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness Central aspect of stereotypical female category member is community Orientation toward connectedness to others and that emphasizes traits of interdependence, emotionality, and sensitivity to others

gender stereotype acquisition (2-3 years, elementary school, by age 5)

Children begin to favor same-sex playmates as early as 30-36 months of age Two to three years of age Children seem to understand society's gender stereotypes Act in gendered ways Elementary school Gender segregation Preschool girls who start the school year playing with boys end up in gender-segregated groups later in the year By age five Boys hold more gender-stereotypical toy preferences than girls Boys face stronger pressures to adhere to gender-role expectations Might explain why they develop stronger gender-typed preferences

Cognitive-developmental theory

Cognitive-developmental theory Gender-role development depends on cognitive development Children must acquire understanding of gender Children actively socialize themselves Actively seek same-sex models and a range of information about how to act like a girl or a boy

Gender as an infant (babies)

Differences between males and females at birth are small and inconsistent Male newborns tend to be somewhat more irritable Female newborns are more alert than males Parents tend to use masculine terms for newborn boys Comment on the strength of kicks, cries Girl infants likely to be labeled sugar or sweetie Described as soft, cuddly, and adorable

Differential reinforcement

Differential reinforcement: Children are rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviors Punished for behaviors considered more appropriate for members of the other sex By second year of life, parents discourage cross-sex play

By 24 months:

Girls as young as 24 months understand: Which activities are associated with males and which with females Boys do not show the same understanding until six months later

Adult gender development: Gluttan

Gutmann: Gender roles and gender-related traits in adulthood are shaped by the parental imperative Requirement that mothers and fathers adopt different roles to raise children successfully Men pressured to emphasize their "masculine" qualities to feed and protect their families Women pressured to express their "feminine" qualities to nurture the young, meet the emotional needs of their families Guttman suggests after children are grown, people express different gender traits Women become: More active and less passive Take more interest in community affairs Assertive in later life Men become: Less active and more passive Take less interest in community affairs Focus on religious contemplation, family relationships Nine of 10 Americans marry Most have one sexual partner at a time Research shows an overall decline in sexual desire with age

Gender stereotypes

Overgeneralized and largely inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics of all males and all females

Gender differences and similarities (Janet Hyde)

Janet Hyde: argues for gender similarities Males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables More alike than different Females and males perform similarly on most but not all standardized math tests Females obtain slightly higher math grades, verbal memory Males slightly higher spatial reasoning Average levels of a behavior may not noticeably different for males and females Within each sex, there are extremes

By 2.5-3:

Most children give verbal proof of gender identity Awareness that they are either a boy or a girl Girls and boys begin to behave differently Girls usually choose dolls and soft toys Boys usually choose trucks and cars

By 18 months:

Most toddlers seem to have an emerging understanding that they are either like other males or like other females Age of gender acquisition determined by gender markers in language

Observational learning

Observational learning: Children see which toys and activities are "for girls" and which are "for boys" Imitate individuals of their own sex Learn from the media—radio, television, movies, and video games

Gender flexibility by age

Once gender identities are clearly established, usually by age 7, children become much more open about gender behaviors.

Gender role development:

Research evidence suggests that biology does not dictate gender-role development Gender-role development evolves from the complex interaction of: Biology Social experience Individual's behavior

Social learning theory

Social learning theory: Children learn masculine or feminine identities, preferences, and behaviors through two processes Differential reinforcement Observational learning

3 reasons for stereotypes: social role theory "grain of truth" myth Biased perceptions

Social-role theory Generated by society's gender norms social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out of socially defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, teacher). Each social role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviours that a person has to face and fulfill. Perpetuated by "a grain of truth" myth (confirmation bias) Biased perceptions Motivate people to treat others in stereotypical ways Motivate people to behave in stereotypical ways

Study on gender stereotyping

Study on gender stereotyping Students watched video of infant introduced as Diana or David Interpreted strong reaction to toy as fear when introduced as Diana Interpreted strong reaction to toy as anger when introduced as David

Gender roles

Traits that individuals in a particular society adopt Patterns of behavior, physical characteristics, and mental models Allow people to maintain category membership in rigid "she" and "he" categories Often map poorly

The child - gender typing

Young children rapidly acquire gender stereotypes Process of gender typing Children become aware that they are biological males or females Acquire motives, values, and patterns of behavior that culture considers appropriate for members of their biological sex Younger children are acquiring understanding that their biological sex will remain constant Rigidity about gender stereotypes High during the preschool years (around ages 4-7) Decreases over the elementary school years