GEOG 1111 Exam 1

Active remote sensing

Direct a beam of energy at a surface and analyze the energy reflected back. Ex: radar

wavelength

Distance between corresponding points on any two successive waves. Number of waves passing a fixed point in 1 second is the frequency.

perihelion

Earth is at its closest position to the sun, which occurs during the Northern Hemisphere winter on January 3 at 147,255,000 km (91,500,000 mi).

aphelion

Earth is at its farthest position from the sun, which occurs during Northern Hemisphere summer on July 4 at 152,083,000 km (94,500,000 mi).

longwave radiation

Earth's radiated energy concentrated in infrared wavelengths.

stratosphere

Extends from 18 to 50 km (11-31 mi) from Earth's surface. Temps increase with altitude throughout, from -57C (-70F) at 18 km at the tropopause, warming to 0C (32F) at 50 km at the _____'s outer boundary, the stratopause. Location of ozone layer.

Positive feedback

Feedback encourages change in the system. Stimulates system changes. Going unchecked in a system can create a runaway condition.

Negative feedback

Feedback information discourages change in the system. Opposes system changes. Informs and causes self-regulation in a natural system, stabilizing the system.

troposphere

Final layer encountered by incoming solar radiation as it surges through the atmosphere to the surface. It's the home of the biosphere, the atmospheric layer that supports life, and the region of principal weather activity. Contains approx. 90% of total mass of the atmosphere and the bulk of all water vapor, clouds, and air pollution. An average temp. of -57C (-70F) defines the tropopause, the ____'s upper limit, but its exact altitude varies with the season, latitude, and surface temps and pressures.

net radiation

Final outcome of the entire energy-balance process.

Latitudinal Geographic Zones

Natural environments differ dramatically from the equator to the poles. These differences result from the amount of solar energy received, which varies by latitude and season of year. As a convenience, geographers identify _____ as regions. "Lower latitudes" are those nearer the equator, and "higher latitudes" are those nearer the poles. Zones are equatorial and tropical (23.5 N to 23.5 S), Subtropical (23.5 N to 35 N and 23.5 S to 35 S), Midaltitude (35 N to 55 N and 35 S to 55 S), Subarctic (55 N to 66.5 N) and Subantarctic (55 S to 66.5 S), and Arctic (66.5 N to North Pole) and Antarctic (66.5 S to South Pole)..

normal lapse rate

Normal temp profile within the troposphere during daytime, temp begins to decrease rapidly with increasing altitude at an avg of 6.4C per km (3.5F per 1000ft).

particulates

diverse mixtures of fine particles, both solid and liquid, that impact human health.

Latent heat

energy that is stored in water vapor as water evaporates.

heat

flow of kinetic energy from one body to another because of a temperature difference between them.

Absolute zero

-273C, -459.4F, 0 K. Temp which atomic and molecular motion in matter completely stops.

Map projection

A globe is the only true representation of distance, direction, area, shape, and proximity. Flat map distorts these properties. Therefore, in preparing a flat map, the cartographer must decide which characteristic to preserve, which to distort, and how much distortion is acceptable. Problem is that all these qualities cannot be reproduced on a flat surface. This reduction of the spherical Earth to a flat surface is a ___ _____.

Prime meridan

A meridian designated as 0 degrees. Passes through the old Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, as set by an 1884 treaty, the Greenwich ___ ____.

Closed system

A system that is shut off from the surrounding environment so that it is self-contained.

industrial smog and sulfur oxides

Air pollution associated with coal-burning industries.

cloud-albedo forcing

An increase in albedo caused by clouds.

cloud-greenhouse forcing

An increase in greenhouse warming caused by clouds.

Longitude

Angular distance east or west of a point on Earth's surface, measured from center of Earth. Lines run north and south.

Latitude

Angular distance north or south of the equator, measured from center of Earth. On map or globe, these lines run east or west, parallel to the equator.

mesosphere

Area from 50 to 80 km (30-50mi) above Earth and is within the homosphere. Mesopause is the outer boundary and the coldest portion of the atmosphere, averaging -90 C (-130F). Extremely low pressures

System feedbacks

As a system operates, it generates outputs that influence its own operations. These outputs function as "information" that returns to various points in the system via pathways, or feedback loops.

refraction

As insolation enters atmosphere, it passes from one medium to another, from virtually empty space into atmospheric gases. This occurs when insolation passes from air into water, as well. The transition subjects the insolation to a change of speed, which also shifts its direction, the bending action of ____.

absorption

Assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter and its conversion from one form of energy to another. Insolation, both direct and diffuse, that is not part of the 31% reflected from Earth's surface and atmosphere is ____.

Atmospheric Function Criterion

Atmosphere has two specific zones, the ionosphere and the ozonosphere, which remove most of the harmful wavelengths of incoming solar radiation and charged particles.

Earth's 4/5 "spheres"

Atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere

System example (open)

Automobile Inputs: fuel, oxygen, oil, etc. *energy and material conversions and storage Outputs: Exhaust gases, heat energy, oil waste

solar constant

Average insolation received at the thermopause when Earth is at its average distance from the Sun (1372 W/m^2).

Homosphere

Below heterosphere, extending from 80 km to Earth's surface. Blend of gases are nearly uniform throughout, despite atmosphere rapidly changing.

sunspots

Caused by magnetic storms on the sun. These surface disturbances produce flares and prominences. Average cycle exists for occurrences, averaging 11 years from maximum to maximum; however the cycle may vary from 7 to 17 years.

clouds and Earth's greenhouse

Clouds affect the heating of the lower atmosphere in several ways, depending on cloud type. High-altitude, ice-crystal clouds reflect insolation with albedo of about 50%, whereas thick, lower cloud cover reflects about 90% of incoming insolation.

Geographic information system (GIS)

Computer-based, data-processing tool for gathering, manipulating, and analyzing geographic information.

Mercator projection

Cylindrical projection. True-shape projection with meridians appearing as equally spaced straight lines and parallels appearing as straight lines that are spaced closer together near the equator. The poles are infinitely stretched, with the 84th N parallel and 84th S parallel fixed at the same length as that of the equator.

scattering

Gas molecules redirect radiation, changing the direction of the light's movement without altering its wavelengths. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the ____. The longer the wavelength, the lesser the ____.

winds

Gather and move pollutants, sometimes reducing the concentration of pollution in one location, while increasing it in another.

Map

Generalized view of an area, usually some portion of Earth's surface, as seen from above and greatly reduced in size.

benefits of the Clean Air Act

Greatly reduced the amounts of PM10, SOx, CO, and lead in the air. Removed lead from gasoline.

sensible heat

Heat that we can measure and feel. Determined by density, temperature, and heat capacity.

Annual temperature range map

Helps identify regions that experience greatest annual extremes and, in contrast, the most moderate temp regimes.

Equal area

If cartographer selects ___ ____ as the desired trait-for example, for a map showing the distribution of world climates - then true shape must be sacrificed by stretching and shearing, which allow parallels and meridians to cross at other than right angles.

true shape

If cartographer selects the property of ___ ____, such as for a map used for navigational purposes, then equal area must be sacrificed, and the scale will actually change from one region of the map to another.

remote sensing

Imaging of environment around us at a distance.

thermal equator

Isotherm connecting all points of highest mean temperature, roughly 27C (80F), it trends southward into interior of South America and Africa, indicating higher temps over landmasses.

isotherm

Line along which there is a constant value that connects points of equal temp and portrays the temp pattern, just as a contour line.

Meridan

Line connecting all points along the same longitude.

ozone

Located in the stratosphere. Highly reactive oxygen molecule made up of three oxygen atoms (O3) instead of the usual two atoms (O2) that make up oxygen gas. Absorbs certain wavelengths of UV. This absorbed energy radiates at longer wavelengths as infrared radiation. This process converts most harmful UV radiation, effectively "filtering" it and safeguarding life at Earth's surface.

marine effects

Locations that exhibit the moderating influences of the ocean, usually along coastlines or islands.

magnetosphere

Magnetic field surrounding Earth, generated by dynamo-like motions within our planet. Deflects solar wind toward both of Earth's poles, so that only a small portion of it enters the upper atmosphere.

photochemical smog pollution

Major component of anthropogenic air pollution. Results from interaction of sunlight and the combustion products in automobile exhaust (nitrogen oxides and VOCs).

International Date Line

Marks place where each day officially begins (12:01 am). From here, new day sweeps westward. Westward movement of time is created by Earth's turning eastward on its axis.

conduction

Molecule-to-molecule transfer of heat as it diffuses through a substance.

temperature inversion

Occurs when the normal temp that usually decreases with altitude (normal lapse rate) reverses trend and begins to increase at some point. This can happen at any elevation from ground level to several thousand meters.

winter solstice

On Dec. 21 or 22, the circle of illumination excludes the North Pole region from sunlight, but includes the South Pole region. Subsolar point is about 23.5 S latitude, the Tropic of Capricorn parallel.

summer solstice

On June 20 or 21, the subsolar point migrates from the equator to 23.5 N latitude, the Tropic of Cancer. Now, the circle of illumination includes the North Pole region and everything north of the Arctic Circle receives 24 hours of daylight - the Midnight Sun. Region from the Antarctic Circle to the South Pole (66.5 S to 90 S latitude) is in darkness.

vernal equinox

On March 20 0r 21, the circle of illumination passes through through both poles so that all locations on Earth experience a 12 hour day and 12 hour night.

autumnal equinox

On Sept. 22 or 23, circle of illumination again passes through both poles so that all parts of the globe experience 12 hour day and 12 hour night. Subsolar point returns to the equator, with days growing shorter to the north and longer to the south.

Heterosphere

Outer atmosphere in terms of composition. Begins at about 80 km (50 mi) altitude and extends outward to the exosphere and interplanetary space.

Cartography

Part of geography that involves mapmaking.

advection

Physical mixing involving a strong horizontal motion.

convection

Physical mixing involving a strong vertical motion.

reflection

Portion of arriving energy bounces directly back into space without being absorbed or performing any work.

ozonosphere

Portion of stratosphere that contains an increased level of ozone

ozone layer

Presumed to have been relatively stable over past several hundred million years. Today, however, it is in a state of continuous change.

chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs)

Primarily responsible for depletion of ozone layer.

natural sources

Produce a greater quantity of pollutants-nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons from plants and trees, and carbon dioxide-than do human-made sources. Volcanoes, forest fires, plants, decaying plants, soil, ocean

auroras

Produced when solar wind interacts with upper layer of Earth's atmosphere; occur toward both poles. These lighting effects are the ___ borealis (northern lights) and ___ australis (southern lights) in the upper atmosphere, 80-500 km (50-300 mi) above Earth's surface.

Location and time

Ptolemy divided the circle into 360 degrees, with each having 60 minutes and each minute having 60 seconds in a manner adapted from ancient Babylonians. He located these places using these degrees, minutes, and seconds.

Scale

Ratio of the image on a map to the real world.

Passive remote sensing

Record energy radiated from a surface, particularly visible light and infrared. Our own eyes are ____ ____ sensors.

continental effects

Refers to areas less affected by the sea and therefore have a greater range between maximum and minimum temps on both a daily and yearly basis.

albedo

Reflective quality of a source.

thermopause

Region at the top of the atmosphere, approx. 480 km (300 mi) above Earth's surface. Outer boundary of Earth's energy system and provides a useful point at which to assess the arriving solar radiation before it is diminished by scattering and absorption in passage through the atmosphere.

anthropogenic pollution

Remains most prevalent in urbanized regions. Approx. 2% of annual deaths in US are attributable to air pollution.

carbon monoxide pollution

Results from incomplete burning of carbon-containing substances (limited O2). approx. 90% natural, 10% anthropogenic (transportation).

Atmospheric Temperature Criterion

Shifting to temperature as a criterion, the atmosphere has four distinct temperature zones: thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere.

Energy Pathways and Principles

Solar energy that heats Earth's atmosphere and surface is unevenly distributed by latitude and fluctuates seasonally.

electromagnetic spectrum

Solar radiation occupies a portion of this spectrum of radiant energy. This radiant energy travels at the speed of light to Earth.

insolation

Solar radiation that reaches a horizontal plane at Earth. Specifically applies to radiation arriving at Earth's atmosphere and surface.

the greenhouse effect and atmospheric warming

Some longwave radiation is absorbed by carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs, and other gases in the lower atmosphere and then emitted back toward Earth. This absorption and emission of energy are an important factor in warming the troposphere. The rough similarity between this process and the way a greenhouse operates gives the process its name.

shortwave radiation

Sun's radiated energy that peaks in the short visible wavelengths.

local and regional landscapes

Surrounding mountains and hills can form barriers to air movement or can direct pollutants from one area to another. Some of the worse incidents result when these trap and concentrate air pollution.

Open system

Systems in nature are generally not self-contained: inputs of energy and matter flow into the system, and outputs of energy and matter flow from the system. Within a system, the parts function in an interrelated manner, acting together in a way that gives each system its operational character.

insolation

The single energy input driving the Earth-atmosphere system. Decreases poleward from about 25 degrees in both the N and S hemispheres.

kinetic energy

The energy of motion. Vibrational energy that we measure as temperature.

subsolar point

The only point receiving insolation perpendicular to the surface (from directly overhead).

ionosphere

The outer functional layer, extends throughout the thermosphere and into the mesosphere below. Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, and shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation, changing atoms to positively charged ions and giving it its name. The glowing auroral lights occur principally within this.

variable atmospheric components

The troposphere contains natural and human-caused variable gases, particles, and other chemicals. Important human-health implications

air pressure

The weight (force over a unit area) of the atmosphere that pushes in on all of us. The same pressure also exists inside of us, pushing outward.

tropopause

Upper limit of troposphere with avg temp of -57C (-70F).

Atmospheric Composition Criterion

Using chemical composition as a criterion, the atmosphere divides into two broad regions, the heterosphere (80 to 480 km altitude) and the homosphere (Earth's surface to 80 km altitude).

natural factors that affect air pollution

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ cause problems resulting from both natural and human-made atmospheric contaminants to be made worse.

Systems theory

any ordered, interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flows of energy and matter, as distinct from the surrounding environment outside the system. The elements within a system may be arranged in a series or interwoven with one another. A system comprises any number of subsystems. Within Earth's systems, both matter and energy are stored and retrieved, and energy is transformed from one type to another. (Remember: matter is mass that assumes a physical shape and occupies space; energy is a capacity to change the motion of, or to do work on, matter.)

solar wind

clouds of electrically charged particles are radiated from the sun in all directions

Land-water heating differences

land heats and cools faster than water

movement

land is rigid and solid, whereas water is fluid and capable of ____.

Thermosphere

roughly corresponds to the heterosphere (80km to 480km or 50-300 mi). Upper limit is thermopause. During periods of less active sun, with fewer sunspots, may lower in altitude from avg 480 km to only 250 km (155 mi). During periods of more active sun, swells to an altitude of 550 km (340 mi), where it can create frictional drag on satellites in low orbit.

specific heat

the heat capacity of a substance

transparency

transmission of light differs between soil and water.