Geography 2050 Exam 1 Study Guide

Compare an unstable air parcel with a stable air parcel. What determines their stability?

Stable-while unsaturated near the ground; unstable-while saturated higher up

What is saturation vapor pressure? How can it be increased or decreased

Vapor pressure at which saturation occurs; increased by increasing air temperature

Which type of radiation has shorter wavelengths, infrared radiation or visible light?

Visible light

How are warm clouds, cold clouds, and mixed clouds defined? Which precipitation-forming processes occur in each?

Warm-temperature is above 0 degrees celsius & collision-and-coalescence process; Cold-below 0 degrees celsius & ice-crystal process; Mixed-range of temperatures & both processes occur

What are the variable gases?

Water Vapor (H2O), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3), CFCs and HFCs

What is perihelion and when does it occur?

When the Earth is closest to the Sun; in January

What is aphelion and when does it occur?

When the Earth is farthest away from the Sun; in July

When the visible portion of the EMS is blended together, what color do we perceive?

White

Does a high relative humidity always mean that the air has a high water vapor content? Explain.

Yes, because water vapor content and relative humidity are directly related

How is seasonality affected in regions under the influence of warm ocean currents?

Raise the average annual temperature and reduce the annual temperature range

What are secondary pollutants? Which one is used as an example in this chapter? How is the ozone molecule both beneficial and harmful to people? Explain.

Results of chemical reactions in the atmosphere; O3; benefit- blocks harmful solar UV radiation; harm- ground-level ozone: irritates eyes and nose, scars lung tissue, and can worsen respiratory ailments such as bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma.

Rain shadow

Side of mountain with significantly reduced precipitation falling

In what three states does water occur? What are hydrogen bonds and how do they influence the state of water?

Solid, liquid, gas; the bond between water molecules that results from the attraction between one water molecule's positive end and another molecule's negative end; determines the state the water will be depending on how many hydrogen bonds there are (more hydrogen=ice, few/none=water vapor)

In what three ways is energy transferred? Give real-world examples of each.

Conduction- the process by which energy is transferred through a substance or between objects in direct contact. Ex: pouring coffee into a mug increases the temperature of the mug. Convection- transfer of heat through movement of mass within a fluid. Ex: oven Radiation- the process by which wave energy travels through the vacuum of space or through a physical medium such as air or water. Ex: sun

What is the geographic grid?

Coordinate system that uses latitude (parallels) and longitude (meridians) to identify locations on Earth's surface

Which type of cloud produces hail? Explain how hail forms in this cloud.

Cumulonimbus; small pellets of ice, freeze directly on snow crystals, rain droplets and cloud droplets freeze onto that as well adding mass (the longer the hailstones are held in the cloud, the larger and heavier it will grow

Which radiates longer wavelengths of electromagnetic energy, the Sun or Earth? Explain why.

Earth because it emits wavelengths greater than 4um

Compare the general pattern of annual temperature ranges at midlatitudes on west coasts and on east coasts. Which has a higher temperature range, and why?

East Coast because it experiences the continental effect which causes greater annual temperature ranges because of prevailing winds

What is electromagnetic radiation? Does a rock or tree emit electromagnetic energy? Explain.

Energy that is propagated in the form of electromagnetic waves that have both electrical and magnetic properties; Yes because all matter emits photons (packets of energy) of electromagnetic radiation

Orographic uplift

The rising of air over mountains

Convective uplift

The rising of an air parcel that is warmer and less dense than the surrounding air

Frontal uplift

The rising of warm air masses where they meet relatively cold air masses

What is the subsolar point? What would happen to it if there were no axial tilt? What would happen to it if axial tilt were 90°?

The single point at which the Sun's rays are perpendicular to Earth's surface at or near noon, restricted to between 23.5 degrees north and south latitude; the equator would always receive direct sunlight (no seasonal change); the sub solar point would shift from the South Pole to the North Pole and back within a year (extreme seasonal changes)

What is axial tilt and why is it the single most important factor causing seasons?

23.5 degrees in relation to the flat plane of the ecliptic; if the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun (summer) then the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun (winter)

Without using a calculator, convert 10°C to Fahrenheit. Convert 100°F to Celsius.

52 degrees Fahrenheit; 34 degrees Celsius

What is a map? Are all maps printed on paper?

A flat 2D representation of Earth's surface that communicates spatial information; they are traditionally printed on paper, but can be represented on computer screens, in spoken description, or in Braille.

What are meridians?

A line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and connects points of the same longitude; central to the development of world time zones. Ex: Prime Meridian

What is a positive feedback? Why is it a destabilizing force?

A process in which interacting parts in a system destabilize the system; atmospheric warming creates more clouds, more terrestrial heat is retained in the atmosphere, repeat

What is a negative feedback? Why is it a stabilizing force?

A process in which interacting parts in a system stabilize the system; atmospheric warming increases the air's water vapor capacity and cloudiness, clouds reflect sunlight back to space, cools atmosphere

What are condensation nuclei and ice nuclei? For what processes are each required?

A small particle in the atmosphere on which water vapor condenses-collision and coalescence; ice-crystal process

Explain how the hydrologic cycle is "solar powered."

Adds energy to/removes energy from water to change its state from solid, liquid, gas

What are the major characteristics of the troposphere? How do its temperature and pressure change with altitude?

All weather occurs here, warmed from the bottom up by Earth's surface, increased altitude equals decreased temperature, temperature inversions such as valleys that are no more than a few meters thick and they trap pollutants near the ground, create freezing rain, and sleet.

Why does the Southern Hemisphere have smaller seasonal fluctuations (on average) than the Northern Hemisphere?

Because there is less land

In relation to the subsolar point, how are the tropics defined?

Between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn

In the context of reflection, refraction, scattering, and absorption, explain the coloration of each of the following: blue sky, green grass, white clouds, blue water, and rainbows.

Blue sky- Nitrogen molecules scatter blue portions of the electromagnetic spectrum and produces blue color White clouds- composed of liquid water droplets and equally reflects all wavelengths of visible light creating white Rainbow- visible light passes through raindrops in the atmosphere and as light enters a raindrop, it is slowed down and its direction changed through refraction. It separates the different wavelengths allowing us to see the different colors Green grass- chlorophyll absorbs all visible colors except green which it reflects Blue water- ocean water absorbs the longer wavelengths of reds and yellows like a filter and before the shorter wavelengths of blue leaving us to perceive blue

Give examples of primary pollutants, their sources, and their effects on human health.

Carbon monoxide (CO)- volcanic eruptions, forest fires, bacterial processes; little threat to people because they disperse into the air. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)- volcanic eruptions, burning of fossil fuels; high concentrations cause health problems including irritated lungs tissue, worsening of respiratory illnesses such as bronchitis and asthma. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)- vehicle tailpipe emissions; irritated lung tissue, and chronic exposure leads to serious respiratory problems. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)- methane, butane, propane, and octane; well gas leaks, industrial processes, automobiles, evaporated gas, decomposition of organic materials; irritate eyes, nose, throat, lead to liver, kidney, and central nervous system damage.

What is a cloud positive feedback? How does it relate to the term "positive forcing"?

Changes the temperature by using a warming process

Which clouds are composed of ice crystals? Why are they composed of ice?

Cirrus

Describe day length and the position of the subsolar point for each of the four seasonal markers.

December solstice- ssp at Tropic of Capricorn, 66.5 N and 41 N= 0-9, 41 N and 0= 9-12, 0 and 41 S= 12-15, 41 S and 66.5 S= 15-24. March Equinox- ssp on equator, 12 hours of daylight everywhere. June solstice- ssp at Tropic of Cancer, flipped S to N like December solstice. June Equinox- ssp on equator, 12 hours of daylight everywhere.

What are auroras? Where do they occur on the planet and in what portions of the atmosphere? What causes them?

Displays of lights in the sky; near the poles in the North and the South; mesosphere and thermosphere; energized gas molecules by the sun

Leeward side of mountain

Dry and warm, air is compressed and warmed as it moves down

How high is the stratosphere? How does temperature change with altitude in the stratosphere?

Found between 12 and 50 km; increased altitude equals increased temperature

What does GPS stand for? Describe what GPS is used for.

Global Positioning System; pinpoint location to provide directions, tracking movement of animals for conservation efforts, movement of lithospheric plates for volcano eruptions and potential eruptions, also weather forecasting and monitoring.

Compare a great circle route with a small circle route. Which is used in long-distance flights by aircraft?

Great circle- a continuous line that bisects the globe into two equal halves; the shortest distance between two points. Small circle- not straight lines, not equal, forms a circle smaller than the equator. Pilots use great circles whenever possible.

How do latitude and the continental effect influence the annual temperature range?

High latitudes have a greater annual temperature range than lower latitudes and continental locations have a greater annual temperature range than maritime locations.

What are parallels?

Imaginary circles that run parallel to the equator and are named for their latitudes. Ex: parallel at 40 degrees north is called the 40th north parallel

How does temperature change cloudiness? How does cloudiness change temperature? What is cloud greenhouse forcing? What overall effect does it have on the temperature of the lower atmosphere?

Increased air temperature=increased evaporation=increases clouds; clouds cool Earth's surface because of their albedo & warms Earth because of radiating back LWR from the surface; warming

What are clouds composed of? Give the four major cloud categories.

Individual microscopic water droplets and ice crystals; cirrus (wispy, feathery), cumulus (heaped, puffy), stratus (layered), alto (middle)

Describe the relationship between average annual temperature and changes in elevation and latitude.

Is lower at higher elevations and higher latitudes. Temperature decreases with increasing elevation in troposphere and the farther you get from the sun, the cooler the temperature.

What is a cloud negative feedback? How does it relate to the term "negative forcing"?

Keeps temperature stable by using a cooling process

Compare a large-scale map with a small-scale map. Which would a map of a single mountain be?

Large scale- large pictures to represent a small area in great detail. Small-scale- covers a large region with less detail. Single mountain = large-scale

How are angular measurements used to form the geographical grid?

Latitude provides an angular measure of the distance of the point north or south of the equator, while longitude refers to the east-west angular measure relative to the prime meridian

What are contour lines? Provide examples of their use.

Lines of equal elevation in relation to sea level used on a topography map. Uses: represents the steepness and irregularities of the terrain such as mountains

What are five important elements most maps have?

Map scale, title, legend, direction arrow, and date

Why is one "day" six months long at the poles?

Marked by the equinoxes, the poles receive six months of continuous darkness, followed by six months of continuous daylight

What are aerosols? Give examples of them.

Microscopic solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere. Ex: cloud droplets, windblown dust, pollen, spores, bacteria, salt particles, volcanic ash, smoke, emissions from human activities

What happens to seasonality when axial tilt is increased?

More extreme seasonal changes

Which types of clouds bring precipitation? Which types bring severe weather?

Nimbostratus; cumulonimbus

What are the two major permanent gases in the atmosphere?

Nitrogen (N) and Oxygen (O)

What factors cause seasonality to increase farther inland?

Ocean currents and prevailing wind

How do radiation fog and advection fog form? Which is more dangerous and why?

Radiation-results as the ground radiates its heat away at night, formed by air temperature near the ground reaching its dew point; Advection-as moist air moves over a cold surface; radiation is the most dangerous because it causes accidents due to low visibility

Compare the temperature profile in the atmosphere necessary to form rain, snow, sleet, and freezing rain.

Rain-snow, rain, rain; Snow-snow, snow, snow; Sleet-snow, rain, sleet; freezing rain-snow, rain, freezing rain

What are the two subzones based on latitude?

Subtropical and polar zones

What are adiabatic temperature changes and what causes them? Compare them with temperature changes caused by the environmental lapse rate.

Temperature changes within air parcels resulting from changes in their volume; 10 degree change for every 1,000m (cool for every 1,000m risen & warm for every 1,000m descended); 6.5 degrees per 1,000m

What is the difference between temperature and heat?

Temperature- the average speed of molecular movement within a substance or object, and is measured with a thermometer. Heat- internal energy transferred between materials or systems due to their temperature differences.

What is the tropopause? Why is the altitude of the tropopause different at the equator versus the poles?

The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere; 1st- Solar heating expands air and causes it to occupy more space and heating is greatest at the equator. 2nd- Earth rotates faster at the equator than in polar regions, therefore the atmosphere near the equator bulges outward more than at higher altitudes, increasing its depth.

What is air pressure, and how much is there at sea level in kg/cm2? In PSI? in mb? Why is air pressure greater near Earth's surface than higher up?

The force exerted by molecules or air against a surface, 1 kg/cm^2; 14.7 PSI; 1,013.25 mb; greatest at Earth's surface because there's more things to push against the closer you get to the surface.

What does it mean that Earth's energy budget is balanced?

The incoming energy from the sun is equal to the outgoing energy from everything else such as Earth's surface. During the night when there is no sun, the greenhouse gases retain heat in the atmosphere, which keeps the balancing act in play

What is the hydrologic cycle? Describe how water moves through it.

The movement of water within the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, lithosphere (water flowing in the ground), biosphere (water being absorbed by living things such as plants), and hydrosphere (water to lakes instead of oceans)

What is atmospheric saturation? What causes air to become saturated?

The point at which an air parcel's water vapor content is equal to its water vapor capacity

What is relative humidity? How can it be increased or decreased

The ratio of water vapor content to water vapor capacity, expressed as a percentage; increased by decreasing temperature

What is albedo? Give examples of surfaces and objects with high and low albedos. What is Earth's overall albedo?

The reflectivity of a surface, given as the percentage of incoming radiation that it reflects; snow- higher albedo, black tar roofs- low albedos; 30%

Convergent uplift

The rising of air as a result of converging airflow (tropics)

What is a radiative equilibrium temperature? What would happen to it if more energy came into Earth's atmosphere than left the atmosphere?

The temperature of an object resulting from the balance between incoming and outgoing energy;

Why is evaporation a cooling process? What is being cooled?

The temperature of the surrounding environment cools

What is the heat-index temperature? How does humidity make the air feel warmer?

The temperature perceived by people as a result of atmospheric humidity coupled with air temperature; high humidity slows evaporation (cooling process) causing the body to overheat

What and where are the three major global zones that are based on latitude? Briefly describe each of these zones.

The tropics (in between 23.5 degrees N and S latitude) where high temperatures are the norm, and the sun can beat down from directly overhead once or twice each year. Midlatitudes (23.5 degrees to 55 degrees N/S) where the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes are often very strong and a wide variety of fast-changing weather. High Latitudes (55 degrees to 90 degrees N/S) within either the arctic or the antarctic circle.

Why are clouds important to understanding how climate will change in the future?

To predict the effect of increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels

Describe what happens to insolation (incoming solar radiation) when it is transmitted, scattered, reflected, and absorbed.

Transmission- unimpeded movement of electromagnetic energy through a medium such as air, water, or glass. Scattering- the process of redirecting solar radiation in random directions as it strikes physical matter such as aerosols, gases, or the planet's surface Reflection- the process of returning a portion of the radiation striking a surface in the general direction from which it came

List the four layers of the atmosphere that are based on changes in temperature with altitude.

Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and Thermosphere