Geology Final

explain the difference between a clastic rock and a crystalline rock and the differences between the general environments in which clastic and crystalline rocks form

- Crystalline rocks have atoms arranged in an orderly manor and repeating pattern. commonly from sea water evaporation. - Clastic rocks are sedimentary rocks consisting of other rocks. They are formed by burial.

Stalactites and stalagmites

- both form when calcium-rich water drips from the roof of a cave stalactities- hang tight from the roof stalagmites- when water drips to the floor, building mounds upward

Explain each characteristic that a material must have to be a mineral, listing an example that is a mineral and an example that is not

- naturally occurring: natural diamonds are minerals but synthetic ones grown in labs are not - inorganic: made by inorganic material - crystalline solid: all minerals are a solid, not liquid or gaseous - ordered internal structure: atoms are aligned in a regular, repeating way - specific chemical composition: minerals are homogenous and so have a specific chemical composition

explain the relationship between rocks, minerals, and chemical elements

- rocks are made up of minerals - minerals are made up of elements (at least two naturally occurring) - chemical elements: naturally occurring chemical compounds such as Sodium and Chlorine

Sketch and describe how petroleum is trapped by an anticline, salt dome, fault,thrust-related fold, unconformity, and facies change.

-Anticline Petroleum gets caught in the arch -Salt dome The salt from the bottom of the ground flows up to create a barrier for the oil -Fault and Thrust-related fold The fault is creating a barrier for the flow of oil

Describe the role of a reservoir rock and impermeable seal.

-Impermeable seal Barriers to the flows Reservoirs Makes it easier to flow

Character and formation of caves and sinkholes

-Karst topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. - water near the surface or at depth as groundwater can dissolve limestone and other carbonate rocks to form caves -dissolution of limestone along fractures and bedding planes can form sinkholes

Summarize where most of earth's total water resides.

-most water is in the oceans, but is salty-most freshwater is in ice/snow or in groundwater below the surface with a smaller amount in lakes, wetlands, and rivers-water also exists in plants, animals, soils and as water vapor in the atmosphere

Describe the different settings where freshwater occurs, identifying which settings contain the most water.

-oceans/sea, 96.5% is salty water, the remaining 3.5% is freshwater held in ice sheets and glaciers, groundwater, lakes, swamps, and other features on the surface.-Atmosphere, a small amount of earth's water is contained here, (0.001%), it is seen as visible water vapor, as water droplets in the clouds, as rain, falling snow, and other types of precipitation. -glaciers, nearly 69% of freshwater is tied up in ice/snow in ice caps, glaciers, and permanent snow. A small amount also exists in permafrost and ground ice.-rivers, are the main source of drinking water for many areas, they only contain a small amount of freshwater,-lakes, most are freshwater lakes, but those in dry climates are saline or brackish (between fresh and saline/salty). They contain the majority of the liquid freshwater at earth's surface.-swamps/other wetlands, contain water on the surface and within the plants/shallow soil. They constitute about 11% of freshwater on the surface.-soil moisture, soil contains about as much water as the atmosphere, which isnt alot and soil moisture is crucial to our existence.-biological water, water is tied up within the cells/structure of plants and animals. It represents (0.0001%) of earth's total water.-groundwater, about 30% of earths total freshwater. Most of it is fresh but some is brackish (river water+seawater) or saline. Groundwater is mostly in the open pores b/t sediment grains or within fractures that cut rocks.-deep-interior waters, perhaps a very large amount of water is chemically bound in minerals of the crust/mantle. Some scientist think earth's interior has more water than the oceans.

Describe a few of the main tectonic settings in which terranes originate and how terranesare added to crust.

-origin of a terrane is revealed by the kinds of rocks it contains -if rocks on the opposite sides of the fault are the same age but are otherwise dissimilar it is likely that the rocks were not close to each other when formed etc..

Distinguish porosity and permeability, providing examples of materials with high and low values of each.

-porosity is a measure of how much water a rock can hold-well rounded/well sorted sediment usually has higher porosity than angular/poorly sorted sediment b/c round grains do not fit together as tightly.-poorly sorted sediment tends to have less porosity b/c smaller grains fill the spaces b/t larger grains.-clay rich sediments/sedimentary rocks like shale consist of small particles shaped like plates/sheets that dont fit tightly together. There is abundant open space (porosity) b/t them.-in igneous/metamorphic rocks, porosity is usually low b/c the minerals are tightly intergrown, leaving little free space. some igneous rocks have less than 1% porosity.-permeability indicated whether or how easily groundwater can flow thru the rock-loosely cemented gravel/sand commonly contain interconnected pore spaces that allow relatively easy groundwater flow. Such materials have high permeability/host groundwater in many areas.-well connected fractures, allow water to flow and provide high permeability. -fracture are the only significant permeability in granite and most other igneous rocks. -when clay particles compact, they tend to become aligned parallel to one another, which decreases the porosity/causes the pore spaces to be very small. Similar rocks will have very low permeability/no permeability.

Features on the surface that might indicate an area may contain caves at depth

-presence of limestone -sinkholes -karst topography

Summarize where the organic material in petroleum comes from.

-reefs -plants -microorganisms

Describe or sketch the hydrologic cycle, summarizing the processes that shift water from one part to another.

-water is a constant circulation on earth's surface, it moves from ocean to atmosphere, atmosphere back to the surface, and in/out of the subsurface.-hydrologic cycle, is the circulation of water from one part of this water system to another.Phases of this cycle-evaporation, water is heated by the sun, molecules become energized enough to break free of the attractive forces that bind them together, once free, they rise into the atmosphere as water vapor.-condensation, as water vapor cools, water molecules join together. Then, water vapor becomes a liquid/turns directly into a solid (ice, hail, snow). These water drops/ice crystals collect/form clouds.-precipitation, when clouds cool, the water molecules become less energetic + bond together, commonly falling as rain, snow, or hail, depending on the temp of the air. Precipitation may reach the ground, evaporate as it falls, or be captured by leaves/other vegetations before touching the ground.-sublimation, water molecules can go from a solid (ice) to vapor which is sublimation. Its most common in cold, dry, and windy climates, like some polar regions-infiltration, some precipitation can seep into the ground, infiltrating thru fractures and pores in soil, sediment, and rocks. Some of this water becomes groundwater, remains within in soil, and some rises back up to the surface. Water can also infiltrate into the ground from lakes, rivers, streams, canals, irrigated fields, or any body of water.-groundwater flow, water that percolates (to pass thru a porous surface/substance) or infiltrates far enough into the ground becomes groundwater. It can flow from one place to another in the subsurface, or it can flow back to the surface, where it emerges in springs, lakes, and other features.-transpiration, some precipitation/soil moisture is taken up by root systems and other water collecting mechanisms of plants. Thru their leaves, plants emit (produce) water vapor into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration. The loss of water via transpiration/evaporation from soil, leaves, and other parts of the land is called evapotranspiration. -surface runoff, rainfall/snowmelt can produce water that flows across the surface as runoff. Runoff from precipitation can be joined by runoff from melting snow/ice and by the flow of groundwater on the surface. The various types of runoff collect in streams, rivers, and lakes. Most is eventually carried to the ocean by rivers, where it can be evaporated, completing the hydrologic cycle.-ocean gains/losses, most precipitation falls directly into the ocean, but it loses much more water to evaporation than it gains from precipitation.

describe the main sedimentary environments in oceanic and near-shore environments.

1) beaches- are stretches of coastline along which sediment has accumulated 2) Lagoon- commonly shallow, calm and warm, contains sand mud and stone 3) Reefs- where ocean water is shallow, warm, and clear. Coral and other marine creatures construct reefs. 4) Deep Seafloor- dark, cold, environment, several kilometers beneath the surface 5) Coastal Dunes- sandy dunes inland from beaches 6) Tidal Flats- low areas on shoreline that are flooded by the seas

describe the main sedimentary environments on land, and describe some characteristics of each.

1)Mountain Environments- are characterized by steep slopes developed on bedrocks, high levels of erosion on steep stope that produces an abundance of sediment that can be transported to other settings -Streams and Rivers- in mountains are typically have a steep gradient and are confined by bedrock canyons. As the streams leave the mountains they can develop a braided appearance. Fluvial refers to the processes and sediment of streams and rivers 2) Sand Dune- in dry climates, wind picks up and moves sand grains and finer particles. 3) Rivers on Land- meander through flat lands 4) Wetlands- lands adjacent to lakes and in delta areas may leave the soil saturated with water, allowing swamps, bogs and ponds to form.

summarize four principles used to determine the relative ages of rocks and geologic features

1. The youngest layer is on top and the oldest on the bottom. 2. A geologic feature is younger than a rock unit or feature it crosscuts 3. A younger rock or despot can include pieces of an older rock. 4. A younger magma can bake or otherwise change older rocks nearby

Summarize the factors controlling whether a shoreline gains or loses sand over time.

A shoreline can gain or lose sand, depending on the rate at which sand enters the system and the rate at which it leaves. Many shorelines retain approximately the same amount of sand over time. The amount of sediment available to the system is described as the sediment budget, and it controls many factors of the shoreline.

Summarize how we determine when two terranes were apart or were brought together.

Alaska & western idaho: triassic basalt, permian limestone, late paleozoic arc volcanics - consider to be same terrane cuz similar ages & sequences of rocks

Describe how joints are expressed in the landscape.

Amount of jointing: Connecticut Valley Spacing: Capitol Reef, UtahExfoliation: Yosemite

What are oceanic plateaus and how might they have formed?

Are large regions of the seafloor that rise a kilometer or more above the surrounding. Formed from ho spots, above rising mantle plumes travel through the mantle as solid masses, when the top of the plume encounter the base of the lithosphere it causes widespread melting. Fissures and central vents allow submarine flood basalts. The buildup creates a plateau.

Explain the processes by which a stream erodes into its channel and which sites are most susceptible to erosion

As the waters velocity increases, the flow becomes more chaotic or turbulent and the water can pick up and move material within the channelas water velocity increases, viscosity is less able to dampen chaotic flow and the water flow becomes more turbulent near the bottom of the stream upward-flowing eddies can overwhelm gravitational force and lift grains from the channel. Turbulence, in general increases the chance for grains to be picked up and can erode into channels

describe the difference between confining pressure and differential stress.

Confining: when force is exposed on the rock in the same amount from all directions. Differential: when the amount of combined stress is greater in some directions.

Summarize how continental glaciation, rates of seafloor spreading, ocean temperatures, and position of the continents affect sea level.

Continental Glaciation - Height of sea level is greatly affected by the existence and extent of glaciers and regional ice sheets. At times in Earth's past, ice sheets were more extensive than today, and at other times, they were less extensive or absent. Rates of Seafloor Spreading - At times in Earth's history, the rate of seafloor spreading was greater than it is today, and at other times it was probably lower. Such changes cause the rise and fall of sea level. Ocean Temperature - Sea level is also affected by changes in ocean temperatures, which cause water in the oceans to slightly expand or contract. Such effects result in relatively moderate changes in sea level. Position of the Continents - Continents move across the face of the planet, sometimes being near the North or South Poles and at other times being closer to the equator. These positions influence sea level in several ways

Summarize several ways to increase elevation and to decrease elevation.

Decreased by normal faulting which thins the crust by displacing higher rocks with lower ones. Crustal thickness by erosion, and rock contract when they cool. Increased by compressed and shortened by thrust faults also thickens. Becomes less dense as heated, sediment or volcanic units added, magma added at depth.

Describe how melting can influence magma composition

During the crystallization process, the composition of the remaining liquid portion of the magma also continually changes

Summarize the major factors that influence atmospheric temperatures.

Earths surface temperatures are dominated by energy from the sun. Sunlight heats the oceans, land and atmosphere, but several factors influence how much of this energy reaches the surface and how much is retained.

Explain the observation that led to the discovery of isostasy.

George everest surveying India, he noted an unexplained discrepancy in the positions on his survey, he found that the deflection of the weight from vertical was less than expected.

What are processes that occur within, in front of, and behind island arcs? Why are island arcs and their associated trenches curved?

Island arcs form when one oceanic plate subducts beneath the subducts another. As mantle derived magmas interact with this thicker crust, magmas become intermediate in composition (andesite) and form dangerous composite volcanos.

Describe what a magma chamber is and the processes that occur in one.

Magma chamber- underground body of molten rock, very dynamic with magma evolving, crystallizing, being replenished by additions of new magma. 1. Large magma chambers can be consist of a single magma type, involve more than one influx of magma. 2. crystallization--early formed minerals that remove chemical components from the magma--sink or rise. 3. new pulse of magma rises into the chamber, mix with existing magma or remain distinct, adds a new pulse of thermal energy. 4. Partially crystallized magma--heated by new hotter pulse of magma. 5. melt the wall rocks. 6. partial melting of wall rocks--assimilated into the existing magma. 7. two magmas mix depends--relative densities, crystal content, viscosities and the temperature which they crystallize.

Describe how waves erode material from the shoreline and how the shape of a coastline influences wave erosion.

Most erosion along shorelines is done by waves. Waves crash against rocky shores and onto beaches, breaking off pieces of bedrock that can then be reworked by more wave action and ultimately transported away. Most coasts are not straight but have curves, bays, and other irregularities. As a result, some parts of the shoreline are somewhat protected, while other parts bear the brunt of oncoming storms and waves

describe how tides relate to the position of the Moon and why

Neap Tides- occur during quarter moons; are especially weak tides; occur when the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to one another (with respect to the Earth). Spring Tides- occur during the full moon and the new moon; are especially strong tides; occur when the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon are in a line

explain the features and processes of an oceanic divergent boundary

Occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along these boundaries, lava spews from long fissures and geysers spurt superheated water. Frequent earthquakes strike along the rift. Beneath the rift, magma—molten rock—rises from the mantle. It oozes up into the gap and hardens into solid rock, forming new crust on the torn edges of the plates. Magma from the mantle solidifies into basalt, a dark, dense rock that underlies the ocean floor. Thus at divergent boundaries, oceanic crust, made of basalt, is created.

Contrast the difference between P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves, including the way motion occurs compared to the propagation of the wave

P-waves are the fastest and travel in the same direction it propagates. S-waves cannot travel through liquids and are perpendicular to the direction of travel. Surface wave is a horizontal wave- shuffles side to side.

Sketch or describe physical weathering processes.

Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces

Describe the main processes of physical and chemical weathering.

Physical weathering—physical breaking apart of rocks that are exposed to the environment. Chemical weathering—chemical reactions that affect a rock by breaking down minerals causing new minerals to form, removing soluble material from the rock

Describe or sketch how mantle plumes are interpreted to form oceanic islands and seamounts, providing several examples.

Plumes travel through the mantle as solid masses and then causes melting to the lithosphere

list the four main chapters of earth history, form oldest to youngest, showing which chapter is longest and which one is shortest

Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic. Longest duration of geologic time is Precambrian. Shortest is Cenozoic.

Describe several ways that joints form.

Preexisting joints form from burial, tectonics, cooling, etcSize and spacing of joints varies from rock to rock and place to placeExpansion joints form as pressure decreases as rock is brought up from depthUnloading can cause thin slabs to peel from rock - exfoliation

describe the four main types of volcanoes that construct hills and mountains.

Scoria Cone- several hundred meters high, small crater at summit. Has Loose or Black pebbles Shield Volcano- broad, gently sloped curves. Contain basaltic lava flows with little ash Composite Volcano- Symmetrical, thousands of meter high, steep slopes and crater. Smaller than shield volcanos, and has pyroclastic deposits Volcanic Dome- Hundreds of meters high. contain a solidified lava, contain volcanic ash and felsic magma erupts

Describe how rocks can be broken during transport.

Sediment can break from collision during transport or abrasioon of other clasts in a channel as its carried by water.

Describe what happens to clastic sediment as it becomes buried and converted into rock

Sediment is converted into sedentary rock through a process called lithification that involves compaction by overlying sediment and cementation by calcium carbonate and other materials

Summarize how atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations can correspond to temperature changes.

Several gases in earths atmosphere absorb infrared radiation emitted by earth. This causes them to vibrate and heat up, and then to emit infrared radiation. This radiation can escape into space robe absorbed by other greenhouse gases.

summarize how the strength of rocks varies with depth.

Shallow: at cool levels rocks usually brittle and fracture. At low temp minerals like quartz are stable, low temp fluids have little effect on many rocks. Deeper: pressure and temp are greater, rocks flow as a weak solid called ductile behavior, minerals recrystallize, hot water and other fluids can mobilize chemical constituents.

List the three most abundant elements in the crust and in Earth as a whole, andexplain why silicate minerals are so abundant in the crust and mantle.

Silicate materials contain silicon and oxygen which is why they are common. Silicon, Magnesium, Oxygen

Identify the most common class of mineral in the crust, mantle, and inner core.

Silicates

Describe how the type of material and degree of fracturing influence the type of sediment that results.

Soluble materials commonly weather to a pitted or grooved appearance. Rocks that are fractured are weaker and more easily weathered than rocks that are intact.

on a map of the world, identify some features that have interesting tectonic origins

Tebetan plateau of southern Asia rises many kilometers above the lowlands of india and Bangladesh to the south. The himalayan mountain range with mount everest, the highest mountain on earth, is perched on the southern edge of this plateau

Explain what a hypocenter and epicenter each represent.

The place where the earthquake is generated is the hypocenter. The epicenter is the point on earths surface directly above where the earthquake occurs.

· Describe how thermal vibrations and pressure affect a mineral lattice.

Thermal vibrations weaken and break the bonds in a mineral lattice so the atoms separate which causes melting. However, pressure pushes the bonds together in a mineral lattice so that they stay together. Pressure allows for minerals to stay solid at higher temperatures, whereas a lower pressure will cause lower temperatures to melt minerals.

Stream behavior over time

They vary by precipitation, snow melt and influx of ground water.

Explain why waves bend if they approach the shore at an angle.

This is called refraction; the segments closest to shore slow, the different velocities cause refraction.

Describe or sketch what tides are.

Tides are cyclic changes in the height of the sea surface

describe what happens during a transgression and during a regression, including which way sedimentary facies shift.

Transgression: the landward migration of the shoreline (i.e., flooding of once-dry land) Regression: the oceanward migration of the shoreline (i.e., draining of flooded land) -During a transgression the sequence of rocks will show an onlap sequence (the facies will become deeper-water environments as you move up through the sediments). -During a regression the sequence of rocks will show an offlap sequence (the facies will become shallower environments as you move up through the sediments).

Why are trenches and island arcs curved?

Trenches are curved because of the geometry of plate interactions on a sphere.

Describe or sketch four general characteristics to observe in crystalline and clastic rocks.

Types of Minerals, Sizes of Crystals or Clasts, Shapes of Crystals or Clasts, Layers or No Layers

summarize or sketch what causes variations in crustal thickness

Uneven mass distribution on land, for example water in ocean compress the crust, so unconsolidated layer make cause of it to be become very thin.

Describe how earthquakes and seismic waves are caused by volcanoes.

Volcanoes add weight to the crust, an explosive eruption causes compression- transmitting energy as seismic waves, landslides causing the earth to quake, magma pushes rocks out of the way causing quakes

Describe the natural cements that are common in sedimentary rocks.

Water containing dissolved materials- materials can precipitate to form minerals that act as natural cement

Summarize how oil and gas naturally form by burial and heating.

When buried to shallow depths and heated to less than about 60c the organic material turns into kerogen when buried deeper the heat increases and long hydrocarbon chains in kerogen break down into heavy and light oils. Then converting into natural gas

Describe the diagnostic characteristics of a volcano.

a vent where magma and other volcanic products erupt onto the surface. crater, volcanic rocks, classic shape of a cone

Describe the stages of atoll formation

a volcanic island forms through eruptions, constructing a fringing reef. after volcanic activity ceases, new crust begins to cool and sink. The volcano eventually sinks below the ocean surface but the reef continues to grow.

Explain how weathering is affected by a slope

a.) windward slopes- condensation, depsosition, precipitation will occur on the windward side b.) slope aspect- orientation of the slope c.) shaded slopes- sheltered from sunlight, it is cooler, and can retain moisture, may have more plants, but all this promotes chemical weathering d.) steepness of slope- rainfall runs off faster and weathering products may quickly wash away by runoff, soil and other loose materials will slide down; drier climates= slower weathering e.) gentle slopes- weathering products can accumulate and water may stay in contact with rock longer, resulting in higher weathering rates

Describe or diagram the classification of common clastic sedimentary rocks.

are classified based on grain size, clast and cementing material (matrix) composition, and texture. Conglomerate— large clasts with fine sediment in-between. Well rounded cobles. Quartz sand Breccia— jumbled, poorly sorted, angular boulders, mud-rich matrix. Sandstone— defined layers, sand sized grain, Mudstone siltstone shale— fine-grained

Describe the different kinds of reefs and where they form.

barrier reefs: along the edge of a continentfringing reefs: attached to shoreline or just offshore

Ways that weathering is impacted by vegetation and time

biotic weathering- biological activity -roots can pry open joints in rocks- type of physical weathering-animals burrow into ground and loosen and mix sediment-plants contribute to chemical weathering by root secretion and through carbon dioxide given off during respiration- the more time that is available, the more weathering will occur-speed of weathering and volume of material affected in a given time will depend on climate, slope aspect, vegetation, compositioin, and jointing of rock or sediment; variation in these factors will have rates of weathering range from rapid to extremely slow

describe the overall philosophy used to infer the environment in which a rock formed

compare characteristics such as size/roundness to those of deposits in modern environments and decide which environment is best

describe the three ways that a mass of rock can respond to stress.

compression, tension, and shear.

Describe some aspects of erosion and deposition in bedrock channels.

erosion: bed load of sand, cobbles and boulders helps break up and erode the bedrock channel, turn into canyons and difficult fro stream to switch its position. deposition: where water velocity decreases, rocks and sediment constrict the river forming a pool of less turbulent water upstream.

Describe why every hill composed of volcanic rocks is not a volcano

extensive lava flow

Karst Topography

features sinkholes and other depressions, streams that disappear into ground, gray rocks that look like they are dissolving away, and exotic shaped pillarscharacteristics: -presence of numerous pits -relative lack of a well-developed drainage system -disappearing streams -steep pillars, knobs, and oddly shaped rocks - evidence of rocks partiall dissolved, usually have steep grooves

Briefly describe why different parts of a continent can be different ages

flanked by belts of successively younger rocks and deposits; sedimentary and volcanic material deposited iver Precambrian basement or terranes

Summarize how different joints form and are expressed in the landscape.

horizontal, vertical, tension, polygon shape and unloading joints.

describe the two main types of fractures and how each forms.

joints: simple cracks, where rock pulled apart by a small amount. faults: rocks have slipped past one another, can slip up and down, sideways or some other angle.

Describe two reasons why sedimentary layers end

layers were deposited within a channel, the facies they represent have a limited extent

Describe the processes involved in forming igneous rocks

magma

describe how partial crystallization, assimilation, and magma mixing can change a magma

magma cools and solidifies from the outside--magma cool--mafic minerals crystallize first, composition of remaining magma less mafic (more felsic) partial crystallization of mafic magma--produces magma of more intermediate composition. Heavy mafic minerals may sink through the magma and collect in layers at the bottom--crystal settling--lower parts of the magma chamber more mafic, remaining felsic. Felsic crystals may be less dense than magma--float upward--top of magma chamber more felsic. Magma mixing--two different magmas come into contact and mix, producing magma has composition intermediate between the two magmas. Mafic magma -- hotter than melting temperature of felsic rocks so mafic can melt felsic wall rocks..---- wall rocks around a magma melt--incorporated into the magma by assimilation.

Describe how a stream transports solid and dissolved material

moving water applies force to a channels bottom and sides and can pick up and transport particles of various sizes: clay, silt, sand, cobbles and boulders.The amount of sediment carried by the stream, including material chemically dissolved in solution, is the sediment load.fine particles can be suspended in the moving water, even in a relatively slow currentsand grains can roll along the bottom or be picked up and carried down-current by bouncing along the stream bedlarger cobbles and boulders generally move by rolling and slidingmaterial that is pushed, bounced, rolled, and slid along the bed of the stream is the bed load. if the amount of sediment exceeds the stream's capacity to carry it, the sediment is deposited

Discuss the geologic timescale and the kinds of data that were used to construct it.

rocks and fossils arranged in their proper age order

Name some locations with large reefs.

the Philippines, the Great Barrier Reef, Polynesia

Describe or illustrate the concept of stress.

the amount of force, divided by the area where the force is applied is called stress.

summarize how the orientation of joints reflects the orientation of stresses.

the orientation of joints is controlled by the amounts of stress imposed on different directions.

Describe why a rock might not experience the entire rock cycle.

there is no beginning, end, or direction to the cycle

Summarize the factors that control regional elevation.

thick crust = high elevationregions underlain by less dense crust are highwarm rocks are less dense

Summarize the characteristics used to recognize a terrane.

thick granitic crust and continental sediment and rocks

explain the difference between a mineral in a vitamin pill and a geologic mineral

vitamin pill: chemical element, such as potassium mineral: consists of at least two naturally occurring chemical compounds

Summarize how a fault forms relative to compression and why faults form with different orientations.

when horizontal or vertical compressive stress exceeds the rocks strength.