Global Development Studies Exam #1 Study Guide

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion Dynamic theory of production

So that's from Rostow, and basically, he is saying the dynamic theory of production means that like once you have like good infrastructure, and once once like, decision making is driven by like science and kind of strong policy. Yeah, the economy will, will develop very quickly because of like compound interest and like, like it's not it's nonlinear. You can actually have like really rapid economic growth. Because because of the way that the positive change is like kind of feeds back on itself Preconditions for Growth: The dynamic theory emphasizes the development of preconditions necessary for economic takeoff. These preconditions involve factors like income distribution, consumption, saving, investment, and the composition of investment.

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion Key factors in the Takeoff

In the more general case, the take-off awaited not only the build-up of social overhead capital and a surge of technological development in industry and agriculture, but also the emergence to political power of a group prepared to regard the modernization of the economy as serious, high-order political business. -The second stage of growth embraces societies in the process of transition; that is period when the preconditions for take-off are developed; for it takes time to ' form a traditional society in the ways necessary for it to exploit the fruits of science, to fend off diminishing returns, and thus to enjoy the blessings and opened up by the march of compound interest.

Political economy framework - Specific country contexts: Political economy in each developing world "giant" is very different!

India - "democracy" China - "state control"

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion a. Definition of traditional society

-In sociology, traditional society refers to a society characterized by an orientation to the past, not the future, with a predominant role for custom and habit. First the traditional society. A traditional society is one whose structure is developed within limited production functions, based on pre Newtonian science and technology, and on pre-Newtonian attitudes towards the physical world. Newton~ 1s here used as a symbol for that watershed in history when men came widely to behave: that the external world was subject to a few knowable laws, and was systematically capable of productive manipulation. -The conception of the traditional society is, however, is in no sense stat1c; and 1t would not exclude increases in output. Acreage could be expanded; some ad hoc technical innovations, often highly productive innovations, could be introduced in trade, industry and agriculture; productivity could rise with, for example, the improvement of irrigation works or the discovery and diffusion of a new crop. But the central fact about the traditional society was that a ceiling existed on the level of attainable output per head. This ceiling resulted from the fact that the potentialities which flow from modern science and technology were either not available or not regularly and systematically applied. Generally speaking, these societies, because of the limitation on productivity, had to devote a very high proportion of their resources to agriculture; and flowing from the agricultural system there was an hierarchical social structure, with relatively narrow scope but some scope for vertical mobility.

Akosombo dam case study Science and technology: discursive and political connections to development projects; i.e., what did Nkrumah hope the dam would do for Ghana as a newly-independent nation and for his own political movement?

1. Bring unity to Ghana's different social groups through a national project 2. Rapidly industrialize the Ghananian economy 3.The dam project was way to amass personal political power

Poverty Trap Model -Policy influence: "Big Push" interventions

In the context of the poverty trap model, a "Big Push" intervention refers to a comprehensive and coordinated effort to break the cycle of poverty by simultaneously addressing multiple factors that contribute to the poverty trap. This concept is often associated with economic development and is rooted in the idea that small, isolated interventions may not be sufficient to lift a community or region out of poverty because poverty can be self-reinforcing. The Big Push approach aims to create a synergistic effect by addressing multiple constraints and barriers simultaneously.

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion Influence on development policy and its emphasis on top-down interventions and large infrastructure

1. Emphasis on Technological Progress: Modernization theory suggests that societies progress through stages of development, with technology playing a pivotal role in this process. This emphasis on technological advancement has led development policymakers to prioritize large-scale infrastructure projects aimed at rapidly modernizing key sectors of the economy. These projects are seen as essential for achieving economic take-off and sustained growth. 2. Importance of Investment: The passage highlights the significance of investment in modernization. It notes that during the take-off stage, the rate of effective investment and savings increases substantially. This emphasis on high levels of investment has influenced development policy, with governments and international organizations often advocating for large-scale capital-intensive projects as a means to spur economic growth. 3. Sectoral Development: Modernization theory acknowledges the importance of sectoral development in the growth process. It recognizes that certain sectors, often referred to as "leading sectors," experience rapid growth and innovation during the early stages of modernization. Development policymakers may prioritize interventions in these sectors, such as the development of transportation, manufacturing, or energy infrastructure, to accelerate overall economic development. 4. Physical infrastructure (Akosombo dam,

Definition and three broad sets of characteristics of developing countries

1. Low productivity -In any given day, a typical person in the developing world produces fewer goods and services of value than does an average person in the developed world. -For example, most of the things that make successful U.S. engineers rich are well beyond their making: the schools they attended, the banks that gave them loans for their education, the companies that hired them, the many customers rich enough to afford their services, the roads they use to get to work, the computer and telecommunications technologies they use at their work, the police force and legal system that protect their ownership of their earnings and home, and so on. 2. Poor infrastructure -infrastructure, a term that refers to the facilities that make economic activity and economic exchange possible. Infrastructure is generally divided into four sectors: Transport communications Energy water. 3. As another economic characteristic, a large portion of economic activity in LDCs is concentrated in the primary sector, which is largely comprised of farming activities, and in unskilled labor. Less than 5 percent of the workforce in developed countries is in agriculture, yet in LDCs the amount is typically far greater than this. Finally, less developed economies have large informal sectors. The informal sector is comprised of economic activity that occurs outside the monitoring and legal purview of the government.

Decolonization following World War 2 (what was happening between the core and periphery following this>

1950-60s: Decolonization: South asia, sub-saharan Africa At this time, 2/3 of the world's population is in extreme poverty (less than 1.90 per day) Bandung Conference: Non-Aligned movement (India), 1950s - Called BRICS now (brazil, Russia, india, China, South Africa) ---- Colonial Legacy: These theories argued that the economic dominance of the core was initially established through Europe's colonial expansion. During the colonial era, European powers exploited the periphery for its resources, laying the groundwork for unequal power dynamics. Continuation of Exploitation: Even after decolonization, these theories contended that the core continued to exploit the periphery through economic globalization and forms of unequal exchange.

Putting the Last First (Chambers) Role in core-periphery model

?????

Political economy framework - Influence on livelihoods, society and vice-versa - Role of moral frameworks

A country's political economy framework has a profound impact on its citizens' livelihoods in various ways. The political economy framework encompasses the interaction of politics, economics, and institutions within a nation, and it plays a crucial role in shaping the well-being and opportunities available to its citizens. Here are several key ways in which a country's political economy framework can affect the livelihoods of its citizens: Economic Growth and Prosperity Income Inequality Access to Basic Services Employment Opportunities Business Environment Political Stability and Security Corruption and Accountability Social Inclusion and Marginalization Citizens' livelihoods can have a significant impact on the political economy framework of a country. While governments and institutions play a central role in shaping the political economy, the collective actions and demands of citizens can influence policies, priorities, and the overall direction of the political and economic systems. Here's how citizens' livelihoods can affect the political economy framework Voting and Political Participation Advocacy and Activism Labor Movements and Trade Unions ------- The framework of the moral dimension evaluates behavior as moral or immoral based on compliance with a set of moral values and expected attributes developed at the personal and professional levels. Moral frameworks, or the absence of them, can significantly impact a country's political economy framework in various ways. Morality and ethics play a crucial role in shaping economic policies, institutions, and societal values. Here are some ways in which moral frameworks and the lack thereof can impact the political economy: Policy Prioritization inequality and poverty. Regulation and Oversigh Taxation and Redistribution Corporate Responsibility Environmental Protection Social Welfare Programs Labor Rights Consumer Behavior International Trade and Aid Philanthropy and Charitable Giving Cultural Norms and Taboos Public Discourse and Accountability Social Movements and Activism Corruption and Ethical Violations Trust and Social Capital Innovation and Entrepreneurship Long-Term Economic Sustainability

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion Global political context (Cold War)

America wanted democracy and therefore modernization and Russia wanted communism and therefore a different type of modernization ---- At the height of the Cold War, a version of modernization theory emerged in the United States that portrayed underdevelopment as a direct consequence of a country's psychological and cultural traits. Underdevelopment was said to reflect irrational traditional religious and communal values that discouraged achievement. The rich Western democracies could instill modern values and bring progress to "backward" nations through economic, cultural, and military assistance. By the 1970s, however, it had become clear that assistance had not brought much progress toward prosperity or democracy—leading to a loss of confidence in the Cold War version of modernization, which was increasingly criticized as ethnocentric and patronizing. It came under heavy criticism from "dependency theorists," who argued that trade with rich countries exploits poor countries, locking them into positions of structural dependence. The elites in developing countries welcomed such thinking, since it implied that poverty had nothing to do with internal problems or the corruption of local leaders; it was the fault of global capitalism. By the 1980s, dependency theory was in vogue. Third World nations, the thinking went, could escape from global exploitation only by withdrawing from global markets and adopting import substitution policies.

Import Substitute Industrialization (ISI)

An economic theory adhered to by developing countries that wish to decrease their dependence on developed countries. ISI targets the protection and incubation of newly formed domestic industries to fully develop sectors so the goods produced are competitive with imported goods.

Nunn and Wantchekon (slavery) - How do they challenge concepts of modernization

Culture and History Matter: Modernization theory often assumes that economic development and modernization will lead to changes in cultural norms and attitudes, including increased trust and social capital. However, Nunn and Wantchekon's study challenges this assumption by showing that historical events, such as the slave trade, can have long-lasting effects on culture and trust. This suggests that culture and history play a significant role in shaping societal outcomes, even in the face of economic development. Context Matters: Modernization theory tends to take a one-size-fits-all approach, assuming that economic progress will have similar effects on trust and behavior across different societies. Nunn and Wantchekon's research highlights the importance of considering historical context and specific events when analyzing trust levels. They demonstrate that the historical experience of the slave trade had a unique and enduring impact on trust within Africa, emphasizing the need for context-specific analyses.

Akosombo dam case study Formation of the gatekeeper state/personalization of politics

Gatekeeper state: the national government is the one place you can go through to begin a development project or business So this is these are the gatekeepers states really lead to authoritarian regimes around the developing world, and this unfortunately, these two went together. So you have this kind of Iron Triangle of centralization, and you know, massive, you know, government action on infrastructure and modernization and very non democratic authoritarian regimes. So if you combine the logic and the ideology of modernization, which says that traditional societies are backwards, with an unaccountable authoritarian regime that really paves the way for all kinds of abuse abuses and tragedies.

Development strategy based on World Systems Theory (and inspired by framework of War Capitalism): Import Substitute Industrialization (ISI) Principal justification (in-class) and outcome (Baker p114

Dependence on Core Countries: World Systems Theory posits that the global economy is divided into a core (developed) and a periphery (underdeveloped). According to WST, periphery countries are dependent on core countries due to historical exploitation and unequal exchange. Focus on Structural Transformation: A development strategy based on WST would likely emphasize the need for structural transformation in periphery countries. This may involve diversifying the economy away from primary products and agriculture and moving up the value chain into more technologically advanced industries. Reducing Dependency: WST suggests that periphery countries should reduce their dependency on core countries. This could involve policies aimed at reducing reliance on core nations for technology, capital, and market access. Economic Nationalism: WST often advocates economic nationalism and protectionist policies to shield domestic industries from the potentially negative impacts of global capitalism. This may include measures such as tariffs and import restrictions. Regional Cooperation: Some interpretations of WST emphasize the importance of regional cooperation among periphery countries. Regional economic integration and cooperation can help these countries collectively negotiate better terms in the global economy. Critique of Neoliberalism: WST tends to critique neoliberal economic policies, which emphasize free-market capitalism and limited government intervention. Instead, it may support more government involvement in the economy to address social inequalities and promote development.

Anti-Politics Machine (Ferguson article) Complexity of livelihoods

Dependence on South African Mines: A significant structural-political factor affecting livelihoods in Lesotho is the region's economy, which is heavily dependent on wage labor in South African mines. Many Basotho men migrate to South Africa to work in these mines, contributing substantially to their families' income. However, this migration creates a complex web of economic dependencies and challenges: 1. Families depend on remittances sent by miners working in South Africa. 2. The mining sector's health impacts, job insecurity, and wage fluctuations affect households' well-being. 3. Male labor migration leaves many women and children behind, requiring them to manage household affairs and agriculture. ------ Labor Reserve System: Lesotho operates as a labor reserve for South African mines, which means that workers from Lesotho are recruited to work in the mines during peak demand and then return home during the off-season. This seasonal migration pattern further complicates livelihood strategies: Families need to adapt to the irregular flow of remittances and changes in household dynamics. Agricultural activities must be timed to align with the return of male family members during the off-season. ------- Agricultural Livelihoods: Agriculture remains a crucial component of Basotho livelihoods, especially in rural areas. However, the agricultural sector faces several challenges and complexities: Dependence on rain-fed agriculture, making households vulnerable to droughts and climate variability. Balancing subsistence farming with cash crop production for income generation. Land access and ownership issues, which can lead to land scarcity and disputes. The need to diversify agricultural practices and income sources for food security.

Slave trade direct and indirect Demographic Impacts (Baker textbook)

Direct Demographic Impacts: Population Depletion: The direct demographic impact of the transatlantic slave trade was the large-scale forced migration of Africans to the Americas as slaves. This resulted in a significant reduction in the population of African regions from which slaves were captured, such as West and Central Africa. The loss of millions of people had a profound effect on these regions. Age and Gender Imbalances: The slave trade often targeted specific demographic groups, primarily young adult males. This led to imbalances in age and gender ratios in the source regions, with a disproportionate number of women and children left behind. This demographic distortion had consequences for family structures and labor dynamics. Cultural Disruption: The forced removal of individuals from their communities disrupted cultural norms, traditions, and social structures. Families and communities were torn apart, and cultural practices were severely impacted. ---- Indirect Demographic Impacts: Labor Shortages: The loss of a large portion of the working-age population due to the slave trade created labor shortages in many African societies. This had economic repercussions, as it reduced agricultural productivity and hindered economic development. Social and Political Instability: The disruption caused by the slave trade, including the loss of leadership figures and productive members of society, contributed to social and political instability in source regions. This instability could impede efforts to build effective governance and institutions. Economic Consequences: The demographic impacts of the slave trade contributed to long-term economic underdevelopment in source regions. Labor shortages and disrupted economies hindered the development of industries and infrastructure. Legacy of Trauma: The trauma and social dislocation caused by the slave trade had long-lasting psychological and social effects on the descendants of those who were enslaved and on the communities left behind. This legacy of trauma and dislocation can affect social cohesion and development.

Slave trade direct and indirect Economic Impacts (Baker textbook)

Direct Economic Impacts: Loss of Labor Force: The most direct and immediate impact of the transatlantic slave trade was the large-scale extraction of millions of African men, women, and children from their homelands. This resulted in a significant loss of human capital, particularly able-bodied individuals who could have contributed to the continent's economic development. Disruption of Societies: The slave trade disrupted African societies and communities as people were forcibly taken away from their homes. This disruption led to social instability and undermined economic activities, such as agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship, which relied on stable communities. Economic Drain: The direct economic impact of the slave trade was the extraction of valuable human resources without adequate compensation to Africa. European slave traders acquired enslaved Africans at relatively low costs and sold them at significantly higher prices in the Americas, generating substantial profits for European colonial powers. --------- Indirect Economic Impacts: Depopulation: The massive depopulation caused by the slave trade had profound indirect effects. The loss of a significant portion of the population led to labor shortages and reduced agricultural productivity, as well as a decline in skilled artisans and craftsmen. Underdevelopment: Regions that were heavily impacted by the slave trade often experienced long-term economic underdevelopment. The drain of human capital and the disruption of economic activities hindered these regions' ability to develop economically. Economic Distortions: Societies and regions that actively participated in the slave trade saw economic distortions. Wealth and power became concentrated in the hands of those involved in the trade, leading to economic inequalities and disparities within these societies. Disrupted Trade Patterns: The slave trade disrupted established trade networks and patterns in Africa. Resources that were previously traded within Africa or with other parts of the world were redirected toward the slave trade, resulting in less diversified trade and economic dislocation. Institutional Changes: The slave trade led to significant institutional changes in some African societi

Sachs and Malaney: Uneven burden of malaria and endemic tropical diseases burden Links to poverty traps

Direct Health Costs: Malaria imposes direct health costs on individuals and households. When people contract malaria, they often require medical treatment, which includes the cost of anti-malarial drugs, doctor's fees, and transportation to healthcare facilities. These costs can be substantial for families with limited financial resources. In some cases, households may need to sell assets or borrow money to cover these expenses, pushing them deeper into poverty. Reduced Labor Productivity: Malaria can lead to reduced labor productivity due to illness. When individuals, particularly working-age adults, are infected with malaria, they may be unable to work for an extended period. This loss of income can have a significant impact on household finances. In agricultural settings, for example, the inability to work during planting or harvesting seasons can result in lower crop yields and income. Education Disruption: Malaria-related school absenteeism can disrupt children's education. When children miss school due to illness or the need to care for sick family members, their learning is affected. Over time, this can lead to lower educational attainment and reduced future earning potential. Children who drop out of school due to malaria may face limited economic opportunities. High Fertility Rates: The article mentions a link between high infant and child mortality rates, which are prevalent in malaria-endemic areas, and high fertility rates. This link can be explained by two hypotheses: parents may have additional children to replace those lost to malaria, or they may aim for a specific number of surviving children. High fertility rates can strain family resources, as more children need to be fed, clothed, and educated, potentially perpetuating the cycle of poverty. Limited Savings and Investment: Malaria-related expenses, including healthcare costs and lost income, can reduce households' capacity to save and invest in their future. Families may struggle to build financial reserves or invest in income-generating activities when they are constantly battling the economic burden of malaria. Reduced Human Capital Development: Malaria can impair cognitive development in children and lead to long-term health issues.

Slave trade direct and indirect Political Impacts (Baker textbook)

Direct Political Impacts: Political Instability: The slave trade contributed to political instability in Africa as various African societies and kingdoms engaged in conflicts and wars to capture slaves for the European market. This competition for captives often led to the destabilization of regions and the weakening of political institutions. Emergence of Slave-Trading States: Some African societies actively engaged in the slave trade and became known as "slave-trading states." These states established dominance in their regions by collaborating with European slave traders. They often used their position to acquire firearms and other valuable goods from Europeans, which further consolidated their power. Impact on Governance: The slave trade influenced the governance structures of African societies involved in the trade. Centralized and authoritarian systems sometimes emerged to facilitate the capture and sale of slaves. These systems prioritized the interests of the slave trade over broader political and economic development. ------- Indirect Political Impacts: Weakened Societies: The slave trade weakened many African societies and kingdoms by depleting their populations, disrupting social structures, and causing political fragmentation. This weakening made these societies more vulnerable to external pressures, including European colonialism. Shift in Power Dynamics: The slave trade altered power dynamics within African societies. Leaders and elites who benefited from the trade often gained greater influence, while traditional authorities and institutions were sometimes undermined or co-opted by those involved in the trade. Colonialism and Partition: The legacy of political instability and weakened states left some African regions susceptible to European colonialism. European powers exploited existing divisions and rivalries, leading to the colonization and partition of Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Impact on Identity: The slave trade had profound and lasting impacts on African identity and social cohesion. Communities that were affected by the slave trade often experienced significant disruptions to their cultural and social fabric, which influenced their political cohesion and iden

Structures of power, extraction, and coercion Colonization of India

Economic Exploitation: The article emphasizes how European powers, particularly the British East India Company, engaged in economic exploitation of India. This exploitation involved the extraction of wealth from India through the control of trade, taxation, and resource extraction. Control Over Trade: European merchants and companies, such as the East India Company, gained significant control over India's trade networks. They established trading posts, monopolized key commodities like cotton, and manipulated trade to their advantage. This control over trade contributed to the economic subjugation of India. Manipulation of Production: European colonial powers sought to gain control over the production process within India. They attempted to bypass Indian intermediaries and establish their own agents to manage production and distribution. This allowed them to influence production methods and set prices. Territorial Control: The article discusses how territorial control and political authority were used to further economic interests. European colonial powers established territorial control over parts of India, enabling them to enforce their economic policies and extract resources more effectively. Coercion and Violence: European powers, including the British, often resorted to coercion and violence to maintain control and suppress resistance. This included punitive measures against weavers and artisans who resisted company policies, as well as the use of Indian soldiers (sepoys) to enforce colonial rule. Impact on Indian Weavers: The article highlights the impact of colonization on Indian weavers, who were adversely affected by the changing economic conditions. Weavers became increasingly dependent on advances from European companies and had limited control over pricing and production. Loss of Economic Autonomy: As a result of European colonial policies, India lost much of its economic autonomy. The article points out that weavers were compelled to take advances from particular merchants, and regulations made it difficult for them to sell their cloth in open markets. Shifts in Production: European colonial powers encouraged shifts in the location of textile production, such as relocating weavers to Bombay

Inglehart and Welzel: relationship between economic modernization and liberal democracy

Economic Modernization Drives Democratization: They argue that economic development is a primary driver of the emergence and survival of liberal democracies. While early industrialization may not necessarily lead to democracy, beyond a certain level of economic development, democracy becomes increasingly likely to take root and persist. -Cultural Changes and Values Matter: Modernization is not just about economic factors. It involves profound cultural changes, including shifts in values. Specifically, they discuss the transition from traditional values, emphasizing religion and obedience to authority, to secular-rational values and self-expression values, which prioritize individual autonomy, freedom of expression, and political participation.

Inglehart and Welzel: relationship between economic modernization and liberal democracy a. Mechanisms that form the relationship

Education and Knowledge Sector: Economic modernization is associated with improved access to education and the development of a knowledge-based economy. Education enhances political awareness and civic engagement among citizens. A well-educated population is more likely to understand the importance of democratic values, leading to increased demands for political freedoms. Shift in Values: As societies modernize economically, there is a shift in societal values. Traditional values, often associated with authoritarianism and hierarchy, give way to secular-rational and self-expression values. This shift places a higher emphasis on individual autonomy, human rights, and political participation, creating a fertile ground for liberal democracy to take root. Economic Security: Economic modernization provides greater economic security to a significant portion of the population. When individuals and families feel economically secure, they are more inclined to engage in political activities and advocate for democratic principles. Economic stability reduces the immediate focus on survival and allows people to prioritize self-expression and participation in the political process. Economic Development and Middle Class: Economic modernization leads to the growth of a middle class, which is characterized by higher income levels and increased education. This middle class becomes a driving force for democracy as its members are more likely to demand political participation, accountability, and protection of their rights. Their economic and educational status empowers them to engage in political activities and advocate for democratic reforms.

Nunn and Wantchekon (slavery) Rule of thumb rule of behavior

Evolution of Rules of Thumb: The constant threat of raids, capture, and enslavement by European slave traders created an environment where individuals and communities needed to develop strategies for survival. One of these strategies was the development of rules of thumb, which were practical guidelines or heuristics for behavior aimed at minimizing risk and ensuring safety. Determining Whom to Trust: Guidelines for assessing the trustworthiness of others, including individuals from one's own community and those from different ethnic groups. Safe Social Interactions: Strategies for engaging in social interactions while minimizing the risk of betrayal or capture. Risk Avoidance: Practical advice on avoiding situations or behaviors that could increase the likelihood of being captured or sold into slavery. Community Survival: Collective norms and practices that aimed to protect the community as a whole from external threats. Resource Management: Guidelines for managing and protecting vital resources, such as food, water, and shelter, in an environment marked by insecurity.

Sachs and Malaney: Uneven burden of malaria and endemic tropical diseases burden Geography of malaria and its impacts

Geographical Distribution: Malaria is described as being geographically distributed, with a focus on tropical and subtropical regions. It highlights that the extent of poverty and malaria transmission closely align with these geographical boundaries. In essence, the article points out that malaria is most prevalent in specific geographical zones, which are also characterized by higher poverty rates. Impact on Economic Growth: The geographical distribution of malaria is closely linked to economic development. The article notes that in areas where malaria is most prevalent (primarily tropical and subtropical regions), human societies tend to prosper least. It highlights a strong correlation between malaria and poverty, as well as lower rates of economic growth in malaria-endemic countries. Changing Patterns of Transmission: The article discusses how the global pattern of malaria transmission has changed over time. It mentions that efforts to control malaria have been successful in temperate regions, leading to a decline in transmission. However, malaria remains highly concentrated in tropical regions, particularly in Africa, where it accounts for a significant portion of global malaria mortality. Malaria's Concentration in Africa: The article emphasizes that Africa alone accounts for a substantial percentage (90%) of malaria mortality worldwide. This highlights the concentration of the disease in specific geographical regions, mainly sub-Saharan Africa. Climatic Factors: The article discusses how climatic factors, such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity, influence the geographical distribution of malaria. It explains that malaria transmission is more stable and intense in regions with warmer temperatures, such as tropical and subtropical areas. Seasonal temperature variation is particularly important in determining the geographical distribution of the disease. Economic and Geographic Impacts: The geographical distribution of malaria has significant economic and geographic impacts. It affects fertility, population growth, labor productivity, and educational outcomes in regions where it is prevalent. The article highlights that the economic and demographic consequences of malaria go well beyond individua

Nunn and Wantchekon (slavery) Provides critique of geographical/disease burden model for sub-Saharan Africa

Geographical Model: The geographical model for sub-Saharan Africa often emphasizes the role of geographical factors, such as climate, terrain, and proximity to coastlines, in shaping economic and social outcomes. Nunn and Wantchekon's research highlights that the impact of historical events, like the slave trade, can be a crucial determinant of trust levels, even when considering geographical factors. This suggests that a sole reliance on geographical explanations may overlook the influence of historical events on contemporary outcomes. Disease Burden Model: The disease burden model suggests that the prevalence of diseases, such as malaria, in sub-Saharan Africa has had a significant impact on economic development and societal outcomes. While Nunn and Wantchekon do not directly address this model, their study underscores the importance of considering multiple historical factors in addition to disease burden. They show that the historical experience of the slave trade can have enduring effects on trust levels, suggesting that a comprehensive understanding of Africa's development challenges should encompass a range of historical events, not just disease prevalence.

Economic history/great divergence

Great divergence theory: The belief is that the elighqment and Industrial Revolution was the main reasons behind this divergence Roots of the industrial revolution and the "great divergence": Great Divergence - when small countries became rich ^science/technology-driven/enlightenment Thus began a long and steady economic divergence between the West and the rest of the world. This divergence created the gap, still in existence today, between the rich countries that initially adopted the technologies and organizational features of the Industrial Revolution and the less developed countries that did not until much later. human capital- the skill, knowledge, and health of the labor force.

Structures of power, extraction, and coercion Hacienda/encomienda legacies in Latin America

Hacienda/encomienda legacies in Latin America Hacienda economy: a small elite owning all the land for export agriculture -the elites had an incredible amount of control of the people there Encomiedna: gave control over people through a royal decree -the spnaish/portguqese crown said all these people in these areas are your subjects -allowed forced labor from the natives

Deaton: Socioeconomic dynamics of health & mortality Various forces that drive up infant mortality and other indicators of poor public health in developing countries.

Historical Factors: The passage implies that in Africa, historical factors have played a role in the persistence of diseases. It suggests that coexistence with diseases has been a long-standing issue in the region. Lack of Awareness: The passage suggests that many people in developing countries may not realize that improved healthcare and health outcomes are attainable. Government Capacity: The passage highlights a lack of government capacity as a significant issue. It mentions that many countries lack the necessary administrative structures, educated bureaucracies, statistical systems, and legal frameworks required for an effective healthcare system. Healthcare Workforce Issues: The passage points out that absenteeism among healthcare workers, including doctors and nurses, is a common problem. It suggests that this absenteeism can lead to reduced access to healthcare services and poorer health outcomes.

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion Centrality of the nation-state as focus of development and the impacts of this focus

Impact on Regional Interests: The focus on the nation-state is portrayed as being in opposition to traditional regional interests. As the centralized national state gains prominence, it may compete with or supplant the influence of regional powers or colonial authorities. Nation-State as the Focus: The passage underscores the importance of the nation-state in driving economic development. It suggests that the building of an effective centralized national state is a decisive aspect of the preconditions period before economic takeoff. Nation-states play a crucial role in shaping the trajectory of development. Centralized National State: The development of an effective centralized national state often involves coalitions and a new sense of nationalism. This process is seen as necessary for the transition from traditional societal structures to modern ones and for achieving economic takeoff.

Two channels linking slave trade and contemporary conditions in sub-Saharan African societies

Internal and external factors External channels: Political Cultural norms Geographic mobility Institutional Social structures Internal: Beliefs + values Behavioral norms Poverty trap One of the channels highlighted in the article is the role of internal norms and beliefs. The transatlantic slave trade, characterized by widespread insecurity, had a profound impact on the evolution of cultural norms and internalized beliefs within African communities. As a result of the constant threat of capture and enslavement, individuals and communities developed internal norms of mistrust and caution. The second channel discussed in the article pertains to the external factors and institutions influenced by the slave trade. The transatlantic slave trade disrupted existing political, legal, and economic institutions in Africa. Communities that were heavily affected by the slave trade often experienced a deterioration in their local governance structures, the rule of law, and other institutional arrangements.

Inglehart and Welzel: relationship between economic Corrections to Modernization 1.0 (Rostow)

It ignores history Very rigid in its vision/model Does not account for location or resources Modernization does not automatically bring democracy yet he makes it seem so Critiques/limitations: Assumes process is linear (rigid) Doesn't account for history or sociocultural differences or natural resources -implies modernization --> democracy Modernization doesn't always improve people's quality of life ^linked to (imperialistic) foreign policy He focuses on internal conditions (traditional beliefs) <--> Neotonian worldwide '->ceiling on economic growth, social horizons

Anti-Politics Machine (Ferguson article) Top-down development packages

Lack of Local Contextualization: Top-down development packages tend to be generic and may not take into account the specific needs, challenges, and cultural context of the local population in Lesotho. They are often formulated based on the priorities and perspectives of external actors. Limited Consideration of Political Factors: These packages often overlook the political character of the state and its class basis. The article suggests that development agencies present the government as a neutral and effective instrument for implementing plans, ignoring political dynamics and the interests of ruling elites. This narrow focus on technical solutions can lead to an inadequate understanding of the underlying political issues. Neglect of Social and Cultural Factors: Top-down approaches may not adequately consider the social, cultural, and historical factors that shape livelihoods and decision-making in Lesotho. Livelihoods in Lesotho are described as complex, with deep-rooted social practices and economic dependencies that may not align with external development priorities.

Sachs and Malaney: Uneven burden of malaria and endemic tropical diseases burden Two mechanisms through which malaria has negative economic impacts

Micro: how it affect households, schooling Household savings go down bc of money spent on medical care When sick cant go to school and learn Migration is affected as there are barriers to moving out Demography: having more kids means more poverty traps MACRO: Reduced Economic Growth: Malaria has been shown to hinder economic growth in endemic regions. The disease leads to decreased productivity and increased healthcare expenditures, which, in turn, lower a country's overall economic output. Reduced economic growth can result in persistent poverty and slow progress in improving living standards. Impact on Labor Force: Malaria can reduce the size and efficiency of the labor force. Infected individuals often suffer from recurrent bouts of illness, leading to absenteeism from work. In agricultural economies, this can result in lower crop yields and decreased agricultural productivity. Malaria's impact on the labor force can hinder a country's overall economic performance. Human Capital Loss: Malaria affects human capital development, particularly in children. Cognitive impairment, educational disruptions, and long-term health issues can lead to a less skilled and less productive workforce. This can limit a nation's capacity to compete in a globalized economy that increasingly values knowledge and skills. High Healthcare Costs: The costs associated with treating and managing malaria on a national scale can be substantial. Government healthcare systems must allocate significant resources to address the disease's burden, including funding for clinics, medications, and healthcare personnel. These costs divert resources that could be used for other critical health and development priorities. Budgetary Constraints: Malaria-related healthcare costs and decreased economic productivity can strain a country's budget. Governments may allocate a significant portion of their healthcare budgets to combat malaria, leaving fewer resources available for other health initiatives, infrastructure development, and social services. Reduced Foreign Investment: High malaria prevalence can deter foreign direct investment (FDI). Investors may be reluctant to invest in countries where the risk of malaria transmission is high due to c

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion b. Definition of development itself

Modernization theory casts development as a uniform evolutionary route that all societies follow, a syndrome of social change linked with, social changes, industrial changes/rapid growth, democracy to achieve development politically by developing a democratic political system

Nunn and Wantchekon (slavery) Overarching questions: How historic shift in slave trade's organization affected African societies and communities in ways that contribute to present-day persistent poverty (reading/in-class)

Persistent Poverty: The historic shift in the slave trade's organization contributed to present-day persistent poverty in several ways: a. Loss of Human Capital: The massive export of slaves resulted in a significant loss of human capital for African societies. Many of the healthiest and most productive individuals were taken away, which had long-term economic consequences. b. Weakened Social Cohesion: The violence and disruption caused by the slave trade weakened social cohesion and trust within communities. These effects continue to hinder development and cooperation. c. Institutional Legacy: The legacy of weakened institutions and political instability caused by the slave trade persists in many African nations. These institutions play a crucial role in economic development and governance. d. Interference in Economic Activities: The slave trade interfered with traditional economic activities in Africa, diverting resources and labor away from productive sectors.

Political economy framework - Public versus Private | States versus markets |

Political economy is the relationship between public and private actors (in the overlap between the two) Private Econ sphere -indiv actors: Subsistence, profit Public sphere -collective action for health, security, well-being ^these are public goods When there is interaction between these two spheres there is a political economy Framework that we can use This interaction is structured by power relations -sometimes shaped by laws -force, violence -mediated through relationships -gender, ethnicity -Socioeconomic status

Anti-Politics Machine (Ferguson article) Structural-political factors: regional economy based on wage labor in South African mines and labor reserve system

Regional Economy Based on Wage Labor in South African Mines: Lesotho's regional economy is significantly shaped by the wage labor system in South African mines. Many Basotho people, primarily men, work as laborers in the mines of neighboring South Africa. This wage labor system is a crucial structural-political factor for several reasons: Economic Dependency: Lesotho is economically dependent on remittances sent back by Basotho miners working in South African mines. The income earned by these miners is vital for supporting their families and contributing to Lesotho's economy. Seasonal Labor Migration: The article implies that this wage labor system has led to a pattern of seasonal labor migration. Basotho miners typically spend extended periods working in South Africa and return to Lesotho periodically. This migration pattern affects the social and economic dynamics within Lesotho, as it influences family structures, gender roles, and the economy. Vulnerability to Wage Fluctuations: Changes in wages and working conditions in South African mines have a direct impact on the economic well-being of Basotho miners and their families in Lesotho. This vulnerability to fluctuations in the mining industry is a significant structural factor in Lesotho's economy.

Nunn and Wantchekon (slavery) Overarching questions: How history impacts present-day social relations, community dynamics via institutions, national political systems, and global economic structures

Social Relations: The legacy of the slave trade has enduring effects on trust levels within African societies. Individuals whose ancestors were heavily affected by the slave trade tend to have lower levels of trust in others, including family members, neighbors, and co-ethnics. This historical mistrust continues to shape social relations within communities. Community Dynamics: The study suggests that over the centuries, the slave trade led to the evolution of cultural norms and beliefs based on mistrust. These norms have been transmitted from generation to generation, impacting community dynamics. Suspicion and mistrust among community members can affect cooperation, social cohesion, and collective action. Institutions: The research indicates that the slave trade not only influenced internal norms but also had an adverse impact on external institutions. Weakened legal and political institutions resulting from the slave trade persist to this day, affecting governance, rule of law, and public trust in institutions at the national level. National Political Systems: Historical events, including the slave trade and its consequences, have shaped the political landscape in African countries. The study's findings imply that the mistrust embedded in the culture can influence political behavior and attitudes toward government. Lower trust in institutions can impact participation in the political process and attitudes toward governance. Global Economic Structures: While the study primarily focuses on the internal dynamics within Africa, it indirectly touches on the global economic structures. The long-term effects of the slave trade, such as lower trust and potentially weaker institutions, can impact a nation's economic development and its interactions within the global economy. Trust is a critical factor in economic transactions, trade, and investment.

Putting the Last First (Chambers) Biases of development practice and the problems they create

Spatial Bias: This bias refers to the tendency of urban-based visitors and researchers to focus their attention on easily accessible areas, typically more prosperous or developed regions near urban centers. Effects of spatial bias include: Limited exposure to the realities of poverty in remote or less accessible rural areas. An incomplete understanding of the full spectrum of rural poverty, as these areas may face unique challenges. Project Bias: Project bias occurs when visitors or researchers pay attention primarily to areas or communities involved in specific development projects. Effects of project bias include: A skewed perception of poverty, as projects often target specific communities and may not represent the broader rural population. A failure to recognize the extent of poverty in areas not covered by such projects. Person Bias: Person bias involves focusing on specific individuals or groups within a community while neglecting others. This bias can lead to: An inaccurate representation of poverty, as certain individuals or groups may receive more attention, potentially based on personal biases or preconceived notions. An oversight of the most vulnerable or marginalized members of a community. Dry Season Bias: Dry season bias occurs when visitors or researchers conduct their observations primarily during certain seasons, often avoiding the wet or difficult periods. Effects of this bias include: An incomplete understanding of the challenges faced by rural communities during adverse weather conditions. Failure to capture the full extent of seasonal variations in rural poverty. Diplomatic Biases (Politeness and Timidity): Diplomatic biases involve politeness and timidity, which deter visitors and researchers from discussing poverty openly or confronting those in influential positions. Effects include: Avoidance of important discussions about poverty-related issues. Inhibition of open dialogue about poverty and its causes. Professional Biases: Professional biases result from the specific training, values, and interests of professionals, which can lead them to focus on certain aspects of rural life while neglecting others. Effects of professional bias include: A narrow perspective on rural pover

World Systems Theory Structural-historical explanation for underdevelopment

Sructural-Historical Explanation: Early theories of underdevelopment, influenced by Marxist critiques of capitalism, emphasized the structural-historical explanation. They argued that underdevelopment in the global South was primarily a result of historical economic exchanges with the developed world. Core and Periphery Concept: These theories viewed the world economy as an integrated capitalist system with a core (developed, wealthy countries) and a periphery (less developed, agrarian countries). They argued that the economic dominance of the core was initially established through colonial expansion and perpetuated through postcolonial globalization. Unequal Exchange: According to these theories, the periphery did not receive fair returns for the primary products (raw materials and agricultural products) it exported to the core. This imbalance in exchange led to the rapid accumulation of technology and wealth in the core at the expense of the periphery. Factors Leading to Declining Terms of Trade: Latin American Structuralism, for instance, pointed to the declining terms of trade for the periphery, meaning they were getting less for their exports over time. This was attributed to the greater organization of labor and business in the core, which prevented sharp price declines during recessions. Dependency and Exploitation: Dependency theorists argued that the core actively underdeveloped the periphery by extracting surplus value from it. They claimed that an international bourgeoisie, based in the core, expropriated much of the surplus value generated by the periphery. Challenges to Structural-Historical Explanation: The passages also discuss challenges and critiques of these structural-historical explanations. Some argue that the evidence of declining terms of trade is mixed, depending on the timeframe examined. Additionally, these theories faced internal contradictions and conceptual problems. Examples of Contradictory Outcomes: The economic rise of East Asian Tigers, such as South Korea, challenged the notion that periphery countries could not move up the global commodity chain through engagement with global markets. It showed that wages and prosperity could increase as productivity rose. Transition

Rostow's stages of modernization from reading and discussion Relationship to political economy framework of class

Stages of Development: Rostow's model identifies five stages of economic growth, which are traditional society, pre-conditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and age of high mass consumption. In these stages, he suggests that political changes often accompany economic development. Role of Political Institutions: Rostow recognizes the importance of political institutions in facilitating economic development. As a country progresses through the stages, it is expected to develop more sophisticated political institutions that can support economic growth. This includes the establishment of stable legal systems, property rights protection, and the rule of law. Political Stability: Rostow argues that political stability is a prerequisite for sustained economic growth. Political stability can be seen as a political economy factor that underpins the development process. In the early stages, a country may experience political turmoil, but as it progresses, it is expected to achieve greater political stability. Modernization and Democracy: Rostow's model implies a link between economic modernization and the development of democratic political systems. He suggests that as a country modernizes economically, it is more likely to transition to a democratic political system, as democracy is seen as a more stable and adaptable form of governance.

Anti-Politics Machine (Ferguson article) Knowledge formation for development (the World Bank analytical report on Lesotho)

The article criticizes the approach of knowledge formation for development, particularly as exemplified by the World Bank's analytical report on Lesotho. It argues that the World Bank and other development agencies tend to present a skewed and incomplete picture of Lesotho's economic and social reality. These reports often focus on technical and economic aspects while neglecting the underlying structural-political factors and complexities of livelihoods in Lesotho. The article suggests that the World Bank's analysis fails to consider the political character of the state and its class-based nature. It overlooks the fact that the ruling government may not be democratic and often portrays the state as an impartial instrument solely dedicated to development. Political parties and political opposition are rarely discussed in the development discourse, and the role of "development" institutions in supporting ruling parties is downplayed or concealed. Furthermore, the article argues that the top-down development packages promoted by institutions like the World Bank have not worked in Lesotho. These packages tend to overlook the complexity of livelihoods in the country and do not consider the nuanced realities of the people's lives, especially those involved in wage labor in South African mines and the labor reserve system.

Global core-periphery

The concept of the "global core-periphery" is a framework used in geography, economics, and sociology to describe the hierarchical structure of the global economy and the uneven distribution of economic development and power among countries and regions. It is often used to analyze how economic activities, resources, and wealth are concentrated and distributed on a global scale. The core-periphery model can vary in complexity, but at its core, it consists of two primary components: Core: The "core" refers to the most developed and economically advanced regions or countries in the world. These areas are typically characterized by high levels of industrialization, advanced technology, a well-developed infrastructure, and a highly skilled workforce. They often have strong financial and service sectors, and they are centers of innovation and economic activity. Core regions or countries are major contributors to global economic growth and are often dominant in shaping global economic policies and institutions. They tend to have higher standards of living and greater access to resources and opportunities. Periphery: The "periphery" refers to less developed or economically disadvantaged regions or countries. These areas often have limited industrialization, lower levels of technological advancement, inadequate infrastructure, and a less skilled workforce. They may rely heavily on agriculture or extractive industries. Periphery regions or countries tend to be marginalized within the global economy, with less influence in shaping global economic policies. They often experience lower standards of living, higher levels of poverty, and limited access to resources and opportunities. The core-periphery model is not a static or fixed concept; it can change over time as countries and regions undergo economic development and transformation. Some variations of the model include the "semi-periphery," which represents regions that occupy an intermediate position between the core and periphery. These regions may have some characteristics of both core and periphery areas.

current US-China rivalry

The rivalry is for geopolitical dominance: Trade and Economic Competition: The economic dimension of the rivalry was a major focus. The U.S. and China were engaged in a trade war characterized by tariffs and other trade restrictions imposed by both sides. The U.S. was concerned about China's trade practices, including alleged intellectual property theft, unfair trade practices, and the large trade deficit with China. Technology and Innovation: Technology and innovation were central to the rivalry. The U.S. was concerned about China's rapid technological advancements, particularly in areas like 5G, artificial intelligence, and advanced manufacturing. The U.S. implemented measures to restrict the export of certain technologies to China and scrutinized Chinese investments in U.S. tech companies. ----- How has China done this: Economic Growth and Trade: China has experienced rapid economic growth over several decades. It has become the world's second-largest economy by nominal GDP and the largest by purchasing power parity. China's export-led growth strategy, which includes a vast manufacturing sector, has allowed it to compete effectively in international markets. State-Led Industrial Policy: China has employed a state-led industrial policy that focuses on strategic industries and technologies. Initiatives like "Made in China 2025" aim to promote the development of advanced manufacturing and high-tech industries. State-owned enterprises play a significant role in these efforts. Investment in Research and Development: China has significantly increased its investment in research and development (R&D). It has become a leader in areas such as 5G technology, artificial intelligence, and quantum computing. China has also attracted top talent from around the world to work in its technology sector. Infrastructure Development: China has invested heavily in infrastructure development, including transportation networks, ports, and telecommunications. This infrastructure supports its economic growth and trade.

Shortcomings of modernization programs a. Deficiencies of top-down theoretical and practice models

They have a predefined, fits-all approach to modernization Without considering what the people actually need One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Modernization programs have often been criticized for their tendency to adopt a one-size-fits-all approach. What works in one context may not work in another, as each country has unique historical, cultural, and economic factors that influence its development path. Cultural Insensitivity: Modernization programs can sometimes overlook or dismiss the cultural values and traditions of the target population. Rapid modernization can lead to the erosion of traditional customs and practices, which can cause social disruption and dislocation. Social Inequality: Some modernization efforts have exacerbated social inequality. Economic growth may benefit a small elite while leaving a significant portion of the population in poverty. This can lead to social unrest and instability.

Deaton: Socioeconomic dynamics of health & mortality "diseases of poverty"

Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs. It is a disease of poverty because it is more prevalent in areas with overcrowded living conditions, poor nutrition, and limited access to healthcare. Malaria: Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by parasites. It is common in many tropical and subtropical regions with limited resources, and it can be deadly if not promptly treated. Diarrhea: Diarrheal diseases, often caused by contaminated water and inadequate sanitation, are a significant health issue in impoverished areas. These diseases can lead to severe dehydration and malnutrition, especially in children. Lower Respiratory Infections: Infections of the lower respiratory tract, such as pneumonia, are more prevalent in areas with poor air quality, overcrowded living conditions, and limited access to healthcare. Childhood Diseases: Diseases like whooping cough, diphtheria, polio, measles, and tetanus are often considered childhood diseases. They can be prevented through vaccination and improved healthcare infrastructure. Perinatal Conditions: These are conditions related to the period immediately before and after birth. High maternal and infant mortality rates in low-income countries are often due to perinatal conditions. Nutritional Inadequacies: Nutritional deficiencies, including protein or energy insufficiency (resulting from not having enough to eat) and anemia (resulting from a diet lacking sufficient iron), are health issues associated with poverty and limited access to nutritious food.

Nunn and Wantchekon (slavery) Ubiquitous insecurity/Decentralized slave trading

Ubiquitous Insecurity: The article highlights that the transatlantic slave trade introduced widespread insecurity in African societies. This insecurity stemmed from the fact that slave traders were operating across vast regions of Africa, leading to a pervasive sense of vulnerability among communities. Decentralized Slave Trading: Unlike earlier forms of slavery in Africa, where slavery was often localized and involved capturing slaves for domestic use, the transatlantic slave trade was characterized by decentralized trading networks. European traders established a multitude of small trading posts along the African coast, which created a competitive and decentralized system.

Undeveloped versus Underdeveloped

Undeveloped: "Undeveloped" typically refers to something that is in its initial or raw state and has not yet undergone any significant development or progress. It implies a lack of development without necessarily implying that development is expected or required. For example, a piece of land may be described as "undeveloped" if it remains in its natural state without any buildings, roads, or infrastructure. Underdeveloped: ------ "Underdeveloped" refers to something that has not reached its full potential or has not progressed as much as it could or should have. It implies a deficiency in development compared to a standard or an expectation. In economic terms, "underdeveloped" often refers to countries or regions that have lower levels of industrialization, infrastructure, and overall economic development compared to more developed regions. It suggests a relative lack of progress or advancement in various aspects of life. ----- Undeveloped: is a state (little infra, subsist. Economies) Underdeveloped: is an outcome typically of unequal exploitative relations

USSR-USA Cold War

United States: The U.S. championed capitalism and a free-market economic system. It believed in private ownership of property, individual entrepreneurship, and minimal government intervention in the economy. The U.S. promoted a consumer-driven, profit-oriented economy. Soviet Union: The USSR embraced communism and a planned economy. It advocated for state ownership of the means of production, central planning, and the elimination of private property. The Soviet economy was based on the principles of collective ownership and the distribution of wealth according to need. ------- United States: The U.S. was a democracy with a multi-party political system, free and fair elections, and a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Individual rights, freedom of speech, and the rule of law were core principles. Soviet Union: The USSR was a single-party state led by the Communist Party. It had a centrally planned economy and a government-controlled media. Political dissent was not tolerated, and the state had significant control over various aspects of public and private life. ------- United States: The U.S. aimed to contain the spread of communism and promote democracy and capitalism worldwide. It supported the principle of self-determination for nations and alliances like NATO to counter the Soviet bloc's influence. Soviet Union: The USSR sought to spread communism internationally and believed in the eventual worldwide triumph of socialism. It supported communist movements and regimes in various countries and established the Warsaw Pact as a response to NATO. ------- The USSR was a was an anti colonial body, even though it essentially was an empire. Like if you really look at what it was, and at least kind of wanted itself as this anti colonial thing. So it supported anti colonial anti American movements around the world. The US of course, was was terrified that it would be surroun

War Capitalism Structural-historical explanation for underdevelopment

War Capitalism: Economic Exploitation: War capitalism often involved the ruthless extraction of resources and wealth from colonized territories. European colonial powers exploited the labor of enslaved populations and indigenous peoples to produce valuable commodities, such as cotton, sugar, and precious minerals, for export to Europe. This exploitation led to significant economic disparities between colonizers and colonized regions. Deindustrialization: In some cases, the dominance of European goods in global trade networks led to the decline or destruction of local industries in colonized regions. For example, the article mentions how Indian textile production was affected by the influx of European textiles, which hurt local weavers and artisans. Loss of Land and Resources: Indigenous populations often lost their lands and access to vital resources as European powers claimed territory for their colonies. This dispossession disrupted traditional ways of life and livelihoods. Dependence on Colonial Powers: Many colonized regions became economically dependent on the colonial powers. They were often forced to produce cash crops or raw materials for export, which left them vulnerable to fluctuations in global markets and the whims of colonial administrators. Social Disruption: The introduction of new labor systems, such as slavery and indentured labor, disrupted existing social structures in colonized areas. These systems led to the exploitation and suffering of marginalized groups. Cultural and Identity Loss: The imposition of European culture, languages, and religions often eroded indigenous cultures and identities. This cultural loss had long-lasting impacts on colonized societies. Political Instability: The imposition of colonial rule and boundaries sometimes created or exacerbated political conflicts within and between regions. These conflicts continue to influence political dynamics in some post-colonial countries. Inequality: Colonial rule often reinforced social hierarchies, with Europeans at the top and indigenous or enslaved populations at the bottom. This legacy of inequality continues to shape socio-economic disparities in many countries.

Political economy framework - Collective action versus private interest

Well, I like to think of it as you have the private economic sphere where you have, you know, private individual actors, whether they are individuals and entrepreneurs, like the ones that we have in the reading, or all the way up to firms and multinational companies that are either, you know, seeking subsistence. In the case of many of the slum dwellers in Mumbai, or seeking profit, you know, like the recyclers that we're reading about but it's private profit, profit, right. But then over here you have the public's placing an emphasis on that. The public sphere is collective action. Does anybody has anybody learned a definition of collective action in a class or somewhere else? Essentially means a group of people, you know, is sacrificing, you know, kind of putting, you know, putting aside some of their own personal interest or autonomy and in order to make decisions that are good, you know, collective security providing certain public goods by paying taxes, surrendering, you know, some of your own kind of personal freedom, you know, for security, these kinds of things, just anything that requires people making decisions and abiding adhering to those decisions together. So, for health, security and well being these are all public goods. ------ It is helpful to turn again to the causes of death listed in Table 1, and to think about how each might be dealt with, because different causes of death call for different solutions. For tuberculosis, malaria, diarrhea, and lower respiratory infections, the environment would need to be different. There would need to be better pest control, better water, and better sanitation, all of which require collective action, organized by central or local government.

Livelihood Framework

What do people do for a living? If you're a farmer, you need to have access to land like you need to have access to manpower. You know, if you're finding employment in a city you need to have a certain amount of education. Otherwise, all you can do is sell your own labor. Yeah. And then developing countries that very pays very poorly. And as you get subjected to all kinds of exploitation, yeah, that Yeah, so it's just basically what people do.

20th century poverty reduction

Years ago 43% of 4.4 billion were in extreme poverty (1980) Today 10.5% of 7.35 billion are in extreme poverty (2022) -This 10.5% is stuck in a "global poverty trap" as they are stuck in countries that are not really growing or developing -Extreme poverty is linked to: lifespan, infant mortality, etc.

Definition of 'dependency'

a historical condition which shapes a certain structure of the world economy such that it favors some countries to the detriment of others and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate economics

Factors that have brought down infant mortality rates in recent years

basic medicines (e.g. antibiotics) and sanitation public health innovation (oral rehydration therapy) Public education