GVPT Quiz 2

South Africa Branches of Gvpt (transitioned from what to what)

For most of Apartheid had bicameral parliament, PM, ceremonial pres as head of state Since 1994 has bicameral parliament and Constitutional Court Three capitals

Iran Historical Development of State: Dynastic Rule and Adoption of Shiism (Safavids, Early 19th C what, effect?)

- 16th-20th c saw rise of two long-standing Iranian dynasties: the Safavids (1502-1736) and the Qajars (1794-1925) - Under Safavids adopted Shiism as state religion to differentiate selves from Ottoman rivals - Early 19th century challenged from imperial Russian (took north) and British powers (India/Afghanistan), so had to modernize

Nigeria Historical Development of the State: Independence, Conflict, and Civil War (1959 elections, economic disparities did what, violent 1965 elections, coup failed to do what, 1967 Igbo declared itself what)

- 1959 Elections had given NPC nearly half of seats in HoR and so made coalition with NCNC, AGP fragmented bc of internal disputes and electoral setbacks which led to riots and collapse of Western Region's regional legislature; other groups also demanded further decentralization for creation of other states but NPC didn't want to undermine its superiority - Economic disparities sharpened the ethnic conflict as each group viewed state as a means to siphon off wealth for its own people - After violent 1965 region assembly elections, 2000 died Western region, group of army officers primarily Igbos staged coup, assassinated PM, political leaders, and military officers from north and suspended constitution, banned political parties, called for unitary gvpt to end northern domination - But coup failed to bring order and many leaders and Igbos living in north killed - May 1967 Igbo-dominated Eastern Region seceded declaring itself the Republic of Biafra (international support for fear of genocide), held off Nigerian military for 3 years, Azikiwe was ethnic Igbo and prominent supporter of Biafran independence, 1970 Biafra defeated with, although no genocide, 500,000 - 3 million fatalities

Nigeria Political Economy (deals with what two problems?, Nigeria's politicians are?, preoccupation with natural resources does what?, faced same problem as Russia in?, became center for what?)

- Deals with "resource curse" and "70% system" - in country where over 70% lives on less than $2 a day and where oil accounts for 70% of the gvpt's revenues, more than 70% of Nigeria's wealth is held by less than 1% of the pop - Nigeran politicians among highest paid in world, received over $1 million salary, $7 billion stolen from gvpt coffers from 2006-2013 - Preoccupation with natural resources distorts economy by diverting it from other forms of development, import substitution (suffered from bad investments -ex $8 billion to create steel industry that didn't produce steel) and structural adjustment caused unemployment and inflation, "insider privatisation" problem like Russia - Became center for elicit activity like trafficking and drug trade

Nigeria Historical Development of the State: The Military Era (1979 Second Republic, 1983 rule?, 1993 Third Republic, 1999 Fourth Republic)

- 1979 new constitution ushered in Second Republic, old parliamentary system replaced by presidential system to strengthen central authority, democratic elections held in 1979 and Obasanjo willingly retired from political and military life, became active in NGOs, his respect for rule of law and prominent international role made him one of most popular Nigerians and favored jis return to politics - Presidential elections resulted in win for northerner Shehu Shagari (defeated Azikiwe) and reemergence of several traditional parties; Faced obstacles: ethnic factionalism, state revenues declined dramatically in 1981 after drop in oil prices, inflation and foreign debt increased and capital fled - When Shagari government sought to stay in power in 1983 by rigging elections, military left its barracks and reentered the political scene, led by young military general Muhammadu Buhari - After 1983, Nigeria had another 15 years of military rule dominated by General Ibrahim Babangida and General Sani Abacha - Ibrahim Babangida backed by IMF and World Bank introduced neoliberal structural-adjustment program that dramatically worsened lives of average Nigerians, increased tensions by packing military gvpt with northerners - Under growing public pressure, presidential elections for new Third Republic held in 1993, but Babangida quickly annulled the results, set off protests and fear of another civil war, his second-in-command Sani Abacha instituted military coup - 1994 Abacha used violence as means of control, arresting and executing activists in 1993 elections and 1995 civilians and military officials for alleged plot against himself including former Pres Obasanjo, environmentalist Ken Saro-Wiwa (executed); also stole $6 billion from state - Dark period ended 1998 when died of heart attack, General Abubakar who succeeded him carried out democratic transition and released all political prisoners - 1999 free presidential elections held, brought Obasanjo to power again as first head of state as current Fourth Republic

South Africa Society: Ethnic and National Identity (religion, racial tensions, patriotism)

- 2/3rds identify themselves as Christian, religion important though dropped 19% from 2005 to 2012 - Dutch Reformed Church provided divine justification for separate and superior status of whites - Levels of black-on-white and black-on-black violence climbed during 1990s, murder rates 9 times higher than in US - High patriotism tho political apathy and distrust in gvpt risen

Nigeria Political Economy (2003 established what and had what 3 effects?, war on corruption?, success hinges on what?)

- 2003 Establishment of the National Economic and Development Strategy (NEEDS) helped, as 1) increased transparency of gvpt finances by auditing accounts at each level and by making it available to public 2) prompted gvpt to address corruption problem and improve rule of law 3) focused on country's inadequate infrastructure and seeks to boost electricity production, transportation, telecommunications, access to sanitation/clean drinking water - Buharis war on corruption made strides, recovery of $1.5 billion, took 50% pay cut - Success hinges on oil, increased tampering by insurgents in Niger Delta has plummeted oil prices, though weather by 2012 establishment of NISA

South Africa Society: Racism

- 2008 when tried to integrate dorms, white students angry - Shooting by racist youth gang when four blacks were killed - Zuma 2012 expelled from ANC bc of hate speech

Yugoslavia Made up of what 6 republics, was what kind of state, what distinguished it?

- 6 Republics = Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Hezegonia, Serbia, Macedonia - Federal State - Distinguished by (1) Was very multi ethnic in Croatia (dominated by Serbs) and Bosnia & Hezegonia (not dominated by ethnic group but where war occurred - Was place where people of different backgrounds could live together (2) Ideology of Self-Management instead of Maoism or Leninism or Stalinism

South Africa Local GVPT (what, powers, federal state?, important bc, criticism)

- 9 provinces each with provincial legislature, members elected for 5 year terms - Members of each assembly elect premier to serve as its chief executive - Have own constitutions, pass legislation, send delegates to upper house - Hard to call it a federal state as NP did to limit ANC power and many like Zulu IFP called for self-determination - Constitution gives central gov power to overturn local legislation and any power not specified resides with central - Also have little financial autonomy as can't levy taxes -But important as ANC has suffered its most important defeats at local level (2009 Western Cape Province to Democratic Alliance, leader Helen Zille became premier) - Though people view local gvpts as v corrupt

South Africa Political Economy (affirmative action attempts)

- ANCs main approach to affirmative action has been policy of Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) - Goal is to increase the presence of disadvantaged South Africans in a number of areas of the economy - Results mixed, success has only increased gap between wealthy and poor blacks

Iran Foreign Relations and the World (after 1979 believed what and faced what 3 obstacles to achieving that, relations with West over past 20 years)

- After 1979, Iran's leaders believed that theirs was the first in a series of revolutions that would sweep the Islamic world In the early years served as a beacon for Muslims and give voice to their grievances against the West and against their own despotic rulers - Faced several major obstacles 1) Shiism itself, for Sunnis notion of Mahdi is heretical and thus in some ways worse than Judaism or Christianity, 2) Ethnicity, Persian status was further reinforced by Iran-Iraq war, Iran relied on nationalistic fervor to maintain public support, Iraq's Shiite Arab majority sided with their gvpt against Iran (instead inspired terrorist groups?) (3) Iran also become associated with terrorism, largely due to its support for Hezbollah (trained by members of the Revolutionary Guard, 1983 terrorist attacks on America and French forces), sponsor to Palestinian groups like Hamas and Islamic Jihad - Over the past 20 years, Iranian relations with the outside world, esp the West, have oscillated between reconciliation and conflict President Mohammad Khatami sought to improve IR by speaking of "dialogue of civilizations", greater domestic liberalization and easing of tensions, also opposed Taliban and old nemesis Saddam Hussein But Supreme Leader and many others were opposed to better relations with US ("Great Satan") Also Iran's ongoing pursuit of nuclear technology became of increasing concern after 2001 Election of President Ahmadinejad took more confrontational line w US and Israel US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq convinced any leaders that Iran was threatened and next, that only nuclear threat would deter US aggression Bc of nuclear tech status heightened and US conflicts have given Iran more leverage (Iraq - Shia minority now in power)

Iran Challenges of Political Reform: Legislative (After 1987 political debate in Majlis limited to what?, Liberalization after Khomeini death?, Reform period in 1990s led to what in 2000, limitations, state response after elections)

- After 1987, political debate within Majlis limited primarily to economic concerns, competition between those who favored free-market vs statist policies, political debates not allowed - Liberalization was afoot however bc of death of Khomeini 1989 and a worsening economy, 1992 Majlis elections saw a victory for free-market faction who then supported 1997 presidential candidacy of pro-reform Mohammad Khatami (won 70% of vote) - Reform period 1990s saw diversification in political views/orgs calling for improved relations w/ other countries, democratic change, women's rights; spearheaded by intellectuals, students, and number of clerics who opposed velayat-e faqih, - 2000 coalesced to form Second Khordad Front and won 189/290 parliamentary seats & 2001 Khatami won presidency again w/ 70% of vote - world expected this would pave way for political transition - But conservatives still controlled or had support of Guardian Council and Expediency Council, the Revolutionary Guard and Basij, and supreme leader - After elections wave of repression - journalists/activists arrested or assassinated, pro-reform newspapers shut down, reform legislation vetoed by Guardian Council, 2004 it banned large numbers of Khordad candidates (including 80 members of parliament), 2016 seen return of reformers with Rouhani as pres but like 1990s limited impact

Iran Challenges of Political Reform: Presidential (2005 expectations, terms characterized by what 3 things, 2009 election, how did Rouhani get through?)

- After Khatami stepped down 2005 expected that former pres and backer of Khatami, Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (but seen as corrupt) would win but mayor of Tehran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad won - benefitted from election boycott of pro-reformers and widespread support from poor and more conservative and those in Revolutionary Guard and Basij (has ties) - Ahmadinejad's two terms in office characterized by (1) more populist approach to politics - helping poor and challenging gvpt/clerical elites who had become rich, (2) pursued openly confrontational relationship with US (bc of Afghanistan and Iraq wars), (3) made development of nuclear program cornerstone of his policies Rising profile put him at odds with supreme leader - 2009 Ahmadinejad vs former PM (1981-1989) Mir Hossein Mousavi who campaigned on a strongly pro-reformist agenda (!!) to create "Green Wave", great support from young people Runoff expected but gvpt announced Ahmadinejad won 60% of the vote which eliminated need for second round, sparked mass protests and vicious responses from police and Basji (150 dead, 1000 detained, Mousavi remains under house arrest) - Reelection of Ahmadinejad was victory and loss for conservatives, also mass demonstration of public hostility toward him weakened the president's position, which until then was overtaking the supreme leader, so many thought next pres would be close to supreme leader... how did Rouhani get through? - Rouhani ran a much more aggressive than many expected (called for release of Mousavi, implicitly sided with Green Wave Movement; 2) Rouhani matched these calls with more practical critiques of Iranian politics such as economic difficulties; 3) Rouhani's earlier experience as a negotiator on the nuclear issue gave credibility to his claim that he could cut deal with West to improve living conditions at home (Sep 2013 Rouhani spoke with Obama, first such contact since 1979; stepped away from anti-Israel stance) - Although economic conditions improved, many arrests reminiscent of 1990s People disappointed in lack of dramatic change

Iran Other Institutions: Baji (what, known for, role today, why?)

- Also relied on Baji formed shortly after revolution as grassroots civil defense force, members poorly trained/ill-equipped but imbued w religious/nationalist fervor and known for "human wave" attacks - No longer significant military force but has substantial economic assets and now role is public morality force, tend to come from poorer backgrounds and membership is opportunity to gain access to certain benefits like higher education

South Africa Political Institutions: Constitution (tries to do what)

- Approved in 1996 - Tries to balance majority/minority rights, eleven languages recognized, upholds citizen's rights to housing, health care, healthy environment, etc, detailed in limiting power of state to arrest, firmly protects private property - Though some see as weak bc of ANC dominance

South Africa Branches of Gvpt: Legislature (what, lower house is chosen how? how many? powers?, upper house same)

- Bicameral parliament, lower and more powerful is National Assembly with 400 members, 5 year terms - Elects and removes pres, prepares and passes legislation, approves national budget,"weekly question time' w/ cabinet members tho bc of racial divisions debate limited" - Dominance of ANC means it has not often demonstrated independence from pres, strict party discipline - Upper house National Council of Provinces, weaker, 90 members indirectly elected by 9 provincial legislatures and include premier of each province (sends 10 members regardless o size) - Can amend or reject measures when proposed legislation affects provinces, though can be overridden with 2/3rds vote by lower house

South Africa Branches of Gvpt: Pres (who, chosen how, powers, limitations, compare to other parliamentary regimes)

- Chief executive, acts more like a typical PM - Chosen from and by members of National Assembly, can be removed by vote of no confidence, differs from others as serves as both head of state and head of gvpt - Chooses cabinet of ministers, signs or vetoes legislation presented by National Assembly, can refer legislation to Constitutional Court, can call national referenda, dissolve NA, and call new elections - But unable to call snap elections - Limits demonstrated Ambeki 2008 when failed to win reelection of ANC leadership, serves at behest of party - Stronger than usual PM as exerts authority over cabinet, gvpt policy, and speaks on behalf of nation

Iran Branches of Gvpt: Judiciary (Chief justice qualifications and length of term and chosen how, role, Beneath Chief is and dies what?, revolutionary courts?)

- Chief justice qualifications include an understanding of Sharia (so have to be cleric), appointed by supreme leader for 5 year term - Role is to manage judicial institutions and oversee appt and removal of judges - Beneath him is Supreme Court, court of highest appeal, high-ranking clerics, degree of independence in interpreting law which leads to contradiction of opinions across courts - Revolutionary courts legacy of immediate post-revolutionary period to execute opponents to Khomeini on grounds of moharebeh or rebellion against God, executes second highest number of individuals after China for murder and drug smuggling

South Africa Party System and Elections: Other Parties (5 parties, when are elections held, what will ANC have to do, party affiliation influenced by what)

- Congress of People (COPE) came after Zuma's rise and broke from ANC, first genuine black opposition party to ANC, 3rd largest political party, tho lack of funds - Agang South Africa - 2013 broke from ANC to attack corruption - Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) broke from ANC, radical and Marxist left - Democratic Alliance (DA) is most important opposition party, comes from PFP, trouble is primary base is white, colored, and Indian - Though May 2015 Mmusi Maimane first black leader of DA, and currently opposition leader in NA - Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) fourth largest party, Zulu, animosity between it and ANC, though appeal lose after Zuma (Zulu) became pres 2009 Elections held every 5 years and now likely ANC will need to wok with opp to amend constitution and pass some legislation, party affiliation heavily influenced by race

South Africa Branches of Gvpt: The Judiciary (what, how chosen, shown tendency for what and examples)

- Constitutional Court hears cases regarding constitutional issues, 11 members serve 12 year terms, appointed by pres on basis of recommendations of judicial committee - Shown tendency for activism (1997 struck down death penalty, 2002 required treatment for aids afflicted individuals, overturned decisions by Zuma such as attempt to disband anticorruption force and made him pay back money

Iran Branches of Gvpt: Supreme Leader (created to ensure what?, directs what?, serves for how long, powers?, may be seen as what, current supreme leader))

- Dominant executive is supreme leader, most powerful office in Iran and was created to ensure a senior cleric is at helm of Iranian politics, directing both political and spiritual life - Serves for life though in theory can be removed for failing to uphold religious duty - Many of powers not formal but practices institutionalized under Khomeini - Commander in chief, appoints head of various branches of military, wields control over Guardian Council which vets candidates for presidential/legislative elections, maintains control over significant state-owned economic assets - May be seen as head of state as embodies people and serves as religious guide but role in policy much greater than other ceremonial heads, held by high-ranking ayatollah - Since 1989 supreme leader has been Ali Khameini who served as pres from 1981 to 1989, in theory supreme leader chosen by Assemble of Experts (88 male Islamic scholars popularly elected for 8 year terms, but vetted by Guardian council ensuring status quo) though he was elected from back-door negotiations as wasn't ayatollah

South Africa Party System and Elections:African National Congress (ANC)

- Dominant party since 1994, began 1912, developed ideology strongly influenced by Marxism (nationalization, economic equality = racial equality, alliance with South African Communist Party) - Fear is what happens if it loses power, doesn't like challenges and portrays itself as only party capable of governing - Past decade suffered from internal disputes populist challenge from Zuma to Mbeki but is he? Actually ANC insider and personal life controversy, corruption charges - 2016 rating cut in half, firing of finance minister bad

South Africa Foreign Relations and the World

- During apartheid largely isolated, ANC has prickly relationship with INGOs and other gvpts - SA is a regional powerhouse with the continent's most powerful economy, major investor in neighboring countries, illegal immigrants - Role in African Union, South African Development Community (SADC), New Partnership for Africa's Development - Transformed from pariah to continental leader and mediator with advanced democracies, most powerful army on continent - But conflicting support for democracies and authoritarian rulers

South Africa Historical Development of State (Renaissance of Afrikaners Power)

- English and Afrikaners worked together to create single British colony, Native Land Act of 1913 prevented black from owning land except for reserves, discrimination continued in former Boer republics, African National Congress (ANC) was founded in 1912 as nonviolent advocate for multiracial democracy - First elections brought South African Party (SAP) to power and included English speakers and Afrikaners, though Afrikaners resented English for controlling most of country's wealth - Afrikaners resisted within system, formed National Party (NP) 1914, wanted South Africa to cede from British Empire, Malan appealed to mas poor Afrikaners and articulated apartheid, 1948 NP elected to office

Iran The Electoral System (elements of democratic participation seen in, turnout, constrained how?, Majlis elected through?, Assembly of Experts elected through?, President elected through?)

- Enjoys some elements of democratic participation - Direct elections for Majlis, Assembly of Experts, presidency, over 70% turnout for 2017 pres election though still highly constrained in its choices for representation bc of ability of Guardian Council to reject any candidate for elected office and has been major factor for conservative consolidation - Though election of Pres Rouhani indicates vetting of candidates doesn't always prevent reformists - Majlis uses combo of SMD and MMDs, in SMD candidate with largest share of vote (as long as over 25%) wins and if threshold not met run off between top candidates, in MMDs with more than one seat voters cast vote for each seat with similar runoff if needed - Assembly of Experts uses SMD with no runoff - Presidency simple two-round runoff held between top two vote getters unless one wins majority outright in first round (ex Rouhani both times)

Nigeria Civil Society (rich tradition of?, orgs play important role as what? ex, militant groups?)

- Even under colonial/military rule, rich tradition of activism and dissent could not be suppressed, some like professional associations/NGOs (play role in monitoring elections) have risen above Nigerian's identity politics and promoted national integration - Formal/informal ethnic/religious orgs play important role as vehicle of mutual trusts for promoting economic interest of their groups or by promoting/protecting ethnic or local interests of a minority (ex. Movement for Survival of Ogoni People (MOSOP) established by Ken Saro-Wiwa 1990s - oil impacting Ogoni) - Some militant like Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) umbrella org that claims to act on behalf of Delta's oppressed people and environmental degradation (ex. Kidnapping foreign oil workers), Former pres Yar'Ardua negotiated 2009 truth and amnesty that led to drop in violence, current Pres Buhari has not continued it though

Iran Political Economy (what did new constitution include, what happened when private industry assets were turned over, history of autarky, 1990s, results of post 1979 economy, high oil prices will not do what?)

- Explains why new constitution included "economy is a means not an end" - But when private industries' assets were turned over to several bonyads (goal was to help disadvantaged) or parastatal foundations after the revolution, they became major economic players and often monopolies without gvpt oversight or taxation (housing, food, pharmaceuticals, construction) - Revolutionary Guard is one major actor with significant assets entrusted with its own bonyard - Another important distinction is its history of autarky or economic independence, postrevolutionary gvpt has had an ambivalent relationship to international economic ties, sought policy of self-sufficiency and more state ownership - During 1990s tried to open country up to foreign direct investment to improve tech of oil industry, international sanctions until recently driven it away though conservatives still emphasize "resistance economy" - Results of post 1979 economy have been poor, high rate of inflation and youth unemployment (30%, national level 11% - figures worse for women and educated causing "brain drain" or young Iranians esp. women to seek work in unregulated market, others delaying marriage and birth) - High oil prices will not diversify economy or provide new sources of employment

Nigeria Local Government (what kind of republic? what has prevented unifying of country?, number of states, why are local gvpts dependent on center?, increasing demands for?, expansion of oil has led to what?)

- Federal republic, ethnic divisions have prevented gvpt from unifying country - Number of states expanded from 12 in 1970 to 36 in 1996, local authorities changes size over time but now 3/4ths of them have been replaced by "temporary" caretaker committees appointed by state governors - patronage system guarantees loyalty of local gvpt to deliver votes for state/national orgs - National gvpt's control of bulk oil resources make local gvpts dependent on center, local/state have relatively little autonomy and no means of generating revenue - Increasing demands for devolution like expanded state control over budget, separate military for each region, etc. - Expansion of oil has led to more corruption with patronage, increased disputes over national distribution of these funds - derivation formula - and revenues to oil-producing localities

Iran Shiism (How differs, Mahdi?, martydom, relationship between state and politics?)

- Follow bloodline of prophet from prophet, From Muhammed's son-in-law Ali on down, according to Shia, the imams are the true leaders of the faith, though have been deprived of power by other Muslim leaders, last of imams is Mahdi "guided one" who is hidden till end of world (like Christianity) - Emphasize martyrdom of prophet's descendants esp Hussein, grandson of Prophet, Karbala uprising against corrupt Umayyad caliphate in 680 ce (willingness to sacrifice himself for larger cause cornerstone of Shiism) and Ashura most important Shia religious holiday as commemorates Hussein's death lamentation and prayer "Every day is Ashura, everywhere is Karbala" - Iranian political thinker Ali Shariati - Relationship between state and religion, bc of Mahdi worldly politics in some way secondary to faith so "Islamic Republic" seen as contradictory to some but others see Shiism as always been directly connected to politics - Safavids cultivated higher clergy within ulema (religious leaders) known as ayatollahs -Thus also differs from more decentralized Sunni Islam in hierarchal clergy, though not all connected to politics

Nigeria The Branches of Gvpt: Executive (frequent what and why?, current pres, how is pres elected?, powers, constitution requires pres to do what? effects)

- Frequent leadership changes result of challenges facing postcolonial country - Has been ruled for fully half of this time by patrimonial strongmen. Until past decade, elected civilian rule was much less frequent - Current pres, Muhammadu Buhari, only 6th democratically elected executive and first to defeat an incumbent, former general and northern Hausa Muslim that ruled 1983-1985 in military regime during which arrested hundreds of corrupt officials/businessmen, executed drug dealers, expelled thousands of illegal immigrants - Elected 2015 as democrat, replaced Goodluck Jonathan 2010 - Pres directly elected by people and nominates running mate who automatically becomes VP - Appoints ministers to Executive Council/cabinet, constitution requires pres to appoint ministers from each of states of the Nigerian republic - federal character principle (also used with federal appointments and civil service appts in gvpt bureaucracy) but has also exacerbated corruption

Nigeria Society: Ethnic and National Identity (groups identity is why? sees politics of what?, since end of military rule communal violence has what?, ex. issue of adopting Sharia in north?)

- Group identity one of central factors defining Nigerian politics, each group has temptations to see politics in zero-sum terms, military leaders capitalized on this (tried to shift power to center by creating more territorial division, pres system, banning ethnic parties) - Since end of military rule, communal violence has risen and since 1999 thousands dead and millions of Nigerians displaced, politicians capitalize on these conflicts as way to build local bases of support (pay supporters to attack rivals) - Issue of adopting Sharia in north, 2000 adoption and clashes between Christians and Muslims in Kaduna, though courts have overturned some of decisions

Iran Society: Ideology and Political Culture (First major division: over relationship between religion and state - two groups)

- Hard to speak of any coherent spectrum of ideologies in Iran, problem is exacerbated by factionalized/clientelist nature of system where personal relationships are often more important than political ideas...two major divisions: One: Over relationship between religion and state - "Reformists", political power rose and fell under President Khatami, want reduced role of Islam and democratic reform, follow quietist vision which Iranian Shiism before revolution and emphasizes that worldly political power cannot be reunited with Islam until the return of the Mahdi and until then serves as intermediary between people and state, won't get directly involved in politics Politics is seen as corrupting influence on faith, to be kept at distance - "Principalists" support the velayat-e faqih and oppose democratization or return of faith to social institution, believes pious rule can hasten the Mahdi's return Both enjoy high-ranking ayatollahs who can operate independently of supreme leader as long as don't openly challenge regime's legitimacy

South Africa Major Geographic and Demographic Features

- Harsh and isolated region, western part drought stricken, east and interior subtropical, transportation and communication difficult until modern age as no navigable waterways - 49 million inhabitants, unusually birth rates declining rapidly, half of pop 24 or younger and high rates of youth unemployment - 80% black (25% Zulu, 20% Xhosa, 18% Sotho, Tswana and Tsonga), 9% White (half English, half Dutch), 9% colored (speak Afrikaans), 2.5% Indians - Half live in urban setting - polyglot, Zulu most common spoke at home, 1994 constitution recognizes 11 languages, clicking sound, common language increasingly English - Zimbabwe's transition 1980 was inspiration to black South Africans but Mozambique and Swaziland poor so used by apartheid as justification that "blacks were incapable of governing themselves"

Iran Historical Development of State: The Nationalist Challenge under Mosaddeq and US Response (rise, Shah/Western response, Operation Ajax, Shah after)

- Majlis and ulema promoted removal of Western influence, nationalization of oil industry, and nationalism advocated particularly by new PM Mohammad Mosaddeq who represented National Front (republican and favored abolishing Monarchy) -Shah conceded to nationalism 1951, led to withdrawal of British technical support and spiraling of Iran's economy Mossadeq alienated ulema bc of secularism, British bc of nationalization, and US bc of alliance with Tudeh party - With the shah's support, US and UK overthrew Mosaddeq in Operation Ajax, Mossadeq put on house arrest until death 1967 and many National Front/Tudeh party arrested and several key leaders killed Mosaddeq's actions seen as frontrunner to 1979 revolution but since then been problematic figure bc of secularism - Shah balanced independence with US alliance, US filled many of roles of British, Shah repressed opposition with secret police called SAVAK, marginalized PM and Majlis

Iran Civil Society: rise and fall of it when?, 1990s, one area that has perservered

- Has mirrored the changes and challenges of political competition - Iran has seen the rise of organized civil activity during periods when state was week, as during the constitutional revolution in 1905-6, immediately after WWII, and during 1979 revolution - But after 1979 was stifled as most civic orgs were either absorbed into state or outlawed as was consistent with concept of ummah (members expected to act as unified group that embodied and served the revolution so plurality and autonomy contrary ideals) - After Khomeini's death though it began to reemerge, many who questioned regime tortured/killed (Ayatollah Hussein Ali Montazeri - was handpicked by Khomeini to be next supreme leader but he fell out of favor for criticizing the gvpt for human rights abuses, was under house arrest for many years) - 1990s Pres Khatami made invigoration of Iran's civil society major plank of campaign platform, media took up his cause and civic orgs popped up driven by younger generation esp women who had much higher levels of education than did under the shah (though limited politically and economically) - Came under attack by Supreme Leader Khamenei who called press "base of the enemy", 2000 law restricted ability of press to operate Similar pressure against NGOs, intensified after 2009 and 2013 elections, 2016 many arrested for espionage and "propaganda against the state" - One area that has persevered is electronic communication, pioneer of it in MENA, role of social media to galvanize public protest (ex after 2009 death of protester Neda Agha Soltan) But people still arrested for internet activism, regime limits access to sites like FB, Twitter, YouTube, and regime controls Internet speeds and until recently one of slowest internet speeds - surpassed only by China in its restrictiveness

Nigeria Political Regime (has vacillated between what?, patrimonialism, Fourth Republic characteristics, developed what 5 important components of democracy)

- Has vacillated between authoritarian military regimes and democratic civilian republics and variety of federal, state, and local political arrangements in six decades of independence - Patrimonialism - personal rule by both authoritarian and democratic leaders has been shored up by the economic privileges those leaders bestow upon a coterie of loyal followers (prominent); also each regime has promised improved governance and failed to uphold promise - Though current Fourth Republic successfully sponsored five elections, kept military in barracks, and survived longer than any of its democratic predecessors Though throughout it have developed important components of successful democracy: diverse/vigorous media, educated and critical elite, outspoken human rights organizations, growing middle class, respected legal profession and judiciary - Nigerians may dislike military rule, but patience for bad democracy has limits

Nigeria Other Institutions: The Military (history cautions us to do what, how is military still influential, 4 reasons or military's nonintervention in Fourth Republic)

- History cautions us not to be sure that military will stay in barracks - Most of Nigeria's most powerful leaders boast military background and military has served as one of few stable avenues of meritocratic social mobility, esp for poorer north - Reasons for military's nonintervention in Fourth Republic Pres Obsanjo's legislation 2000s that all military officers holding political offices during military rule had to retire, gvpt seizure of military's corruptly acquired money, growing professionalism among young in military, military's dismal performance in fight against Boko Haram -Though was a plot in 2004

Nigeria Society: Ideology and Political Culture (ideology plays what role, low sense of?, 2012 survey shows what?, will help to limit what?)

- Ideology plays limited role compared with more narrow communal concerns (contrast to South Africa), also low sense of patriotism - But 2012 surveys shows 69% support democracy and many strongly oppose political system dominated by single party/.leader, also Nigerians show high degree of pride I national identity broader than particular ethnic group - This will help to limit communal tension

Iran Historical Development of State: Failed Reforms and Erosion of Sovereignty (last decades of Qajar, 1906 Constitutional Revolution, monarchy action after, 1907 UK/Russia what?, 1919 agreement, 1921 coup)

- In last decades of Qajar instituted reforms borrowed from West but surrendered ever more sovereignty to British and Russians, public animosity grew - 1906 Constitutional Revolution - religious leaders, intellectuals, and members of merchant class protested to have limitation on monarchy and resulted in an elected assembly that drew up first constitution and legislative body known as Majlis, signifies country's first attempt at republicanism/democracy - But lacked clear ideology/consensus besides being against monarchy - Soon after monarchy sought to abolish the constitution, relying on Russian military to attack the Majlis, internal disputes between constitutionalists and monarchists, secularists and clergy members made room for imperial powers - 1907 UK and Russia officially divided sphere of influence Majlis still opposed British imperialism, 1919 agreement giving them control over state/economy rejected, sowed seeds of Iranian animosity to British In contrast many Persians saw US as important supporter of Iranian independence - During this, Reza Khan (poor family then became superior military officer) 1921 coup, quickly rejected allies (Majlis) and consolidated power, UK took advantage

Iran What are the major geographic and demographic features (bordering countries, ethnic make up, natural resources) Segment of pop that is greatest challenge to the regime?

- On eastern periphery of the ME, shares borders with Afghanistan, Pakistan, and several states that were once part of Soviet Union, size of Alaska - Population of nearly 80 million, relatively young compared to Europe or North America median age 30 So most of population doesn't remember prior to 1979 and only experienced economic stagnation, state has to deal with large influx of young people seeking higher education, employment, and house, this segment of pop is greatest challenge to regime - Diverse population, 60% ethnically Persian, 20% Azeri, rest made up of smaller ethnic groups like Kurds, Arabs, Baluchis (some Sunni, cause of conflict esp among Kurds after 1979) - Iran estimated to have 4th largest reserves of oil in world, boats world's largest reserves of natural gas which helps keep current regime in power though has led to stagnation in other parts of economy

Iran Society: Ethnic and National Identity (distinct how, young turning towards what, minorities - two largest, how treated?)

- Iran distinct bc Shia and ethnically Persian, quite separate from Arabs and this contributes to sense of nationalism portrayed as struggle between Persians and Arabs going back thousands of years - As legitimacy Islamic regime waned, turned towards pre-Islamic era of Achaemenid Empire and Zoroastrianism - of which, particularly the young have adopted its symbols Iran not homogeneous state, - Two largest minorities are Azeris (16% of pop, in north, Shia, speak language related to those spoken in Turkey/Central Asia, Azerbaijan 1991 creation fostered a stronger ethnic identity among Iranian Azeris, republic has strained relations with Iran, little support for autonomy of Iranian Azeris tho) and Kurds (10% of pop, carried out armed revolt and faced repression in 80s' -90s', development of Kurdish states elsewhere makes Iran nervous, ongoing conflicts in Iraq will shape Kurdish activism in Iran) - both important bc of their connection to ethnic kin outside of Iran - Other groups like Baluchis have also complained of discrimination that has led to protests/sporadic acts of violence, also Sunni - Highly centralized power has not allowed devolution to these groups, non-Persians have fewer opportunities for education/media in major language, Sunnis hold few higher gvpt position, Rouhani says this needs to be addressed

Iran Political Economy (economic system reflects what? good example of?, modern economic development did what and led to what (3), problems compounded by?, explains what?)

- Iran's economic system reflects dilemmas of late modernization, authoritarianism, and war - good example of "resource trap" (!!): occurs when a national resource paradoxically makes country poorer rather than richer - Iran's modern economic development lagged well behind that of West - didn't begin until 1920s, Pahlavi, it was top-down industrialization and mercantilist policies that helped modernize country but at same time led to 1) social dislocation as the country made a rapid jump from an agrarian, 2) isolated, and 3) religiously conservative society in just a few decades - Problems compounded by discovery of oil, as rather than directing resources toward the goal of development, 1) leaders give in to corruption ad siphon off wealth for own pockets or policy 2) public can be ignored as eliminated as the major source of revenue - May also explain the degree of women's rights as if private sector is weak then women's participation in workforces and economic independence is limited - Problem became evident in White evolution, fueled hostility toward Western materialism or "Weststruckness"

Iran Society: Ideology and Political Culture (Iranian political culture is what? complicated relationship with West?)

- Iranian political culture is highly nationalist, also religious important but tends towards quietest view and want democratization - Young somewhat alienated from religion bc of its politicization but most not, so democratization may not mean secularization along Western lines - Another enduring part of political culture is its complicated relationship with West Going back 2000 years when there was Iran, Greece, and Rome - Iranians see themselves of equal participants in, and contributors to, Western history in a way other people may not - But Western and Arab invasions created string tendency to view international politics in conspiratorial terms Ex. Iranians will blame UK and US for rise of Pahlavi Dynasty and 1979 Islamic Revolution, US (or Israel) viewed as mastermind behind Al Qaeda, 9/11, or ISIS Some Iranians believe US still puppet of UK (Khameni saying UK behind 2009 protests)

Iran Historical Development of State: The Persian Legacy and the Islamic Empire (origins, first millennium BCE, 7th c CE transformation, 13th-15th c transformation)

- Iranians trace origins to second millennium BCE, many migrated into that region from Central Asia among them ethnic group known as Persians, until 1935 country known as Persia - First millennium BCE dominated through Achaemenid Empire (Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes) which stretched from India across much of ME, major foe to Greek city-states - Characterized by wealth, technical sophistication, political & religious tolerance, and still resonates as symbol of Iranian might today - Destroyed by Alexander the Great in 334 BCE but continued to develop under shahs through 6th c CE - Most dramatic transformation was 7th c CE with arrival of Islam by Umayyad dynasty (661-750 CE), although conquerors adopted many Persian practices and institutions, differences between Persian and Arab culture remained (Farsi still language of people, Arabic state and religion language), population slowly converted from Zoroastrianism, part of Islamic dynasties up to 11th CE - From 13th-15th c CE, Persia devastated by Mongols (economically and depopulation)

Nigeria Civil Society (largest threat from?, sectrian conflict mitigated by what? ex, role of civic associations?)

- Largest threat comes from Boko Haram in North, seven year insurgency designed to root out Christian and Western influence and establish an Islamic Caliphate, claimed responsibility for 100s of terrorist attacks - shootings during Christian religious services, 2014 kidnapping of hundreds of schoolgirls, attacks on gvpt buildings - Allegiance to IS - Sectarian conflict has been mitigated by numerous divisions and differences within each religious tradition - Ex variety of Sufi Islam practiced among lower-class Hausa Muslims v different from orthodox Sunni Islam practiced by Hausa/Fulani elite or extremism of Boko Haram, some liberal Muslims favor secular gvpt - Modern civic associations like trade unions and professional orgs played prominent role in anticolonial struggle (ex. National Union of Petroleum and National Gas Workers (NUPENG)

Iran Branches of Gvpt: Legislature (how many houses, how elected, how many members w/ how long terms, requirements, dominated by, seats set aside for, does what?, who serves as upper house, why important actor?)

- Majlis unicameral body, directly elected with universal suffrage, 290 members serve for 4 year terms and must be 30 years old, previous dominated by members of Clergy but now by Revolutionary Guard - Single seats set aside for Zoroastrian and Jewish communities and 3 for Christians, 17 women currently (more than clerics) - Limited amount of authority, initiate and pass legislation, oversee budget, approve members of president's cabinet (can also remove by vote of no confidence), role technically to legislate in accordance with divine law and its legislation can be struck down for failing to account for this - Best seen in presence of Guardian Council (12 individuals serve 6 year terms, 6 lawyers nominated by chief justice and others chosen by supreme leader) and Expediency Council (members appointed by supreme leader for 5 year terms, headed by Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani until 2017 and was rival to Khamenei and pres from 1989-1997) Guardian Council reviews all legislation of Majlis and can send back for revision, if unable to revise to satisfaction then Expediency Council mediates and final decision can't be overturned (like upper houses) - Important actor, conflicts between them and pres common esp in regard to budget ("pork-barreling")

South Africa Education as Source of Inequality

- Most enduring legacy of apartheid can be found in South Africa's woefully inadequate education system, black South Africans have worse services and half pass metric exams whereas 99% whites and 92% Indians do - Major shortage of black skilled labor

South Africa Civil Society (NGOS, political activism level, two major actors)

- NGOs continued to form under apartheid, vital role in demcratization - After 1994 tho ANC tried to co-opt many of these groups , emgagement in these groups still restricted to relatively well-off minority, other forms of public activism remains low - One major actor organized labor: Congress of South African Trade unions (COSATU) 1985, openly hostile to ANC's liberal economic policies, 2010 strikes for higher wages -Another is media, high degree of trust in media and well informed public, though 2008 concerns about ANC trying to buy some outlets of it and Protection of STate Information Bill to resist criticism

Nigeria The Branches of Gvpt: The Judiciary (what kind of system and why, MOSOP?, 1999 constitution established what?)

- Nigeria inherited a colonial legal system that combined British common law with an assortment of traditional or customary laws (ex. Sharia law), courts managed to retain a degree of independence and legitimacy - 1990 Saro-Wiwa with others founded the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) to challenge gvpt's revenue-sharing formulas of oil, Sani Abacha brought them before military tribunal 1995 all nine hung - 1999 constitution established a Supreme Court, Federal Court of Appeals, and a single unified court system at the national and state levels - Anticorruption efforts have typically faltered

Nigeria Historical Development of the State: progressed from what? precolonial?

- Nigeria's history progressed from local political organization to imperial control to more recent independence and instability - Precolonial Nigeria was neither underdeveloped nor poorly organized, was the setting for several early kingdoms 2000 years ago Nok society (central Nigeria) fashioned objects with degree of sophistication unmatched in West Africa - 1200 CE Hausa established a series of powerful city-states for north-south trade - in southwest Yoruba kingdom of Oyo extended its powers beyond borders of modern-day Nigeria into present-day Togo (grew wealthy from trade/natural resources - in southeast Igbo maintained less-centralized political power and would play major role in modern Nigerian politics

Nigeria The Electoral System (directly elect who, presidential candidate most attain what? of not achieved?, PDP established what? limitations?, HoR uses what and proliferation of smaller parties shows what?)

- Nigerians directly elect their president and separately elect members of both chambers of legislature, all occur at same time - Winning presidential candidate obtains both an overall majority of votes nationwide and at least 25% of ballots cast in 2/3rds of state, if not achieved then a second round of voting takes place a week later pitting top two candidates against each other in a runoff - Dominant People's Democratic Party (PDP) established an informal system of presidential rotation known as zoning, in which party would alternate every two terms nominating candidates from north and south - But limits pool of qualified candidates and exacerbates ethnic divisions (ex. Jonathan's bid for full second term 2011 angering northern politicians, merger of All Progressives Congress) - 360 seats in HoR SMDs apportioned by pop, winner take all, though success of smaller parties reflects the geographic concentration of ethnic groups willing to vote in blocs large enough to win a plurality of votes in less populous lower house electoral districts (Kanuri minority in northeastern Nigeria)

Yugoslavia Political History (Tito becomes what, slogan, defined by what?, social programming?)

- Tito becomes president for life - "Brotherhood and unity" = everyone in Yugoslavia united against fascism - Not defined by blood/ethnicity, but ideological - Social programming - shared purpose led by the state

Iran Political Institutions: Constitution (changes?, says what, still strongly embodies what?)

- Only major changes to 1979 constitution were made 10 years later as Khomeini sought to ensure that the principles of the Islamic Republic would be maintained after his death (preamble states origins are "revolt against "American conspiracy" of the White Revolution) - According to it, Islamic Republic exists not to serve the individuals but to guide the people toward God, Koran spiritual text as well as unified ideology, all political acts expect to flow from word of God, religious fundamentalism as God's law (Sharia) should reign supreme - But also reflects the fact the overthrow primarily led by people not by Khomeini or ulema so strongly embodies republican (if not democratic) elements

Nigeria Elections (when were parties legalized again after military rule?, 1979 did what?, 1983/1985, 1983-1993 tried to create what, 1996 parties, 1999 parties, subsequent elections have what?, 2007, 2015)

- Parties banned from onset of military rule until Olusegun Obasanjo came to power 1976, legalized parties 1978 and 150 parties formed within that year - 1979 successor Shehu Shagari reformed, the electoral commission required all parties open membership to all Nigerians and parties' leadership came from at least 2/3rds of states, 5 parties allowed 1979 & 1983 elections - Military coups 1983/1985 banned political parties again - 1985-1993 military ruler Ibrahim Babangida tried to create two party system based on political spectrum, fears that this would lead to dangerous division between Muslim north and Christian south, ignored it and election took place fairly 1993, bc winner was southern military nullified results and charged victor with reason - 1996 Abacha in power and certified 5 parties, all loyal to him - 1999 successor Abubaker dissolved then and nine parties qualified for local elections, three parties for nation/presidential (People's Democratic Party - Hausa, All People's Parties - eastern Igbo, Alliance for Democracy - western Yoruba - Gave sense of hope, PDP supported Christian Obasanjo and AD through weight behind APP contender, Obasanjo won 2/3rds of vote - Subsequent elections followed trend of growing democracy and declining regional basis for party affiliation, but also continued corruption and until recently PDP dominance - 2007 Obasanjo stepped down as required by constitution, successor Umaru Yar'Adua won presidency and PDP won everything - widespread charges of corruption - Yar'Adua popular though as battled political corruption, negotiated ceasefire in Niger River Delta but died, successor Goodluck Johnson finished term and ran again promising to tackle rigged elections, woefully inadequate, and insurgency in Niger Delta ***Sacked corrupt head of Nigerian electoral commission replacing him w/ honest academic who oversaw cleanest elections 2011 and 2015 - When it became clear Johnson would flout zoning arrangement in 2015 election, opposition banded together 2013 to create All Progressives Congress (APC) who then won w/ former military leader Buhari (northern) - peaceful transfer of power

Iran Political Conflict and Competition: Three reasons why its confusing, factionalization resulted from what?, how did groups resist and state reaction?)

- Political competition in Iran confusing bc (1) nature of revolution and role of religion helped create political differences that don't fit typical ideologies, (2) Iran lacks institutionalized political parties or even single-party system (reflects populism and suspicion of traditional party politics), (3) so politics factionalized and clientelist, dominated by loose political and economic groups trying to gain power - often elites within authoritarian regime (not democratic) - Factionalization came from the electoral system that eliminated all groups (ex. Liberation Movement party - pro-Western wanted limited role of religion) but the IRP (Islamic Republic Party - closely aligned with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini) which gained majority of seats? - Many sought to resist this and more radical groups bombed and killed leaders of IRP 1981, gvpt responded with increased repression imprisoning/executing and after Khomeini's supporters' hold on Majlis was complete all parties eliminated 1984 and IRP banned 1987 elections

Nigeria The Party System (politics contest of what?, when did parties first begin forming, party discusses in terms of what?, state/local contests dominated by what? effects, strengthened democracy has given voice to?)

- Politics "contest of self-enrichment", corruption and violence all too common - Political parties first began forming during colonial period and did so naturally along ethnic lines, and those that emerged in each period after continued to reflect ethnic divisions despite efforts of democratic and even some military regimes to establish cross-ethnic national parties - So parties discusses in terms of ethnic identity/geography - Most state/local contests dominated by regions leading party, permitting it to control governor's office, state assemble, and local councils - ethnicity and clientelist networks have been very important - Strengthened democracy has also given stronger voice to persistent sectarian and even local separatist demands

Nigeria The Branches of Gvpt: The Legislature (constitutional designated role, consists of what?, how many members of each and how chosen?, both chambers are in reality what and why?, though in recent years have what?)

- Pres and cabinet initiate budgetary legislation and most other important bills, but constitution designates the National Assembly as highest lawmaking body - Consists of lower HoR and upper Senate, both serve four-year renewable terms HoR consists of 360 seats with each member representing an individual district - 109 Senate seats divided among Nigeria's 36 states (3 states each) and federal district of Abuja - Both chambers have served as little more than a rubber stamp for executive branch, partly due to same party controlling both branches of gvpt and due to lack of experience, expertise, and staff support - Though in recent years have demonstrated less compliance in passing budgetary bills and more vocal in expressing regional and local interests - Would parliamentary, unicameral, or distribution/rotation of key executive posts among dominant ethnic groups work better?

Nigeria Foreign Relations and the World (views it as what?, during cold war was and what changed?, why plays important regional role (3)?

- Prioritize and view it as series of circles: Nigeria is the innermost circle, followed by successive rings of West Africa, Africa, world beyond African continent - During Cold War pro-Western but switched to nonalignment after Western support for Biafran independence - Plays important regional role and champion of democracy - ECOWAS (borne brunt of peacekeeping missions) - why? 1) Oil; 2) important regional role: ECOWAS, OAU, wants representation as permanent member of UN Security Council; 3) Depends on how its democracy fares, US support?

Nigeria Major Geographic and Demographic Features (population size, diverse climate and distinct regions bc of?, significance, recent challenges, best known region and source of? effects?, largest ethnic groups)

- Ranks 7th in world in terms of population, half of pop under 14 and total population has doubled in last 20 years - Diverse climate and geography, Niger-Benue river system divides the country into distinct regions (north arid/grasslands, south tropical forests/coastal swamps), favors agriculture with a third of land arable (15% China, 20% US) and until oil discover 1960s, cocoa and nuts were major source of foreign trade - Recent challenges with droughts and ongoing desertification and terrorism in north have caused migration to south increasing demands on pop there - Best-known region is Niger Delta - vast, swampy area of over 5000 square miles, third-largest wetland in world, home to 30 million who (bc of limited interaction, integration, and assimilation) have fostered variety of ethnicities - dozen groups speaking 25 languages, poor region bc of lack of infrastructure and development - Source of Nigeria's oil, over 90% of country's exports, effects include: 1) environmental degradation bc of accidents, spills, poor maintenance, 2) increasing ethnic conflicts as groups compete for access to oil and some seen as benefiting from industry disproportionately - Within 250 ethnic groups the dominant ones are Hausa and Fulani who are Muslim/northern, Igbo who are Christian/Southern, and Yoruba who are southwestern and divided between Christian, Muslim, and local animist faiths

Yugoslavia Self-Management Article Introduction (transformation from communism caused what?, Yugoslavia lacked what 2 fundamentals to deal with diverse interests?)

- Revival of ethnic cleavages and increased tensions is one of the largest problems facing nations today - States unable to accommodate diverse claims of constituent groups when switch from communism - Worst case scenario happened in Yugoslavia Why? - Feasibility to accompany diverse interests was based on Western assumption that state has (1) stability and (2) consensus about its operation - Yugoslavia didn't have either

Iran Historical Development of State: Authoritarianism and Modernization during the White Revolution (what was it?, what esp angered ulema, who associated with protests?, why for next 15 years ruled without challenges, effects on Iranian population)

- Revived top-down modernization of father through White Revolution reforms 1963, which further marginalized ulema, including land reform, privatization of state-run industries, literacy campaign, enfranchisement of women - Land reform and women enfranchisement angered religious leaders, reforms led to violence which were violently repressed, protest 1964 over US-Iran relations - Associated with both protests was Ruhollah Khomeini, ayatollah based in holy city of Qom, rose to rank of Grand Ayatollah and symbol of opposition to shah, shah expelled Khomeini to Iraq and then France, Khomeini continued to criticize Iranian regime for corruption, inequality, and reliance on US, Drew supporters to religious alternative given failure of democratization 1953 - But for next 15 years ruled w/o serious challenge, rapid modernization was fostered by state policy and rising oil revenues, built huge military, tens of thousands Americans came to work in Iran which fostered rapid social change but also resentment bc of patronizing treatment of Iranians - Although billions of dollars of oil revenue flowed into Iran helping to create middle class also a lot of corruption as significant amount went to supporting lavish lifestyle of shah, economic improvements not experiences widely across population, influx of oil money led to inflation causing economic insecurity

Iran Historical Development of State: Consolidation of an Islamic Republic (How did Islamic Republic come about? 2, what kind of state was established?, abuses, Iranian Hostage Crisis)

- Revolution did not mean Iran would have Islamic regime, many expected democratic republic as even though citizens called for "Islamic Republic" not clear if they agreed with what Khomeini was proposing, but by capitalizing on (1) political turmoil and (2) own charismatic authority he was able to undermine secular provisional gvpt that had replaced shah - Gained control of gvpt and oversaw drafting of new constitution that allowed for not only a president and PM but also faqih (a religious leader with expertise in Islamic law) who would have supreme political authority, held this until his death 1989 - Islamic Republic of Iran had violent birth as suppressed all opposition, 1979-1980 thousands executed in name of "revolutionary justice", - Iranian hostage crisis - Khomeini didn't originally support but then did led to severing of relations between the two countries

Iran Other Institutions: Revolutionary Guard (what is it, emerged from what, duty, Iran-Iraq war effects, controlled by, recently acts as what and how?, Rouhani reaction)

- Revolutionary Guard (Pasdaran) and Basij (People's Militia) - Revolutionary Guard is paramilitary force that emerged from 1979 revolution, "corps of faithful", assigned task of defending new regime, destroying rival groups and movements - During Iraq-Iran War expanded in size to fight on front lines as a military force - Both controlled by supreme leader/allies but has become increasingly independent and direct player in domestic/international politics, has own ministry, army, navy, air force units and involved in nuclear power, provides forces in Iraq and Syria, terror attacks, has significant economic assets (telecommunications, banking, construction), but also highly factionalized - Rouhani has attempted to limit their economic assets

South Africa The Electoral System (how it works, effects, criticism)

- Under Apartheid used SMD, now uses pure PR so cast vote for party - Representatives are elected from a single nationwide constituency and there is no minimum threshold for gaining seats - Vote for national and provisional legislatures at same time -Has created inclusive political atmosphere and averted conflict/violence, 2014 73% turnout -Though some argue problem as NA not accountable to local communities and ANC has stifled dissent Congress of the People Party advocate for mixed system

Iran Historical Development of State: Consolidation of Power under Pahlavi Dynasty (Reza Shah - how arose to power, style of rule, effects, costs of effects, abdication why?)

- Reza Shah Pahlavi, as Reza Khan renamed himself, more than a British puppet as by centralizing military, he was able to quell several regional rebellions and limit British/Soviet influence - 1923 was appointed by last Qajar shah as PM and 1925 Majlis formally approved as new shah but he favored republican form of gvpt w/ powerful, unelected president like post-Ottoman Turkey, But clergy worried republican = secular so pushed for traditional form of rule, left Iran with powerful monarchy until 1979 - With few constraints on power, pursued dramatic Westernization and state-building (primary/secondary education, university, road/rail system, state-owned businesses to develop monopolies on important markets, abolished aristocracy (except for himself), greater control over oil industry, national conscription, tried to build national identity by drawing on pre-Islamic history (seen in taking name Pahlavi) Greatly extended rights to women, forbade hijab and chador first in school then in all public facilities 1925 name changed from Persia to Iran, name of country used by inhabitants - But came at expense of democratization, traditional practices, and religious beliefs, increased repression of civic life WWII, Reza Shah friendliness with Germany worrying so UK and Russia invaded in 1941 for land corridor and to prevent Axis gaining oil Reza Shah abdicated to son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, cold war increased foreign influence, political and religious activity resurfaced in face of weakened state and regime

South Africa Political Economy (challenges and accomplishments)

- SA faces massive unemployment, growing income inequality, persistent poverty among its poorer citizens - Challenge ANC faces is adopting policies that can ameliorate these problems without alienating its broad and disparate constituencies - Greatly expanded access to services, improved economy - Economy is highly diversified though still dependent on the country's large mineral resources (gold/diamonds) - ANCs approach was much less radical than expected, pursued liberal political-economic model, 1994 Mandela announced Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) - But unsustainable, adopted Growth, Employment, and Redistribution (GEAR) that called for opening trade, privatising SOEs - growth rates have grown - Unsuccessful in redistributing land and addressing income inequality and unemployment, poverty - Challenge of emigration of skilled workers, "white flight", 20% of whites have left sunce early 1990s - 2016 SA economy was experiencing its worst economic crisis in decades

Iran Branches of Gvpt: President (seen as, elected how, serves how long, responsible for?, limitations, so role is, was expected to be what?)

- Seen as head of gvpt, popularly elected and can only serve 4 year terms - Responsible for drafting state budget, initiating legislation, selecting cabinet of ministers charged with directing policy, also technically in charge of foreign policy, appointing ambassadors, signing treaties, etc but limited w/o control of military/foreign policy - Limits: cannot veto legislation, dissolve legislature So charged with executing the laws, making sure certain policies carried out - After 1979, expectation was pres would be nonreligious but from 1981 to 2005 position primarily held by clerics - 2005 election of secular local gvpt official President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (banned from General Council running in 2017) departure from tend and he focused on social justice, religious piety, confrontation with West over nuclear program - had base of support rivalling Khameini but during second term power checked - 2013 Pres Hassan Rouhani, cleric, pursued more reformist and less confrontational agenda, critical to success of nuclear deal but similar attempts at domestic liberalization stymied

Nigeria Historical Development of the State: European Imperialism (late 15th c, effect of 1807, Berlin conference, 1914 unification, after WWII saw what, trend late 1950s, October 1, 1960?)

- Similar dramatic effects with arrival of European powers - By late 15th c Europeans appeared along coast purchasing agricultural products and slaves, 17th-19th c established several coastal ports esp UK and over 3 million slaves shipped from Nigeria to Americas - 1807 UK declared slave trade illegal and used naval presence to enforce - Decline in region's major export (slaves) contributed to the collapse of the Yoruba's Oyo Empire and divisions/warfare among its people, led to expanded UK role in interior generated by demand for resources (palm oil, cocoa, timber), British missionaries arrived and converted many of Igbo and Yoruba - After 1884-1885 Berlin conference, UK participated in scramble for Africa that led to it establishing control over North and South Many areas relied on indirect rule, ex Sokoto Caliphate brought under British control but local leaders kept positions and Sharia law kept in noncriminal matters Where indirect rule less successful, like Igbo, more resistance - 1914 various protectorates unified as Nigeria, UK began to develop modern infrastructure there and establish Western education policies esp in Christian areas, indirect rule resulted in development of new local elite that was more Westernized and idea of democracy introduced with establishment of colonial legislative council with local elections for some seats Exposure to Western ideas served as foundation for resistance as Nigerians embraced ideas of nationalism, sovereignty, self-rule Though for some activists anticolonialism meant greater role for Nigeria and others in Commonwealth of Nations and for others it mean reassertion of precolonial political structures destroyed or weakened by British rule - After WWII, Nigeria saw rapid expansion of various civil society orgs, emergence of Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe (1904-1996) political leader who established daily newspaper and National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) that advocated for national unity and self-gvpt appealing to all citizens esp. Igbo (NPC - Hausa, AG{ - Yoruba) UK tried to deal with rising activism and strikes by reforming political structure and formalizing system of federalism - Late 1950s great wave of independence sweeping across Africa and UK tool measures to move Nigeria to full independence, creating new federal political structure in three regions (Northern, Western, and Eastern), directly elected HoR, senate indirectly elected by regional assemblies, PM, governor general as rep to UK that Azikiwe was appointed as - October 1, 1960 Nigeria formally gained independence creating First Republic without same violence seen elsewhere from decolonization, Azikiwe named first head of GVPT

South Africa Ideology and Political Culture (political ideologies have what, political culture of what, 1995?, 3 things that makes SA avoid conflict, views on democracy)

- Since fall of apartheid , political ideologies have become less pronounced and more pragmatic - Have genuinely embraces new culture of social inclusion, political participation, efforts to integrate former adversaries and divided communities - Highest profile effort was Truth and Reconciliation Commission, convened in 1995 and led by Archbishop Desmond - Two goals: establish truth on crimes committed on both sides and used that to heal deep wounds - But genuine reconciliation remained elusive (De Kock) - But pervasive tradition of collective decision making (ubuntu), ANC's proven pragmatism and political discipline, and prudential caution makes SA avoid conflict - 60% satisfied with democracy and most prefer it to other systems

Nigeria Political Institutions: Constitution (how many since independence, every 4 yars what, critics say what, Nigeria's first national constitution reflected the colonial imprint in at least 2 ways?, 1963 reconstituted itself as what?, 1979 constitution established what?)

- Since independence Nigeria has been governed by 6 constitutions, and like military rule, democratic regimes have also dispensed with rule of law, discarding and rewriting the rules of gvpt on average every 4 years - Critics complain that the problem for Nigeria has not been coming up with rules of good governance but rather abiding by them - British established colonial Nigeria's first constitution in 1922 and then rewrote it three times to reflect decentralized federal arrangements they imposed Nigeria's first national constitution reflected the colonial imprint in at least 2 ways: 1) established constitutional monarchy, 2) federal nature codified with regional division of Hausa/Fulani-dominated north, Igbo dominated east, Yoruba dominated West - 1963 Nigeria reconstituted itself as a republic, replaced queen of England as head of state with own elected/ceremonial pres - 1979 constitution of Second Republic established an American-style presidential system w/ directly elected pres (head of state/gvpt), bicameral legislature

Yugoslavia Political History (Civil war between?, who were the Partisans and what did they do?, 1945 proclaims what?)

- Ustache (Croatians, Nazi puppet state) v chetricks (Serbian nationalists) - Partisans -> communists, Tito - Leads partisans, defeat Ustasche and Chetricks - Multiethnic communist - Ends Civil War and focuses on Axis powers -> defeats Nazis 1945 Proclaims independence for new socialist state -> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

Iran Historical Development of State: Consolidation of an Islamic Republic (Iran-Iraq War, Khomeini wanted what, effects, advantages that each had, Hussein tried to do what, how did it end?)

- Soon compounded by Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein saw revolution as threat to his own rule over a country in which more than half the population was Shiite, Khomeini also hoped to spread revolution beyond its borders and next logical place was Iraq, at same time Iraq saw in Iran's chaos an opportunity to extend its power in region and seize territory with many oil fields - September 1980 Iraq launched a full scale invasion of Iran, initiating the Iran-Iraq War, which lasted until 1988, Widespread destruction on both sides - Iraq had significant firepower and support from Arab world/US, Iran's military hardware hobbled by Western sanctions and benefited from united revolutionary public - 1982 realized miscalculated chance of success, Hussein sought to end the war; Khomeini refused, believing that this was the opportunity to carry the revolution across the Middle East and at one point slogan was "the road to Jerusalem runs through Baghdad" so framed Iranian revolution as part of greater struggle for Arabs and Palestinians against Israel - 1988 conflict ended in stalemate, Iran exhausted military force and could not remove Saddam Hussein from power, hundreds of thousands dead, Khomeini died 1989 leaving Islamic republic w/o founder/spiritual guide

Iran Local Gvpt (how many provinces, difficulties with decentralization, 1997 reforms, candidates approved by? effect)

- Struggle of state to centralize power throughout history, divided into 31 ostan or provinces - But limited authority, even though both Constitutional Revolution 1905-6 and 1979 revolution wanted to have representative local gov goals not realized, latter moved in that direction until demands of institutionalizing regime, going to war with Iraq, nationalizing industry, and quelling ethnic unrest drove regime to centralize power even mire (suspended local council elections) - As part of 1997 reforms gvpt passed law on decentralization that moved power away from Ministry of Interior, after new law passed local councils created in village, city, district, provincial levels to manage local politics and indirect election of mayors and directly elected !! - Candidates must be approved by Majlis so not as onerous as Guardian Council (2017 local elections reformists gained control of Tehran city council)

Nigeria Historical Development of the State: The Military Era (1966 countercoup, General Yakubu Gowon, 1975 who?)

- The 1966 countercoup in response to the Igbo army officer's coup established the Federal Military Government (FMG) which initially claimed it would return power to civilian control - General Yakubu Gowon came to head FMG 1966, argued in advance of return to civilian control, Nigeria had to undergo dramatic political and economic reform - Broke Nigeria into a number of federal states, moved away from agriculture by stimulating industrialization through policy of import substitution, by 1970s Nigeria had become one if top 10 oil-producing countries in world - FMG had come to power w degree of public support but simply replaced one form of patronage with another, by mid 1970s Gowon's political authority had deteriorated with public anger over widespread corruption, crime, and stagnating development, 1975 overthrown in bloodless coup - 1975 General Murtala Muhammad came to power and cracked down on corruption, had widespread popular support as tried to return Nigeria to civilian rule, within a year he was assassinated in a failed coup attempt Brought to power General Olusegun Obasanjo who continued Muhammad's plans

Nigeria Historical Development of the State: Islam and Nigerian North (three groups changed dramatically with what, 11th c, Usman Fodio?)

- These three dominant ethnic groups (Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo) changed dramatically with contact with outside groups, first major one came from Middle East with spread of Islam - By 11th c Islam was carried along trade routes into Hausa region, by 15th c brought literacy and scholarship through Arabic though largely confined to Hausa elite, late 18th c greater contact led to greater conversions Islam's influence solidified by leader Usman Fodio (1754-1817) - He gained support among Hausa and Fulani peasantry that felt oppressed under city states' warring monarchies, embrace of Islam led to conflict between city-states and Usman, Usman declared jihad against Hausa CS 1804 and overthrew them 1808 to establish Sokoto Caliphate (**became largest empire in Africa, provided uniform gvpt**)

Iran Society: Ideology and Political Culture (First major division: over relationship between market and state - two groups)

- Those who saw the primary role of the revolution as bringing about a moral order vs Others who saw it as a means for ensuring economic justice Khomeini emphasized both of above - Those who favor economic liberalization and better relations w international community to increase trade and investment (former pres Rafsanjani and Pres Rouhani) or those who have a skeptical view of economic reform and liberalisation (supreme leader and many principalists)

Nigeria Elections (will continue be tested by what?, patronage?, gvpt created what to combat it?, 2011 violence, why 2015 not as violent?)

- Will continue to be tested by gvpt corruption, political/gangster violence, persistent economic misery - Half trillion dollars of oil revenues in hands of elite, national pays state/local to ensure get votes (patronage) as controls "excess crude account" (fund of oil surplus revenue) so advantage to incumbent (Obasanjo using $20 million for successor) - But gvpt created "open secret ballot system" and Nigerian Sovereign Investment Authority in 2011 to insulate oil revenues from politicians and direct them toward economic development - Leading up to 2011 election politicians arranged to have opponents murdered, hired gangs to murder rivals' campaigns, hand grenades on election day, after dissatisfied voters went on looting/killing spree (800 Nigerians died in first week after elections (greatest violence in poor north) - 2015 elections had fewer casualties due to Johnson's quick/gracious acceptance of defeat

Iran Historical Development of State: Opposition to Shah and Iranian Revolution (Carter criticism, what led to Khomeini further support?, Shah response (3), protests)

- Worsening of Iran's economy 1970s coincided with growing highly educated urban youth and increased state repression, - 1977 Carter criticized shah for repressive practices and in response shah freed dome political prisoners and lifted ban on political orgs like National Front but then Carter didn't press shah further and Iranians angry turned again to Khomeini who argued that Islamic gvpt should be constructed around concept of velayat-e faqih or clerical rule Clergy could serve as a regent in place of the Mahdi who would return to reestablish religious/political righteousness, popularity grew - Shah tried smear campaign and set off protests which coincided with 40 day cycle of mourning that increased religious symbolism Three events (1) burning of Cinema rex in Abadan August 1978 that killed 400 people, rumor that SAVAK caused it to frame religious opposition, protests; (2) in response to protests, declaration of martial law, many killed; (3) shah persuaded Iraq to exile Khomeini to France but this only improved his connections to Iran, outside world, and international media - By November widespread violence, late 1978 million in street and military units defecting, shah fled and provisional gvpt in place, 1979 February 1 million welcomed Khomeini as he returned to Iran

Nigeria Three reasons why it stands out, example of

1) "giant of Africa" (most populous country in Africa, by mid-century will be third largest in world), (250 ethnic groups), 2) continent's largest economy, 3) blessed with enormous natural wealth from oil to agriculture Example of the possibilities and potential limits of state power and democracy under conditions of postcolonialism and a vast wealth of natural resources

South Africa Historical Development of State (Transition to Democracy - 5 factors)

1) Demographic Pressure and Growing Unrest (black population growing more quickly esp in urban areas, creation of Unified Democratic Front 1983 united trade unions and anti-apartheid group integrated, ANC waged guerrilla war) 2) Economic Decline (economy among most stagnant in world, inefficient system, mercantilist policies led to services not competitive) 3) Internal Reforms (mid 1970s most convinced system unsustainable, PM Borha 1978 promised to dismantle it and achieved under Pres Klerk (1968-94) who repealed previous acts and legalized black parties) 4) Changing International Context (1980s many countries imposed an embargo, end of Cold War deprived it of legitimacy in eyes of US and UK) 5) Skilled Leadership (Klerk essential, Mandela agreed to power sharing and guarantees to assuage white fears, knew Afrikaans)

Yugoslavia Self-Management Article Self-Management theory based on what three propositions

1) Incorporation of this into Yugoslav system with contribute to withering away of state institutions and transfer administrative functions to associations of citizens 2) Yugoslav society that was formerly divided by class (those who have property and those who don't) will become non-class society through introduction of social property/elimination of private property 3) Society's division into national (ethno-national) groups will wither away when national bourgeoisie and their institutions disappear

Yugoslavia Political History (Prior to WWII - first Yugoslavia was what, Yugoslavia = , 1940 what happened and effect, 1941?)

1918 First Yugoslavia was a kingdom (Ottomans used to control, then began to push Turks out) Yugoslavia = south slavs 1940 collapsed due to WWII, overwhelmed idea of collective slav unity, bombed 1941 fell to Axis powers, Croatia was a nazi puppet state

Yugoslavia Political History (1949 Tito does whhat and why?, co-founds what?)

1949 Tito breaks from Stalin - Not part of Soviet bloc, was not going to yield to Stalin, walks out of room - Non-Alignment Movement - movement of countries co-founded by Tito that was not part of US or Soviets during Cold War - Worked with Ghandi and Egypt t create third sphere of influence

Yugoslavia Self-Management Article Evolution (1950, 1953, 1963, 1974, 1976)

1950 - First real step toward self-management made with introduction of "Basic Law on the Management of State Economic Enterprises" and "Higher Economic Associations by the Work Collectives" (1946 had just copied Stalin Constitution) 1953 (began withering of state, local self-gvpt), 1963 (changed name to Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia, problems arose in implementation), 1974 (tried to strengthen equality of nations, broaden rights, democratize, introduce parallel head of states, Federal Chamber) new constitutions, 1976 Law of Associated Labor

South Africa Historical Development of State (The Building of Apartheid and the Struggle against It)

1950 Group Areas Act, different races couldn't live in same neighborhood (ex. Sophiatown) Met resistance, ANC was initially nonviolent and moderate in call for multiracial democracy, leadership of Nelson Mandela But regime fiercely repressed it which led to 1) response from ANC became more confrontational (1960 Sharpesville Massacre); 2) Apartheid arrested Nelson Mandela and banned ANC NP retained Afrikaner support by improving their political and economic status, but faced hostility from abroad UN 1952, 1977 arms embargo - But US saw it as fight against communism and West had lucrative investments there

Yugoslavia Political History (1990s growing what? between who?, event in 1991, war of 1990s, Constitution encouraged what but began with?)

1990 growing ethnic unrest - Serbs claimed to be targeted by Albanians - Croatians claim Serbs trying to take over committee bc 3 votes - Slovenia is wealthiest republic and leaves final Yugoslav committee 1991 Slovenia independence in 10 day war, Croatians claim independence same day War of 1990s - Genocide ethnic cleansing - Croatia and Slovenia join EU Bushcovitch/Vuschovitch - Argues that constitution encouraged separatism that expected national lines - From national center (Belgrade) to the outsides/ ethno-national peripheries - Decentralization of exec power led to separatism, but began with self-management

South Africa Historical Development of State (The Apartheid Era)

Apartheid era was distinguished by by NP's two goals: 1) consolidating Afrikaner power, 2) eliminating all vestiges of black participation in South African politics Argued South Africa composed of four distinct racial groups: argued whites most civilized and should have control of the state (Population Registration Act of 1950 - created 10 "tribal homelands" or Bantustans - 1971 could get independence) Required to reside in area determined by the gvpt, internal visas, forcible transfers segregated places and couldn't intermarry Though retained many trappings of a parliamentary democracy tho vast majority disenfranchised

Iran Branches of Gvpt: Supreme Leader and Pres (concept of what most embodied in executive)

Concept of velayet-e faqih most embodied in executive Has dual executive that divides power between two executives, differs from other countries tho

South Africa Society (divided how, though what is present, two countries in what respect?)

Divided along ethnic/racial lines which is compounded by political persecution and economic discrimination, though most patriotic and have pride Remains in many ways two nations: one white/wealthy and other poor/black

South Africa Political Conflict and Competition: Party System and Elections (during apartheid)

During apartheid, few political parties existed ans NP dominated, main opposition was weak Progressive Federal Party (PFP), opposed apartheid; so changed dramatically

South Africa Historical Development of State (Dutch Role, Boer Migration, Defeat of Afrikaners in Boer Wars)

Dutch Rule - 17th century arrived, early, early Dutch settlers known as Boers and developed on culture based on their own Protestant Dutch Reformed Church and Afrikaans - Seized by British 1795, Dutch ceded control 1814 Boer Migration - Waves of British settlers seen as threat to Boer society, became Voortreckers and began Great trek of 1835 inward with slaves, resistance from Xhosa and Bantu -1838 Battle of Blood Afrikaans beat Zulu, now holiday - Created two states, Boer republics, where slavery, segregation, etc protected by law; British tolerated until discovery of diamonds and gold there - Transvaal pres stopped flow of English and rebellion by Cecil Rhodes by declaring war on England 1889 Defeat of Afrikaners in Boers War - Boer Wars 1880-81, 1899-1902, British used concentration camps, 1902 Boers defeated and became self-governing British colony, 1910 agreements formalized (allowed them to deny blacks vote) in Union of South Africa

Iran This case study gives insight into what? (4)

Gives insight into potential power of Islamic fundamentalism, limitations, and sources of resistance As numerous countries struggle with reconciling Islam and the state, Iranian Revolution remains an important ex of the power of Islam as a political vision

Iran Political Regime (significance of Khomeinis death, Weber, resulting political system)

Has sought to follow ideas of Khomeini but also presence of democratic ideas made regime have to reconcile will of people with will of people, since Khomeini's death regime has faced challenge of what Max Weber termed the "routinization of charisma" and result has been political system with a mixture of institutions that seek to balance popular rights with word of God

South Africa Political Regime: Political Institutions (why smooth transition?)

Long tradition of democratic traditions helped smooth transition to multiracial democracy as just has to reform/extend existing institution

South Africa Why study this case?, Ex to who, challenges?

Nation of paradoxes, but faces its contradictions Presents two cases in one as before 1990s dominated by apartheid, Afrikaans language of minority regime; with collapse now multicultural democracy - Peaceful transfer, reconciliation over revolution Powerful ex to other nations plagued by racial, ethnic, and religious strife Political domination and economic inequalities present challenges

Yugoslavia Self-Management Article Self-Management theory inspired by?

Rousseau - advocated a society of economic equality and economic independence, property vital, idea of organized groups and when acceptable - numerous and equal John Stuart Mill - participation had to be fostered and developed at local level, difficulties in larger-scale society England Cole's model 1920s resembled, Guild Socialism, humanity fully recognized and associations, though Kardelj disregarded similarities

Yugoslavia Self-Management Article Argument

The socialist self-management system "invented" by Edvard Kardelj and introduced in 1950 made a significant and largely unrecognized contribution to the ethnic violence and disintegration of Yugoslavia Transformed it from community of nations to community of nation-states, devolution created conditions for development by the republics of extreme ethnocentric policies Exacerbated when tried to transform this system int a multi-party democracy Also bc of divided international community

Yugoslavia Self-Management Article Results of 1990 multi party elections

Victory of ethno-nationalist parties against unity The only forces that kept Yugoslavia together were Tito (died 1980) and the Communist Party (dissolved 1990)

Iran What is fundamentalism? Theocracy?

a view of religion as absolute and inerrant that should be legally enforced by making faith the sovereign authority, faith becomes ideology religious elite dominating regime, "Islamic Republic" - laws flow from Koran