HDFS 3030 exam 3

LGBTQ Youth and GSA programs

"Empowerment" in activism and involvement in high school Gay-Straight Alliance programs (see supplemental reading: Russell et al., 2009) Presence, participation, and perceived supportiveness of a Gay-Straight Alliance in high school buffered peer victimization (Russell et al., 2011) Youth involved in Gay-Straight Alliance programs reported less truancy, drug use, suicidal attempts, risky sex

Transgender youth are especially targeted.

"Transgender and gender non-conforming youth face challenges at home, at school, in foster care, and in juvenile justice systems. A national survey by GLSEN has found that 75% of transgender youth feel unsafe at school, and those who are able to persevere had significantly lower GPAs, were more likely to miss school out of concern for their safety, and were less likely to plan on continuing their education."

A New Course At Arkansas Colleges: How To Not Get Pregnant

"Why in college? Arkansas has the nation's highest rate of teen births, but most of them — here and nationally — are actually to young adults, 18 and 19 years old. In 2016, the Arkansas Legislature passed a law directing the state's public colleges and universities to tackle unplanned pregnancy. Schools have each been crafting their own plans for how to do that, and they launched the effort during orientation this month." "Only 4 of 20 students in this group say they had sex ed in high school."

According to data from the 2015 national Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), of surveyed LGB students:

-10% were threatened or injured with a weapon on school property -34% were bullied on school property -28% were bullied electronically -23% of LGB students who had dated or went out with someone during the 12 months before the survey had experienced sexual dating violence in the prior year -18% of LGB students had experienced physical dating violence -18% of LGB students had been forced to have sexual intercourse at some point in their lives.

Social cognitive theory has been especially important in understanding social influences on gender

-Emphasizes that children's and adolescents' gender development is influenced by: -Their observation and imitation of others' gender behavior *social role part* -The rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior *cognitive part*

How can best guide adolescent's gender development? (girls)

-Encourage girls to develop self-competencies -Teach and encourage girls to be more assertive -Help girls explore a wide range of career options Teach boys and girls to reduce gender stereotyping and discrimination! Check yourself.

Teen birth rate

-In 1972 the fertility rate was 61.7 births per 1,000 females (roughly 6% of teens ages 15-19 gave birth) -by 1987 it was 50.6 births per 1,000 (5%) -in 1991 it was 61.8 births per 1,000 (6%) -in 2000 it was 47.6 births per 1,000 (5%) -In 2010 it was 34.4 per 1,000 (___%)

Socioemotional Similarities and Differences

-aggression (physical vs. relational -Communication in relationships (rapport vs. report) -Prosocial behavior -Emotion and its regulation

Biological Influences on Gender: puberty

-puberty intensifies the sexual aspects of adolescents' gender attitudes and behavior (e.g., testosterone, estrogen) -Few attempts have been made to relate puberty's sexual changes to gender behavior -Some links between hormones and aggression in boys -Some evidence between hormones and girls risk of depression, particularly for girls at genetic risk

What about (teen) Mom?

-twice as likely to drop out of school (McGaha-Garnett, 2008) -Less likely to go to college or become employed -Less likely to get married (Moore et al., 2002) -More likely to get divorced if they get married -Do they catch up? (a sample of 300 mothers; Furstenberg et al., 1987) -Five years after given birth, teenage mothers still lagged behind their peers in educational, occupational, and economic progress -After 18 years -25% were still on welfare -25% had succeeded in making it into the middle class -A majority had eventually completed high school -33% had completed at least some college education

Physical traits and health

1. Body fat *females twice body fat of men* 2. Height *men grow ~ 10 % taller* 3. Physiological stressresponse - elevated levels of cortisol following a stress test (Uhart et al., 2006) 4. life expectancy females have longer life expectancy, more resistant to infection, generally less mental health problems, blood vessels are more elastic

What is the difference or similarity between social role and social cognitive theory of gender? What is gender schema theory?

Alice Eagly (2001, 2010) proposed social role theory. Gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of females and males. Emphasizes that children's and adolescents' gender development is influenced by their observation and imitation of others' gender behavior social role and the rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior cognitive. Gender schema theory is gender-typing emerges as children and adolescents gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture

Traditional Masculinity and Problem Behaviors in Adolescent Boys

An increasing number of gender theorists and researchers conclude that there is a negative side to traditional masculinity (Levant, 2001) William Pollack (1999) in his book Real Boys says that little has been done to change what he calls the "boy code" -Too often boys are socialized to not show their feelings and to act tough -Boys would benefit from being socialized to express anxieties and concerns rather than keep them bottled, as well as to learn how to better regulate their aggression and reduce violence There also is a special concern about boys who adopt a strong masculine role in adolescence, because this is increasingly being found to be associated with problem behaviors -Joseph Pleck (1995) concludes that what defines traditional masculinity in many Western cultures includes behaviors that do not have social approval but nonetheless validate the adolescent boy's masculinity: -Premarital sex -alcohol and drugs -Illegal delinquent activities

Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for Girls? criticisms

Gilligan and her colleagues overemphasize differences in gender (Dindia, 2006; Hyde, 2007) Gilligan's research strategy rarely includes a comparison group of boys or statistical analysis Gilligan's findings reinforce stereotypes -Girls as victim -We should be providing girls with more opportunities to reach higher levels of achievement and self-determination

Teen pregnancy rate - there are differences

In 1972 the teen pregnancy rate was 95.1 births per 1,000 females (roughly 10% of teens ages 15-19 got pregnant) -by 1987 it was 106.6 births per 1,000 (11%) -in 1991 it was 115.3 births per 1,000 (12%) -in 2000 it was 83.4 births per 1,000 (8%) -In 2010 the teen pregnancy rate was 57.4 per 1,000 (6%)

How common is teen pregnancy in the U.S. today compared to prior generations? Compared to other developed countries ? What four factors have been thought to contribute to recent changes in teen pregnancy?

In 2010 the teen pregnancy rate was 57.4 per 1,000 (6%). The United States continues to have one of the highest adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates in the industrialized world, despite a considerable decline in the 1990s. Researchers have also found that US adolescents use condoms less than their counterparts in Europe. Increased contraceptive use, fear of sexually transmitted infections, school/community health classes, and a greater hope for future are the 4 contributions.

Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for Girls?

In early adolescence, girls become aware that the male-dominated culture does not value their intense interest in intimacy The dilemma is that girls are presented with a choice that makes them appear either seflish or selfless As young girls struggle with this dilemma, they begin to "silence" their "different voice" Greatest concern is for girls who not only silence their voice but emphasize the importance of appearance

*Four factors* Likely reasons for these declines include:

Increased contraceptive use Fear of sexually transmitted infections School/community health classes Greater hope for future

What is the gender intensification hypothesis and what support is there for it by the research?

It happens when psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles (Hill & Lynch, 1983; Lynch, 1991). As adolescent boys and girls grow older, they tend to show less stereotypic gender behavior (Galambos, Berenbaum, & McHale, 2009).

A Normal Aspect of Development

Much of what we hear about adolescent sexuality involves problems, such as teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections, multiple partners in non committed relationships, sex before age 13, drinking/drugs while having sex, lack of contraceptives, condoms, etc. (risky sex) Although there are significant concerns, it is important not to lose sight of the fact that sexuality is a normal part of adolescence (Tolman & McClelland, 2001; see supplemental reading Harden, 2014) At some point becomes indicative of healthy development!

Cognitive Similarities and Differences

No gender differences occur in overall intellectual ability—but in some cognitive areas, gender differences do appear, like verbal, math, and visuospatial skills. Some experts in gender, such as Janet Shibley Hyde (2005, 2007) conclude that the cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated. Males more likely to drop out of HS, and more women are going to college. The bottom 50 percent of high-school classes is made up mainly of males. Girls tend to show better self-control and focusing attention than do boys

What does research conclude are the cognitive differences exist between males and females? Be sure to discuss any differences in visual-spatial, verbal, and math reasoning specific to adolescence and emerging adulthood.

No gender differences occur in overall intellectual ability—but in some cognitive areas, gender differences do appear, like verbal, math, and visuospatial skills. Some experts in gender, such as Janet Shibley Hyde (2005, 2007) conclude that the cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated. Males more likely to drop out of HS, and more women are going to college. The bottom 50 percent of high-school classes is made up mainly of males. Girls tend to show better self-control and focusing attention than do boys

Cognitive Influences on Gender

Observation, imitation are the mechanisms by which gender develops according to socialization theories The ways in which we think about gender facilitate the development of gender-related ways (Galambos et al., 2009) according to cognitive theories The child does more than passively acquire gender

What types of sexual education are offered in the U.S. and other countries? What type seems to be associated with the best outcomes? What type has been shown to not work whatsoever by several research studies?

Only 24 states require sex education in public schools in the United States, and 26 states required that abstinence be stressed. In a huge step forward, Obama cut funding to abstinence only education in his 2017 federal budget Two recent research reviews found that abstinence-only programs do not delay the initiation of sexual intercourse and do not reduce HIV risk behaviors. Recent study revealed that adolescents who experienced comprehensive sex education were less likely to report adolescent pregnancies than those who were given abstinence-only sex education or no education

Should androgyny be taught to students?

Some evidence it is easier to teach to girls than boys and before the middle school years -Gender-role transcendence

What consequences are associated with being a teen mom, dad, baby?

Teen moms are more likely to drop out of school, les likely to go to college, less likely to get married, and more likely to get a divorce. Teen dads are more likely to become divorced, receive less education, have a lower paying job, more prone to drug and alcohol use, more likely to violate the late, and more feelings of anxiety and depression. Babies are more likely to be born premature, have a lower birth weight, higher likelihood of behavioral problems.

What kinds of bias and discrimination is common for sexual minority adolescents and young adults to experience?

The majority of sexual minority individuals experience their first same-sex attraction, sexual behavior, and self-labeling as a gay male or lesbian during adolescence (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2009, 2011; Saewyc, 2011). Recent research also indicates that sexual minority adolescents are more likely to develop substance abuse problems, engage in sexual risk-taking, and be targeted for violence. Many sexual minority adolescents experience discrimination and rejection in interactions with their families, peers, schools, and communities (Halpern, 2011).

How is traditional masculinity or the "Boy Code" potentially harmful for our young men?

Too often boys are socialized to not show their feelings and to act tough. Boys would benefit from being socialized to express anxieties and concerns rather than keep them bottled, as well as to learn how to better regulate their aggression and reduce violence. There also is a special concern about boys who adopt a strong masculine role in adolescence, because this is increasingly being found to be associated with problem behaviors, such as, premarital sex, alcohol and drugs, Illegal delinquent activities

Gender Similarities and Differences

When examining the differences between the sexes, keep the following in mind: -The differences are average and do not apply to all females or all males -Even when gender differences occur, there often is considerable overlap between males and females, especially in cognitive and socioemotional development *and are very small in effect size* -The differences may be due primarily to biological factors, to sociocultural factors, or to both

How common is sexual assault in adolescence and young adulthood?

~25% of college women experience rape

Which of the following statements regarding gender differences related to schooling and academic achievement is TRUE?

A. Females are more likely to drop out of school than males. B. Males make up about 60 percent of the students enrolled in college today. C. The bottom 50 percent of high-school classes is made up mainly of males. D. Most males perform at below-average level. C

Rita and Don are the parents of 15-year-old twins, Frank and Francine. Research suggests that

A. Frank will have more independence than Francine. B. Frank will be encouraged to do well in English and social sciences. C. Francine will be encouraged to do well in math. D. Both twins will be encouraged to excel in science A

During the 1920s, the adolescent childbearing rate was _____ the rate in 1990.

A. Higher than B. Lower than C. Equal to C

In recent years, the number of US high school students engaging in sexual intercourse has

A. Increased B. Decreased B

According to the Sandra Bem, _____ people are the most mentally healthy and flexible.

A. Masculine B. Feminine C. Undifferentiated D. Androgynous D

Who of the following has the power to offset risk association with rejection and bullying of sexual minority adolescents?

A. Parents B. Schools C. Peers D. All of the above D

Research has shown some links between frequent pornography use and adolescent ___________.

A. Substance use B Conduct problems C. Risky sexual behaviors D. All of the above D

Evidence that the classroom is biased against girls includes all of the following EXCEPT

A. Teachers spend more time interacting with boys. B. Teachers spend more time watching girls. C. Teachers give more instruction to boys. D. Teachers give boys more time than girls to answer questions. B

What differences exist between males and females with regard to brain structure and activity?

A. The part of the hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in females than in males. B. The area of the brain involved in visuospatial skills is larger in females than in males. C. The area of the brain involved in emotional expression is more active in males than in females. D. All of the above are false D

There is at least some evidence to suggest that gender-role attitudes and gender intensification tends to

A. decrease in early adolescence B. increase in early adolescence C. stay the same from early childhood until late adolescence D. increase in later adolescence B

William Pollack, author of Real Boys, argues that the "boy code" tells boys that they should

A. express anger but not positive emotions like love. B. express positive emotions, but suppress anger and anxiety. C. express all of their emotions in moderation. D. show little, if any emotion, as they are growing up. D

Evelyn scores low on both feminine and masculine traits on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Evelyn would be classified as

A. feminine. B. masculine. C. undifferentiated. D. androgynous. C

Carol Gilligan believes

A. girls are sensitive to different emotions in relationships. B. girls experience life differently than boys. C. adolescence is a critical juncture in girls' development. D. all of these. D

Two reasons for the rise in the proportion of adolescent births that are nonmarital are because marriage has become quite rare in adolescence and because

A. pregnancy is no longer seen as a reason to get married. B. the fathers of these babies are not able to support them as well as their mothers. C. most of these children are given up for adoption, so there is no need to marry. D. none of these. A

peers

Adolescents spend increasing amounts of time with peers (Brown & others, 2008) Peer approval or disapproval a powerful influence on gender attitudes and behavior (Prinstein & Dodge, 2010) Peers can socialize gender behavior partly by accepting or rejecting of others on the basis of what the culture defines as sex-appropriate

Gender is a fundamental way of organizing ideas about the world

Age 3 Understand themselves as being either male or female Age 4 or 5 Identify things as appropriate for either males or females Age 6 to 10 Perceptions of gender become less _________ Age 12 to 16 Perceptions of gender become more ________ - gender intensification As adolescents become more capable of reflecting on these issues, they become more concerned with compliance to gender norms for themselves and others.

By 12th grade, nearly ______ of adolescents have engaged in sexual intercourse

A. 90% B. 60% C. 25% D. 10% B

A set of expectations describing how males and females should think, act, and feel defines

A. A self-schema B. A gender role C. Gender intensification D. Sexism B

The majority of sexual minority individuals experience their first sexual behavior in

A. Adolescence B. Late childhood C. Emerging adulthood D. Young adulthood A

Gender development is influenced by

A. Biological factors B. Social factors C. Cognitive factors D. All of these factors D

The highest rates of adolescent pregnancies and childbearing in the developed world occur in which nation?

A. Canada B. England C. United States D. France C

Research indicates sexual minority adolescents may be more likely than heterosexual youth to ____________

A. Develop substance abuse problems B. Engage in sexual risk taking behaviors C. Be targeted for violence D. All of the above D

Describe the prevalence of bullying and violence for youth identifying as a sexual minority. Then, review what effective courses of action can reduce stigma, discrimination, and bias for such youth.

10% were threatened or injured with a weapon on school property, 34% were bullied on school property, 28% were bullied electronically.

Traits such as warmth, sensitivity, ability to express feelings are labeled _____ traits

A. Expressive B. Concordant C. Instrumental D. Congruent A

Traits such as aggressive, independent, and power-oriented are labeled _____ traits

A. Expressive B. Concordant C. Instrumental D. Congruent C

physical similarities and differences in brain structure

5. brain structure and activity (still a growing field of research) -The part of the hypothalamus that is involved in sexual behavior tends to be larger in men than in women. -The portion of the parietal lobe that functions in viuspatial skills tends to be larger in males. -Females have typically smaller brains (correlated with smaller heights and weights) -However, females have more and larger folds (convolutions), total surface area packed into smaller space -Surface area not volume, determines how many neurons and synaptic connections it can store

What is the estimated percent of how many adolescents vs. emerging adults have viewed pornography? What evidence is there for frequent pornography viewing having an impact on adolescent adjustment? (HINT: focus on Svedin et al. 2011)

8% of 13-year-olds and 20 % of 14 to 17-year olds have viewed pornography. In the U.S. Internet pornography use is higher in emerging adults: 87 % of men and 31% of young women.

Discrimination and Bias

A large-scale study found both similarities and differences in the lives of adolescents who are heterosexual, those who have same-sex attractions, and those who are bisexual (Busséri & others, 2006) A research review concluded that there are mixed results as to whether overall sexual minority adolescents are likely to attempt suicide or not (Saewyc, 2011) Recent research also indicates that sexual minority adolescents are more likely to develop substance abuse problems, engage in sexual risk-taking, and be targeted for violence

Gender role

A set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel

By how much did out-of-wedlock childbearing increase from 1980 to 1987?

A. 10% B. 20% C. 30% D. 40% E. 50% E

The peak year (up until 1987) for teenage childbearing was _____.

A. 1957 B. 1967 C. 1977 D. 1987 A

In 1970, 50 percent of babies born out-of-wedlock were relinquished for adoption; currently, the percentage is _____.

A. 70% B. 50% C. 25% D. 10% E. 3% E

Contraceptive Use

Many sexually active adolescents still do not use contraceptives, or they use them inconsistently (Tschann & others, 2010) -Younger adolescents are less likely than older adolescents to take contraceptive precautions Researchers have also found that US adolescents use condoms less than their counterparts in Europe -Pill use also continues to be higher in European countries (Santelli, Sandfort, & Orr, 2009) -Such comparisons provide insight into why adolescent pregnancy rates are much higher in the United States than in European countries

What are the biological, cognitive, and social influences on gender development in adolescence and young adulthood?

Biological influences include puberty intensifying the sexual aspects of adolescents' gender attitudes and behavior (e.g., testosterone, estrogen). Cognitive influences include observation, imitation are the mechanisms by which gender develops according to socialization theories. Social influence, according to many social scientists argue that psychological gender differences are due mainly to social experiences

Incidence of Adolescent Pregnancy

Each year more than 200,000 females in the United States have a child before their _______ birthday The United States continues to have one of the highest adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates in the industrialized world, despite a considerable decline in the 1990s (Cooksey, 2009) Why are U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates so high? -Three reasons based on cross-cultural studies are as follows (Boonstra, 2002, pp. 9-10): 1. Childbearing regarded as adult activity 2. Clear messages about sexual behavior 3. Access to family planning services

Social Influences on Gender

Many social scientists argue that psychological gender differences are due mainly to social experiences

Researchers have explored the possible biological basis of sexual minority behavior

Fraternal birth order effect -the more older brothers a man has, the greater probability he will identify as gay To date, strongest known predictor of sexual orientation for men E.g., Each elder brother results in a man's odds of being gay by 33%

Further Exploration of Sexuality in Emerging Adults

Emerging adulthood is a time frame during which most individuals are "both sexually active and unmarried " (Lefkowitz & Gillen, 2006, p. 235) Individuals who become sexually active in adolescence engage in more risky sexual behaviors in emerging adulthood than their counterparts who delay their sexual debuts until emerging adulthood (Capaldi & others, 2002)

How can best guide adolescent's gender development? (boys)

Encourage boys to be less physically aggressive Teach boys to become emotionally competent -Recognize emotions, regulate strong emotions like anger, express concerns and anxieties rather than keep them bottled up Encourage boys to be sensitive in their relationships and engage in prosocial behavior -Father's can play a large role in this Work with boys to improve school performance

What are some of the ways we can encourage healthy or positive gender role development for boys and girls, given our knowledge about the negative effects of "toxic" masculinity and the research showing girls tend to "silence" their voice?

Encourage boys to be less physically aggressive, to become emotionally competent, to be sensitive in their relationships, engage in prosocial behavior, and improve school performance. Encourage girls to develop self-competencies, to be more assertive, to explore career choices.

Evolutionary psychology and gender

Evolutionary psychologists argue that primarily because of their differing roles in reproduction Males and females faced different pressures in primeval environments when the human species was evolving (Geary, 2010) -Natural selection favored males who adopt short-term mating strategies (to pass down genes), dispositions evolved that favor violence, competition, risk-taking -Females contributions improved by securing resources for children, sought long-term mates who could support a family; dispositions related to nurturing, favored men who can provide resources This evolutionary unfolding may help to explain key gender differences in sexual attitudes and behavior

Evolutionary psychology and gender critiques

Evolutionary psychologists' hypotheses are backed by speculations about prehistory, not evidence That people are not locked into behavior that was adaptive in the evolutionary past That the evolutionary view pays little attention to cultural and individual variations in gender differences

What are three physical differences that exist between males and females? Be sure to address brain differences.

Females have twice the body fat as men. Men grow ~10% taller. There's a difference in the physiological stress response. Females also have a longer life expectancy and generally less health problems.

Risk Factors in Adolescent Sexuality

Many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence -Formal operational thought not fully developed, nor prefrontal cortex Early sexual activity is linked with other risky behaviors, like substance use (Jayakody & others, 2011; Yi & others, 2010), including in the long-term Risk factors for early sex include contextual factors such as lower socioeconomic status (SES) and poverty, family/parenting and peer factors, and school-related influences (Van Ryzin & others, 2010) Also individual-level factors, like disinhibited personality, poor self regulation, genetic liability for externalizing problems, low spirituality/religiousness

Bem's Sex Role Inventory

Gender Role -Masculine - Characterized by instrumental traits -Feminine - Characterized by expressive traits -androgynous - High on both masculine and feminine traits *thought to be the best of both worlds really* -Undifferentiated - low on both masculine and feminine traits

How does Bem's sex role inventory classify gender? What are the four types? What are the criticisms of this approach?

Gender Role-Masculinity is characterized by instrumental traits, Femininity is characterized by expressive traits, Androgynous people are high on both masculine and feminine traits (thought to be the best of both worlds really). Undifferentiated people are low on both masculine and feminine traits

Alice Eagly (2001, 2010) proposed social role theory

Gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of females and males -In most cultures around the world, females have less power and status than males have, and they control fewer resources (UNICEF, 2011) -As women adapted to roles with less power and less status in society, they showed more cooperative , less dominant profiles than men

Define gender schema theory. Based on what we covered today and this theory, briefly describe how you think your life would change if you were born the opposite sex.

Gender schema theory is the theory that children begin to form schemas about gender as soon as they learn that male and female are two different categories. If I were born the opposite sex, I think I'd be similar to my female self. I would be athletic, pursuing psychology, and I would probably still have my dog. I would obviously have grown up surrounding myself with other males rather than females and I assume I would be attracted to the opposite sex as well. But those are the only major differences I can see myself having.

Gender schema theory

Gender-typing emerges as children and adolescents gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture (Martin & Ruble, 2010) Children and adolescents are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schemas

Gender stereotypes

General impressions and beliefs about females and males Researchers also have found that boys' gender stereotypes are more rigid than girls' (Blakemore, Berenbaum, & Liben, 2009)

What STIs are the most common? What are their symptoms?

Genital herpes, three to five days after contact, itching and tingling can occur, followed by an eruption of painful sores and blisters. HPV, there are many different types of HPV. Some types can cause health problems including genital warts and cancers. Chlamydia, many females have few or no symptoms.

discrimination and bias continued

Many sexual minority adolescents experience discrimination and rejection in interactions with their families, peers, schools, and communities (Halpern, 2011) -Sexual minority youths' exposure to stigma and discrimination is the main reason given as to why they are more likely to develop problems Despite these negative circumstances, many sexual minority adolescents successfully cope with the challenges they face and develop levels of health and well-being that are similar to their heterosexual peers (Saewyc, 2011)

Possible explanations for Factors Associated with Sexual Minority Behavior

Hormonal factors in utero -Women pregnant with sons form antibodies to testosterone; each subsequent male fetus has less (Blanchard et al., 2004) An individual's sexual orientation is most likely determined by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors

keep in ~mind~ for brain structure

Much of the research on gender similarities and differences in the brain have been conducted with adults rather than children or adolescents (Lenroot & Giedd, 2010) Although some gender differences in brain structure and function have been found many of these differences are either small or research is inconsistent regarding the differences (Hyde, 2007; also see supplemental readings Hyde, 2014)

Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior

Sexual minority: Someone who identifies with being lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer/questioning (LGBTQ) Until the middle of the 20th century, it was generally believed that people were either heterosexual or homosexual There has been a move away from using the term "homosexual" because of negative historic connotations (Carroll, 2010; Kelly, 2011) The majority of sexual minority individuals experience their first same-sex attraction, sexual behavior, and self-labeling as a gay male or lesbian during adolescence (Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2009, 2011; Saewyc, 2011)

Parents

Parents generally allow boys more independence than girls (Maccoby, 2007) -Parents may also have different achievement expectations for their adolescent sons and daughters, especially in academic areas such as math and science (Leaper & Friedman, 2007) -Mothers and fathers also often interact differently with their sons and daughters (Bronstein, 2006) -Parents are more favorably responsive to girls talking about emotions and feelings than they are toward boys. -In fact, they may give negative responses to boys who act or talk about being sad.

siblings

Play a role in gender socialization (Galambos, Berenbaum, & McHale, 2009) Perhaps even more than parents because closer in age and socio-historical context

Gender intensification hypothesis

Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles (Hill & Lynch, 1983; Lynch, 1991) The jury is still out on the validity of this hypothesis, but recent research has raised questions about its accuracy (Galambos, Berenbaum, & McHale, 2009) -As adolescent boys and girls grow older, they tend to show less stereotypic gender behavior

Gender identity

Refers to how much a person sees him or herself as masculine, feminine, gender fluid agender

biological sex

Refers to male or female anatomy / physiology you are born with

To what extent are gender stereotypes and differences supported by research?

Researchers have found that boys' gender stereotypes are more rigid than girls. Alice Eagly (2001, 2010) proposed social role theory which says that gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of females and males. The media influence adolescents' body image, and some studies reveal gender differences in this area (Grabe & Hyde, 2009). Some cognitive differences are found although Janet Shibley Hyde (2005, 2007) concludes that the cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated

Schools and teachers

There are concerns that schools and teachers have biases against both boys and girls -Teachers value neat, orderly, rule-based classes -Teachers more likely to interact with boys than girls -Boys more likely to be diagnosed with learning problems -School personnel more likely to criticize, label, and ignore boy's behavior -By middle school, girls have lower self-esteem and believe they have fewer career options than boys -Boys more likely to drop (7.6%) out than girls (5.9%) (National Assessment of Education Progress, 2014)

The Sexual Culture: media

Sex is explicitly portrayed in movies, videos, lyrics of popular music, MTV, and Internet websites Some crazy-telling stats: -8% of 13-year-olds and 20 % of 14 to 17-year olds have viewed pornography (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005) -In the U.S. Internet pornography use is higher in emerging adults: 87 % of men and 31% of young women (Carroll et al., 2008)

Gender-role transcendence

Think of ourselves as people first, rather than masculine, feminine, androgynous

Trends in U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy Rates

The proportion of adolescent births that are non-marital has increased (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2010) Two factors are responsible for this trend: -Marriage in adolescence has now become quite rare -Pregnancy is no longer seen as a reason for marriage

Births to adolescent girls have fallen to a record low in the United states

The rate of births to adolescent girls dropped 34% from 1991 to 2005 -Continued decline after that

What is the difference between biological sex, gender identity, and gender roles?

The structural and functional characteristics of a person or organism that allow assignment as either male or female. Gender identity refers to how much a person sees him or herself as masculine, feminine, gender fluid. Gender roles are a set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act, and feel

Mass media influences

The world of television is highly gender-stereotyped and conveys clear messages about the relative power and importance of women and men (Calvert, 2008) Some argue early adolescence may be a period of heightened sensitivity to television messages about gender roles The media influence adolescents' body image, and some studies reveal gender differences in this area (Grabe & Hyde, 2009)

What evidence is there for the social influences on gender role development? Comment on specific findings from parents, siblings, peers, or the mass media.

The world of television is highly gender-stereotyped and conveys clear messages about the relative power and importance of women and men (Calvert, 2008). Some argue early adolescence may be a period of heightened sensitivity to television messages about gender roles. The media influence adolescents' body image, and some studies reveal gender differences in this area (Grabe & Hyde, 2009)