Hdfs 3430 final

Criticisms of Kohlberg's moral development theory

gender bias- only used male perspectives participants, theory downplays relationships and concern for others assessment of moral reasoning- there should be some other assessment methods besides moral dilemmas moral thought vs moral behavior- placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough on moral behavior cultural bias- argues his theory is universal

What did Tolman say about authenticity in adolescent girls?

girls who increased in authenticity also tended to increase in self-esteem over the course of adolescence.

Independent variable

what you control

Does inductive reasoning work best during younger ages, school age, or adolescents?

works best with adolescents because you have the ability to think about things from multiple perspectives.

What is bullying?

"Verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful" (Santrock).

Displacing responsibility

"just following orders." One blames or gives an excuse as to why they aren't responsible.

Differentiation

"when I'm with my friends, I'm really outgoing, but when I'm with strangers I'm shy". o Note variations in self. o Adolescents are more likely than children to understand that they possess several different selves, each one varying to some degree according to a specific role or context. o Ex: a 15 year old girl might describe herself by using one set of characteristics in connection w/ her family & another set of characteristics in connection w/ her peers & friends. Yet another set of characteristics might appear in her self-description of her romantic relationship.

Growth spurt

- Timing varies for each individual. - Santrock: males 10-13.5in, females 9-15in. - Girls gain hip width, boys gain shoulder width (associated with hormones). - Facial structure changes. - Age at menarche currently ~12.5 in U.S. - "secular trend of menarche" its a trend overtime and the trend is that puberty is declining.

Mary Carskadon-sleep research

- When your brain considers night to begin, it produces melatonin. - As one develops and gets older, there is a later timing of melatonin production. - Melatonin released about an hour later for adolescents than it was before puberty. - Too little sleep impairs info acquisition. - Too little sleep impairs info retrieval-ability to access learned info.

Importance of "social comparison" in adolescence

- Adolescents may use more social comparison when evaluating self, but may not want to admit that (may see social comparison as undesirable). - They will say something like "I don't care what anyone says/thinks about me" but they just don't want to let you know what they actually do. - Are unwilling to admit they engage in this b/c they view it as socially undesirable.

Anna Freuds perspective of psychoanalytic theory

- Anna Freud > defense mechanisms. She believes going through adolescence without turmoil is unnatural. Defense mechanisms- adolescent says something they don't really mean because they are mad or some emotion.

What does James Marcia mean by "crisis" and "commitment?" (pages 143-145)

- Crisis (whether or not you have questioned it & looked at the different options): adolescent is to choose among meaningful alternatives (options). ~ AKA exploration. - Commitment (you can say "here's where I stand"): adolescents show a personal investment in what she/he is going to do; "I'm going to be an author".

Kroger's meta-analysis in identity development, identity development in college, MAMA cycles (p.146-147)

- During adolescence & emerging adulthood, identity moratorium status rose steadily to age 19 & then declined; identity achievement rose across late adolescence & emerging adulthood; & foreclosure & diffusion statuses declined across the high school years but fluctuated in the late teens & emerging adulthood. - Most not achieved by 20's. - Moratorium peaks at 19 years old. - Achievement rose across late adolescent & emerging adulthood. - Foreclosure & diffusion declined across adolescence, fluctuated in emerging adulthood. - Emerging adulthood when key changes occur (upperclassmen more likely to be achieved than freshmen). - Will not necessarily be stable through life. - MAMA cycles. o Many individuals who develop positive identities follow what are called the "MAMA cycles"; that is, their identity status changes from moratorium to achievement to moratorium to achievement. o These cycles may be repeated throughout life. o Marcia points out that the first identity is just that-->it is not, and should not be expected to be, the final product. - Identity consolidation: the process of refining & enhancing the identity choices that are made in emerging adulthood. o Continues well into early adulthood & possibly the early part of middle adulthood.

What changes happen with myelination, connections between neurons, neurotransmitters in adolescence?

- During myelination the axon is insulated which increases efficiency of info processing & that's increased during adolescence. The neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry information across synaptic gap. Improvements w/ memory & info. processing: 1.) cognitive resources, 2.) attention & memory, 3.) executive function; increase in cog. control: sticking to a task, avoiding other thoughts, thinking before acting, control in attention/staying focused (selective, divided, sustained, executive); better decision makers: consider relevant factors, regulate emotions during decisions; encoding, automaticity (seeking something as a whole), strategy construction.

True vs. False self (what it is, why it is used, who adolescents are most/least likely to show it to?)

- False self. o A self that adolescents present to others but recognize does not represent what they actually are feeling/thinking. o Why? Santrock lists: ~ To impress others. ~ Trying roles to find identity. ~ Don't think others understand true self. o Most likely to show false selves in romantic/dating situations. o Least likely to show false selves w/ close friends. o Parents are in between.

Sigmund feuds sexual stages: id, ego, superego

- Id is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. (unconscious) - Ego is rational pragmatic part of our ego. (partly conscious and unconscious) - Superego is concerned with social rules and morals. It develops as thechild learns what their culture considers right and wrong.

Experimental Research

- Procedure where you control one or more factors. - Random assignment. - compare experimental and control groups. - independent variable- what you control. - dependent variable- the measured outcome.

What is the difference between the amygdala & prefrontal cortex & when they develop?

- The later development of the prefrontal cortex combined w/ the early maturity of the amygdala may explain the difficulty younger adolescents have in putting the brakes on their risk-taking adventures. - These developmental changes in the brain provide one explanation of why risk taking declines as adolescents get older.

Leading causes of death among adolescents

- Three leading causes of death in adolescence & emerging adults: 1. Accidents. 2. Homicide. 3. Suicide . - Almost half of all deaths from 15-24 years of age are due to unintentional injuries. o Approx. 3/4ths of them involving motor vehicle accidents. - Risky driving habits (i.e., speeding, tailgating, & driving under influence of drugs/alcohol) may be more important contributors to these accidents than lack of driving experience. - Homicide common amongst African American males. o 3x more likely to be killed by guns than by natural causes. - Suicide 3rd leading cause. o Since 1950s, suicide rate among adolescents and emerging adults has tripled, although it has declined in recent years.

Correlations

- correlation does necessarily = causation. - correlation coefficient: 1.00 to -1.00. - Strength of correlation is what counts. ~ r is .00 or .3, .00 or -.3 > weak. ~ r is between .4 &.6 or -.4 & -.6 > moderate. ~ r is between .7 & .99 or -.7 & -.99 > strong. - A negative correlation would be as one variable goes up, the other goes down. - A positive would be that both variables go up or down.

what does research say about a girl or boy that experiences puberty early

- correlations found with behavior including smoking, drinking, and early sexual experiences. - Also positive perceived peer relations at the time tend to report positive satisfaction with their social life. - Why is this? ~kids who reach puberty earlier, hang out with older friends

Social Cognitive Theory

- key features: observation, expectations. - We learn by our observations and/or expectations (understand behavior by knowing what people see or expect).

Behavioral Theory

- key features: reinforcement, contingencies > whats contingent on their behavior. - observable behavior, environmental determinants. - Behavior is learned, changes according to experience. - operant conditioning: changing behavior through reinforcement.

Ecological Contextual Theory

- key features: system, context. - understand behaviors by studying the system it occurs in. - microsystem. - mesosystem. - exosystem. - macrosystem.

Adolescence is a "time of firsts" Siegel

- might help explain some emotional disruption the. - phenomenon of the "first time"--the teenagers first date, first job, first sexual experience. Since these "firsts". - are embued with an inordinate amount of emotional investment, they offer an alternative understanding for the "storm and stress"--the emotional underpinnings of adolescence.

Arnett: "Transition into adulthood is not a discrete event."

- transition into adulthood is not marked by discrete events. Individualism dominant characteristic. When do you become an adult? - often cited by US 18-25 year olds: ~ accept responsibility for self. ~ independent decisions. ~ financial independence.

What trend in timing of menarche is happening?

-"secular trend of menarche" > its a trend overtime and the trend is that puberty is declining. -age at menarche currently ~12.5 in U.S.

Self-esteem

-AKA self-worth, self-image. - Global evaluative dimension of overall worth, well-being. - How you view yourself overall. -"I'm a good person".

Erikson says adolescence is a time for what?

-Adolescence is a time of identity exploration. Time to: -search, explore, try roles. -Establish stable sense of self, find place in society. -Establish autonomy & connectedness to society.

How hormone levels compare in males and females across pubertal stages

-Both girls and boys contain the hormones testosterone and estradiol. -For boys and girls, both the hormones increase through puberty. -For boys, testosterone increases more than girls as puberty develops. -For girls, estradiol increases more than boys as puberty develops.

Imaginary audience

-David Elkind. -Everyone notices little things about you (thinking people are thinking about you). -Feeling on stage. -Thinking thinking about what you're thinking thinking about what others are thinking about you. -Example: adolescent girl thinking everyone in her class notices she has a few hairs sticking up.

Personal Fable

-David Elkind. -Sense of extreme uniqueness. -Ex: "other people will grow old & die, but not you." -"No one can understand how I really feel". -Frequently show up in adolescent diaries. -Ex: an adolescent girl thinks that her mother cannot possibly sense the hurt she feels because her boyfriend has broken up with her.

Self-concept

-Domain-specific evaluation. -Concept of self in certain domains (academics, athletics, etc.). -Has to do with how you think about yourself in a specific area. -You can have a high concept of yourself in one specific domain & a low self-concept of yourself in a different one. -Ex: an adolescent may have a negative academic self-concept b/c he is not doing well in school but have a positive athletic self-concept b/c he is a star swimmer.

Example of physiological measure

-EKG for brain waves or saliva sample to analyze amount of stress hormones

What does Lapsley say about "invulnerability" & how is it different from what Elkind believes?

-Elkind says invulnerability is a problem we are waiting to go away; we will do bad things b/c we think we're so different from everyone else. -Lapsley's "two faces" view—related to separation—individuation process, can be adaptive ( a good thing) & problematic. ~ Danger invulnerability: associated w/ risk behavior; describes adolescents' sense of indestructibility & tendency to take on physical risks (driving recklessly at high speeds). Ex: "I'm unlikely to be injured in an accident." ~ Psychological invulnerability: associated w/ well-being; captures an adolescent's felt invulnerability related to personal or psychological distress. Ex: "my feelings don't get hurt."

How does Harter suggest improving self-esteem?

-Focus on domain-->identify domains that are keeping self-esteem low & focus on those. -Support, achievement-->give support in that domain(s) that's low & help them gain achievement in that domain(s).

Correlational Research

-Goal: describe strength of relationship between two or more events/characteristics

What is the difference between identity foreclosure and identity diffusion? In other words, how could you tell if someone was in one of them instead of the other one?

-Identity foreclosure--> crisis absent, commitment present. o Someone who is an adolescent has always said they are going to be an author (teacher, doctor, etc.) and they have never second guessed it/ questioned it. o This status occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way-->thus, adolescents w/ this status have not had adequate opportunities to explore different approaches, ideologies, & vocations on their own. o Ex: an 18 year old's parents want him/her to be a doctor, so he/she is planning on majoring in premedicine in college & has not adequately explored any other options . -Identity diffusion--> crisis absent, commitment absent. o Individual has no idea what they are going to be and has not yet experienced a crisis. o Not only are adolescents in this status undecided about occupational & ideological choices, they usually show little interest in such matters.

How does the stage of identity versus identity confusion relate to the stages before and after it? What does Erikson mean by "identity crisis" and "identity confusion?"

-Identity vs. role confusion: might involve withdrawing, losing identity in the crowd. o Establish who you are as an individual & how you fit in w/ rest of world. -Identity crisis: young people construct their identity. -Identity confusion: involves failure to resolve the identity. o A status that involves failure to resolve the identity crisis.

Adrenarche vs. Gonadarche

-Involves hormonal changes in the adrenal glands at about 6-10 years of age. -Begins about 2 years later; it's what we consider puberty.

Negative feedback system of sex hormones

-It kicks off hormones and reigns it back when puberty seems to be at right level. -Starts with Hypothalamus and then a message is sent to the pituitary glands and then sent to the gonads to increase hormones (androgen and estrogen) an that is when puberty starts.

Psychoanalytic Theory

-Key features: needs that aren't being met, unconsciously. -Stress > early experiences, unconscious, needs. -behaviors come out from unconscious. -behavior reflects inner workings of mind.

Laboratory vs. Naturalistic observation

-Laboratory: controlled. -Naturalistic: real world.

Experiment sampling method

-Random assignment. -Compare experimental and control groups.

What does Steinberg say about cognitive development & risk-taking? What does he say about "socioemotional network" & "cognitive-control network" & why are they important? (article & notes)

-Logical reasoning abilities of 15-year-olds are comparable to those of adults, adolescents are no worse than adults at perceiving risk or estimating their vulnerability to it. -Age differences in actual risk taking are due to differences in the information that adolescents & adults use when making decisions. -Risk taking in the real world is the product of both logical reasoning & psychosocial factors. -Interaction between 2 brain networks produce heightened risk-taking in adolescence: 1) Socioemotional network (amygdala; responsible for feelings and emotions). a. Sensitive to social & emotional stimuli. b. Important for reward processing. c. Social pressures. d. Develops quickly along w/ puberty. 2) Cognitive-control network (prefrontal cortex). a. Executive functions (planning, thinking ahead, self-regulation, etc.). b. Steinberg says develops slower (takes longer to develop); matures gradually over the course of adolescence. i. Independent of puberty. - **Risk taking is product of competition between the 2 brain networks. - **Reason adolescents take high risks is b/c 2nd network develops slowly & cannot weigh the consequences effectively. - **Steinberg says they (adolescents) understand the risks, BUT don't have the cognitive ability to control those risk-taking decisions. - Peer pressure also peaks in adolescence. o Presence of peers increases risk-taking substantially among teens, moderately among college-age individuals, & not at all among adults. - Can't change the way adolescents think, focus on limiting opportunities that have harmful consequences (i.e., raising price of cigs, stricter laws on sale of alcohol, raising driving age, etc.). - ** Some things take time to develop mature judgment is probably one of them.

******** I showed results from two studies on adolescents' self‐contradictions (when they have opposite or conflicting self‐concepts). In general, what did they find - what grade did opposite and opposing self‐concepts peak at? Did researchers find it was good or bad for adolescent girls to have big discrepancies in self‐concept and desired self? What was rumination associated with? Who was most at risk of depression?

-Opposite & opposing self-concepts peaked in 9th grade (self-conflict highest in 9th grade). -Conflict rises after 7th grade; peaks in 9th grade; & decreases/goes down in 11th (come to a sense of who they are). -Bad for adolescent girls to have big discrepancies in self-concept & desired self. -Ruminative coping predicted depression. -Papadakis found that adolescent girls who had big discrepancy (gap) between actual & ideal self predicted depression. o Having both high discrepancy & dwelling on it predicted depression. o Ideal: actual discrepancy predicted depression. o Ruminative coping predicted depression. o A combination of both was especially problematic. o How you see yourself & who you want to be (ideal self) & if you dwell on it (ruminative coping)-highest risk of depression. o Conflict between ideal & actual self (actual discrepancy) & dwelling on it (ruminative coping).

How does self-concept change from school age to adolescence (abstraction, idealism, differentiation). For example, how might adolescents describe themselves, compared w/ the way younger children describe themselves?

-Self-concept: domain-specific evaluation; concept of self in certain domains (academics, athletics, etc.). -School-age think more concrete; adolescents think more abstract. -School age will say something like, "I am like this." Adolescents will say something like, "at times I can be like this". -w/ abstraction & idealism, an adolescent will say something like "I am naturally sensitive & care about people's feelings."

What does Harter say about the relationship between self-concept & self-esteem? What domains of self-concept did she find most highly correlated with self-esteem during adolescence?

-Self-esteem is getting a bad rep. BUT we see it as critical. -Low self-esteem associated w/ depression/suicide. -Adolescents starting to have different concepts/perspectives of self. -Have different self of worth in different domains ---> might feel good about self in certain domains & feel bad/really low about self in other domains --> if you feel low in many domains then you have low self-esteem. -Physical appearance has highest correlation (.61) w/ self-esteem followed by social acceptance. -Different ways of thinking of self-esteem. -Harter believes it's an important psychological commodity.

Is self-esteem low in adolescence? (complicated answer)

-Take all scores & average them-->they are lower (it does decrease). -BUT there might be a group that does increase (have high self-esteems)--> group w/ lowest scores (biggest decline) bring the mean (average) scores down. -Depends on how you measure it. -Mean: level drops. -Still above neutral.

Difference between theory and hypothesis

-Theory: An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps explain and make predictions. -Hypothesis: specific assumptions and predictions can be tested.

David Elkind says that adolescents become egocentric—why does he say that, & what does he mean by "imaginary audience" and "personal fable"?

-There is a heightened self-consciousness due to cognitive development. -Difficulty distinguishing what "I feel about myself" & "what others feel about me". -They have trouble seeing outside themselves. -Elkind argued that the imaginary audience & personal fable are due to the cognitive egocentrism involved in the transition to formal operational thought.

Metacognition

-Thinking about thinking. -Cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing. -Adolescents have an increased capacity to monitor & manage cognitive resources to effectively meet the demands of a learning task. -Metacognitive skills have been taught to students to help them solve problems.

What does Jean Twenge say about self-esteem & today's youth? How do her ideas differ from Harter's view & Arnett's view? What might Twenge & Harter agree on?

-Twenge thinks kids are empty praised & now everything is "about me" in this generation. -kids were empty praised and as a consequence, they have inflated self-esteem. -too often they were given too much praise for mediocre/poor performance. Now in college, they may have difficulty handling competition/criticism. -The self isn't a good basis for mental health. - Individualism is more associated w/ anxiety & depression. -Sets kids up w/ too high of expectations. What would Harter & Twenge agree on? -Empty praise is not a good thing. -Twenge says: everyone is getting empty praise for even the smallest things: getting a trophy even if they don't play well. -Harter says: self-esteem is getting a bad rep. these days. It's critical b/c it's associated w/ depression.

Social Norms Theory

-What you believe about whats normative impacts your behavior. -social norms influence behavior. -misperceptions exist, can increase problems. -It predicts that in the topic of college age drinking: Since it is the norm to drink a lot, more kids will drink a lot because they think it is the norm and its what everyone does.

What does it mean when development in adolescence can be asynchronous

-everything doesn't grow at the same rate, "asynchronous". -things aren't changing at same pace throughout body and this leads to awkwardness.

Do emotions change in adolescence?

-from 5th to 9th grades, 50% decrease in report being very happy. -adolescents 5x more likely than parents to report being very happy and 3x more likely than parents to report being very sad.

Psychological moratorium

-gap between childhood security, adult autonomy; trying out different things, pushing the rules; a time to try out choices before reaching stable sense of self. - "a period of delay granted to somebody who is not ready to meet an obligation". - "selective permissiveness on the part of society". - Something young people normally want. - "provocative playfulness on the part of youth".

Amygdala

-main structure involved in emotion in the brain. o Set of emotions such as anger, frustration, joy, guilt, etc. o Develops quickly before other regions that help to control it

goal of descriptive research

-observe and record behavior

"Storm and Stress"

-recapitulation of earlier experiences. Adolescence: - turbulent time, conflict, mood swings. - Biological basis "recapitulation" as you grow up; you replicate all of human history through your life.

Menarche vs. spermarche

-spermarche: a boys first ejaculation of semen. -menarche: a girls first menstrual period. *which marks the start of puberty.

Cross Sectional Research

-studies people all at one time

Longitudinal research

-studies same people over several years or more

Prefrontal cortex

-the brain's highest level that is involved in reasoning, decision making, & self-control; the "judgement" region; area that reins in intense emotions. o Matures much later than the amygdala. o Doesn't finish developing until at least age 20.

According to Umana-Taylor, how is ethnic environment related to ethnic development and the relevance of ethnic racial identity?

-varies across individuals in same situation. -familial socialization. -settings away from families (etc. school, work). -influenced by ethnic composition (exposure to diversity and increased relevance of ERI) Salience.

Adelson's generalization gap

-widespread generalizations about adolescents based on a limited, highly visible group of adolescents. -Not a generation gap but generalization gap. -Everyone is making generalizations about adolescents in the news. -people who aren't around adolescents a lot, hear these stories and make these conclusions. -most adolescents aren't like that of what is depicted in the news.

"Age of Adolescence"

-work laws were put in place for young people. Can no longer hire young kids for extreme amount of hours/labor. -Institutions & mandatory secondary school (jr. high and high school). -1910 to 1930: # of 10-15 year olds working dropped 75%. High school graduation rose 600%.

How common is bullying? Who is likely to be bullied? What kinds of bullying are most common?

1 in 3 students will be bullied. Outsiders; they're weak & most likely at risk to be bullied. Belittled about looks/speech, sexual harassment most common types of bullying among both boys and girls.

How to reduce bullying - interventions and approaches discussed in class

1) Peers as monitors. 2) Parents - reinforce, model, use counselors. 3) Friendship groups, social skills training. Olweus 30-70% decrease "Bullying circle" A. Students who bully. B. Followers. C. Supporters. D. Passive supporters. E. Disengaged onlookers. F. Possible defenders. G. Defenders. H. Student who is bullied.

Parent changes that impact the parent/ adolescent relationship

1.) Marital dissatisfaction. 2.) Economic burdens. 3.) Reevaluation of the self.

Frequency of parent‐adolescent conflict, percentage who have problematic conflict

1.) Study - adolescents report an average of 1 argument every 3 days, 11 minutes each. 2.) Beliefs on achievement, career, religion, politics, etc. 3.) Most conflict involves daily events (room, curfew, phone, etc.). 4.) ~ 20% prolonged, repeated, unhealthy conflict.

Changes in self‐disclosing conversations from 2nd grade to college (research by Buhrmester)

1.) Young children are more likely to disclose information to their parents than they are once they get older and move toward independence and individuation. i. Drops with parents from 5th-10th grade. ii. Rises with friends from 5th-10th grade. iii. Begins to level out. 2.) Adolescents talk to their friends more than their parents.

Late adolescence

15-19 years old. identity, future, dating occur

Early history views of adolescence

1500s- late 1800s people thought adolescents... -were like adults. -apprenticeships. -industrialization, many left for cities.

Barometric self

Adolescents can fluctuate the way that they think of themselves; can become more stable. ~ The self continues to be characterized by instability until late adolescence or even early adulthood.

What Youniss found about disclosure with parents and peers ‐ who adolescents prefer to talk with about topics.

Adolescents talk to parents about: School, career goals, hopes, plans for the future. Adolescents talk to peers about: marriage, views on sex, problems with opposite sex, feelings about opposite sex.

Peer conformity

Adopt attitudes/behaviors due to real or imagined pressure. This becomes more peer influenced from childhood to adolescence for both pro- and antisocial behavior. Peaks in 8th grade.

Elkind's view on adolescent and risks

Argued the feelings of invulnerability are a byproduct of adolescent egocentrism; its an inevitable consequence of cognitive development. General view of adolescence attribute adolescent risk taking to the inevitable feelings of invincibility.

Laurence Steinberg's view on adolescent‐parent relationships

Arguments are a learning opportunity, conflicts are good, parental warmth is important.

Four parenting styles (by Baumrind, presented by Zehra) - be able to identify by definition and example

Authoritarian - establish the rules and expect that children will follow them without exception. Authoritative - have rules that children are expected to follow, however, they allow some exceptions to the rule. Uninvolved - often do not meet their children's basic needs and may expect children to raise themselves. Permissive - tend to be lenient and may only step in when there is a serious problem.

Nick's story

Changes of puberty. Time of firsts. Abstract thinking. Differentiation. Social comparison. Self-consciousness. Identity crisis. Personal fable, imaginary audience. Self-discrepancy, ruminative coping. Metacognition. Self-concept, self-esteem. Emotion (mood, barometric self).

Outcomes associated with bullying

Bullying and victim effects: suicide ideation, attempts, health problems, depressive symptoms. Other victim effects: lack of school engagement, sleep, suicide attempts, drug/substance abuse.

What method do Weissberg & Caplan recommend for improving social relations?

Calm down and think. State how you feel. Set postive goals. Think of solutions. Plan for consequences. Try best plan.

Does religiousness increase or decrease from adolescence to age 20?

College freshman going to religious services and having a religious preference is declining. This is not only happening in adolescences but also in adults today.

What does Dunphy say about cliques and crowds?

Crowd: Reputation based, larger and looser based on shared characteristics. Clique: small, tight knit group, less than 10 people Crowds become more differentiated, less influential.

Nicki Crick's research on "relational aggression"

Girls more commonly experience relational aggression than boys. Relatively high relational aggression can link to cigarette/drinking/drug use, weight problems, depression, romantic relationship issues.

Jean Twenge on self-esteem and today's young people

Higher self-esteem may be leading to depression because people have these very high expectations.

Social cognition

How people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations. Adolescents have more social knowledge than children.

Who is likely to bully - individual and social environmental factors (Espelage)

Individual: Angry, supportive beliefs. Environmental: peers that act out, adult models.

Individuality and connectedness

Individuality- (North America and Western Europe). Connectedness- (Eastern Asia and Eastern Europe).

Piaget's stage of formal operations - What does Piaget say is different about adolescent thinking than younger children - what can they do now?

Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.

How does ERI change and influence?

Interaction between maturation and context. Discusses the process by which one arrives at self-identification choices.

In general, how does the Center for School Counseling Outcome Research recommend using the possible selves to improve academic achievement?

Interventions that help students develop vivid, compelling visions of their "hoped for", "feared", and "expected" possible selves can be expected to promote achievement by enhancing students' motivation.

Experimental research

Involves an experiment; it's a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied, are manipulated while all other factors are held constant

Disregarding injurious consequences

Is to ignore harmful effects

Erikson's psychosocial theory

It evolved from the psychoanalytic theory: - Less emphasis on sexual motivations. - more emphasis on social aspirations. - emphasis on entire life. Stages: 1. trust vs. mistrust. 2. autonomy vs. Shame and doubt. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority. 5. Identity vs. Role confusion (10-20 years). 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s & 30s). 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation. 8. Integrity vs. Despair.

Findings from Bandura's 1996 study

Kids who were more aggressive scored higher on the MD scale

Is having positive ethnic identity a good thing?

Linked to positive attitudes to own and other ethnic groups.

The relationship between marital satisfaction and having an adolescent (compared with having a younger or older child)

Marital dissatisfaction is higher among parents with adolescents because there are more economic burdens.

Hall's and Mead's perspective

Mead's perspective: Need not be stressful, if given freedom and know adult roles. Adolescence represented no period of crisis generally. Hall's perspective: Adolescence is a turbulent time with conflict and mood swings

Bem ratings on celebrities

Miley, Beyonce, Justin- all pretty similar in masculinity, but Beyonce had more feminism. large range between the two numbers. The scale is essential even numbered questions are added together and odd questions are added up. Scale of 1 to 5 ratings 1 being least fitting 5 being the most.

Changes in parent-adolescent conflict and causes of conflict

Misconception - adolescents and parents vastly disagree. Conflict rises with puberty, decreases in late adolescence.

How does friendship change as kids move into adolescence

Move from: ~ Play partner. To: ~ Companionship, reassurance, intimacy (pg. 304). ~ "I can tell my friends anything". ~ "They accept me for who I really am.

hostile attribution bias

Naturally aggressive children are more likely to see others actions as hostile.

Asynchronous

Not everything on an individual grows at the same time

peer vs. friend

Peer: Age, maturity level, global concept Friend: Mutual companionship

Bandura's concept of moral disengagement

People have little reason to feel any need to make amends for inhuman conduct if they disown personal agency for it. 4 types of disengagement - moral justification, displacing responsibility, disregarding injurious consequences, and blaming the victim.

Adolescence

Period of transition between childhood and adulthood that involves biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes. begins at 10-13 years and ends in late teens. no discrete events.

What is hypothetical-deductive reasoning? What theorist talked about that? Who has it?

Piaget says that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem. occurs in young adults ages (11-15).

Changes in meaning of friends from childhood to adolescence

Play to companionship to reassurance to intimacy. ~ 7 year old description: not very deep, based on play. ~ 11 year old: kind of deep, likes/dislikes. ~ Adolescent: looks for people who are similar. ~ Age 15: they give "friend" a deeper meaning.

Adolescent and parent changes that impact the parent/adolescent relationship

Puberty, expanded logical reasoning, increased idealistic thoughts, violated expectations, changes in schooling/social networks and their importance, moves towards independence.

Two types of self-consciousness that increase during early adolescence

Public & Private self-consciousness. - Both tend to be high in early-mid adolescence. - If feeling this way, adolescents often turn to friends as main source of self-appraisal.

Religiousness vs spirituality

Religion - spirituality linked with positive outcomes for adolescents and emerging adulthood.. Religion shows more structure, while spirituality is more like questioning the aspects we spoke about in class; especially in regards to Erickson identity vs role confusion and santrock.

How are saliency, self-reflection, and encounters related to ethnic identity development

Saliency: extent to which one's ethnicity-race is relevant to one's self-concept in a particular situation. Self-reflection: serious thought about one's character, actions, and motives. Encounters: events trigger extreme consciousness raising.

median age for marriage

median age for US is higher than traditional, non-industrialized countries

Dunphy's (1963) model of male/female social group development

Stage 1: Same-sex group. Stage 2: Boy/girl groups spend time together. Stage 3: groups break down, leaders form mixed-sex relationships. Stage 4: Other members follow, mixed-sex groups replace same-sex groups. Stage 5: male/female pair for more serious relationships.

Moral education in schools

The hidden curriculum - sense of ethics built into the environment. Character education - direct teaching of moral literacy. Values clarification - help clarify what is important, whats worth working for, & purpose.

Ethnic identity... Umana-Taylor

The way you relate to your own background culture and traditions.

Time spent w/peers vs. family in adolescence (vs. earlier in life)

Time spent with peers increases drastically during adolescence.

Early Adolescence

Time when the most pubertal changes occur

"Violated expectations"

When adolescents stop accepting what was once expected of them, parents feel as though their expectations have been violated. Example: Child always does homework right after school but now wants to watch tv first.

Distancing hypothesis

a person establishes their own individuality through understanding their separateness from everything around them.

Public

about appearance & actions. o Self-conscious about what others see/hear. o What others are thinking about you. o About something observable.

Private Self-Consciousness

about thoughts & emotions. o Being self-conscious about why you worry about what others think. o Being self-conscious about your thoughts. o Wondering if you're thinking the right thing. ~ Example: Ben wonders if he thinks about girls too much.

Types of prosocial behavior

altruistic behavior - behaviors for the benefit of others. public behavior - when someone does something for another motive and be recognized for it. anonymous behavior - behaviors displayed without the knowledge of others.

difference between amygdala and prefrontal cortex

amygdala = social emotional network (processes rewards, remodeled in early adolescence). prefrontal cortex = cognitive control network (gradually matures into young adulthood, takes a while to catch up to amygdala).

Main class male sex hormones

androgens

Bem inventory

androgynous: more flexible, mentally healthy, undifferentiated least gender-role classification.

Moral justification

by looking at moral ends

Fluctuation

changing aspects in self from moment to moment; realizing you can switch from cheerful to anxious to sarcastic.

Today's college freshman vs college freshman 40 years ago on "being well of financially"

college freshman now a days think it is a lot more important to be financially stable than college freshman 40 years ago.

Identity diffusion

crisis is absent and commitment is absent. -"I don't know". -Not yet experienced an identity crisis (that is, have not yet explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments. -not only are adolescents in this status undecided about occupational & ideological choices, they usually show little interest in such matters. -Ex: a 13 year-old adolescent has neither begun to explore her identity in a meaningful way nor made an identity commitment.

Identity foreclosure

crisis is absent, commitment is present. -Made a commitment, but have not experienced a crisis. -"going to be an author, never questioned it". -this status occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way. Thus, adolescents w/ this status have not had adequate opportunities to explore different approaches, ideologies, & vocations on their own. -Ex: an 18-yea-old boy's parents want him to be a doctor, so he is planning on majoring in premed. in college & has not adequately explored any other options.

Identity moratorium

crisis is present, commitment is absent. - In midst of a crisis, but commitments are absent or vaguely defined. -Example: 19-year-old Sasha is not quite sure what life path she wants to follow, but she recently went to the counseling center at her college to find out about different careers.

Identity achievement

crisis was present AND commitment was present. - Have undergone a crisis & made a commitment. - Someone explored options & made a commitment. - Ex: 21-year-old Marcelo extensively explored a number of different career options in college; eventually got his degree in science education & is looking forward to his first year of teaching high school.

Moratorium (Marcia)

currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments, no commitment but there is a crisis.

Bicultural identity

declaring oneself a combination of two cultures.

I showed studies by Strauman and Honarmand. Do they believe that the true:ideal self gap can be changed? Why would someone try to do that? How does Honarmand say it can be done?

discovered that actual-self versus ideal-self discrepancy was associated with: feelings of disappointment, dissatisfaction, ineffectiveness, blameworthiness, and feeling of interest in things (this is depression). Results of cognitive therapy show that the following strategies employed in such interventions can decrease dissatisfaction by helping the subjects to improve their real-self/ideal-self compatibility: assessing their negative and automatic thoughts, realizing the bond among cognition, emotion and behavior, examining the evidence against distorted automatic thoughts, substituting the biased cognitions for more realistic interpretations and, finally, learning to identify and modify the beliefs which distort their interpretations and experiences.

"parents as managers"

manage adolescent's opportunities, monitor social relationships, social initiators/arrangers

main class female sex hormones

estrogens

Centrality of race

extent to which a person considers race to be an important aspect of his or her self-concept.

Indicators of adulthood

feel like an adult at 18-25 years old. Accept responsibility for self, make independent decisions, financial independence.

Achievement (Marcia)

gone through a identity crisis and has made a commitment.

Diffusion (Marcia)

he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment, no crisis either.

What might Twenge and Harter agree on?

help adolescents achieve in one domain, blank sayings or empty appraisals aren't helpful.

Pre conventional, conventional, and post conventional morality

level 1- pre conventional (no internalization). level 2- conventional (intermediate internalization). level 3- post conventional (full internalization).

What changes happen with myelination and the connections between neurons in adolescence?

myelination increases in adolescence, synapses increase until late adolescence

Possible self

o What they might become. o What they dread becoming. o ...good or problematic. o What individuals might become, what they would like to become, & what they are afraid of becoming.

Steinberg: explain why young people take risks

risk taking is the product of a competition between the socioemotional and cognitive-control networks; adolescence is a period in which the socioemotional network has progressed more than the cognitive-control network and therefore causes irrational decisions.

Kenneth Dodge's research on social cognition

social cognition is defined by how social interactions are interpreted. Steps: ~ Decode social cues. ~ Interpret. ~ Response search. ~ Select response. ~ Enact response.

youtube video about boy smoking

social norm theory could describe because he thinks that smoking will make him look cool and make him fit in(misperception) people gave him praising comments below video which increases the problem behavior

Dependent variable

the measured outcome

Foreclosure (Marcia)

these individuals have not explored a range of options, no crisis but there is commitment.

Pubertal change is related to emotions

they feel the emotions very strongly due to puberty and stress.

Blaming the victim

victim not viewed as human

How common is bullying? Who is likely to be bullied? What kinds of bullying are the most common?

~ 1/3 of 6th to 10th graders experienced occasional or frequent bullying either as the victim or perpetrator. ~ Boys or outsiders are more likely to be bullied. ~ Belittling looks or speech or making someone the subject of sexual comments or gestures.

What did Kohlberg base his theory on?

~Based on Piaget. ~Presented stories with moral dilemmas, looked for trends in answers. ~Interested in how they reasoned (not right/wrong answers). ~Piagetian approach (heteronomous to abstract).

Stages of Adolescence

~Early Adolescence. ~Middle Adolescence. ~Late Adolescence.

What is narcissism/what kind of survey questions could measure it?

~Extreme selfishness, with a grandiose view of one's own talents and a craving for admiration, as characterizing a personality type. ~Survey questions such as asking what one thinks of themselves. ~They could measure the number of times a day something is done (ex. looking in the mirror)

Religious preference

~In 2010- 75% attended religious services frequently/occasionally senior year. ~High in 1997- 85%. ~23% no religious preference, low in 1978- 8%. ~Adults are also following this trend of declining in preference.