HEL final
Do you know what a dialect is?
a form of a language peculiar to a specific region or social group "allophone of language"—can still identify what is being said in different dialect, but spoken slightly differently
Why is 1042, which is an exact date, important?
After Canute family line dies, West Saxon reestablished the West Saxon Kings of England with Edward
What was the Danelaw and how did it come about?
Alfred the Great persuaded Scandinavians (by force of arms and diplomacy) to confine themselves to Northumbria, East Anglia, and half of Mercia Formed a line from London to Chester: one side Celts, one side Scandinavians
What challenges did the vernacular languages face during the Early Modern period?
All vernaculars encountered 3 problems Recognition of all disciplines Uniform spelling (orthography) Enrichment of vernacular vocabulary
What happened when the Anglo-Saxons came into Celtic Britain?
Anglo-Saxons drove Celts out of their land; they did not try to teach or adopt culture; primarily there for agriculture reasons; Jutes first, then Saxons, then Angles from approx. 450-550
What is assimilation and why is it important to some questions of OE pronunciation?
Assimilation: how sounds come to resemble other sounds Assimilation shows how Old English developed over time into Modern English Some ME pronunciations do not translate to OE because pronunciations have assimilated
What are the 5 phonological processes we discussed earlier? (I.e., assimilation and what else?) How do they work?
Assimilation: process of how sounds come to resemble other sounds (toy boyt) Dissimilation: nearby sounds become unlike one another (drop first r in February) Elision/Loss: loss of a phoneme or feature of a phoneme (cabnet) Addition/Intrusion: put in a phoneme (Ath-a-lete) Metathesis: two phonemes switch positions (pasketti)
In what way was the Norman takeover of England significant to English grammar?
Indirectly influenced grammar Grammar was not forced on English Indistinct inflections most notable grammar change
Can you explain how morphology changed after the OE period?
Inflectional endings were merged and lost Demonstrative pronouns lost English simplified considerably
Why do we have a final e on many words in Modern English? Why is it silent?
It was an inflectional vowel in Old English Moved to a schwa in Middle English Dropped the sound in Modern English
What does the term principal parts mean? Why are principal parts important? What are the principal parts of an OE weak verb? Of an OE strong verb? Of any modern English verb?
Principal Parts: parts of a verb from which all other forms of a word can be formed Base of conjugation Weak verb: infinitive, Preterit, Past Participle Strong verb: infinitive, Preterit singular, Preterit plural, Past Participle Modern English verb: infinitive, preterit, past participle
What is proto-IE? (What does IE stand for, by the way? Why is the term appropriate?)
Proto Indo-European The original language of Asia and Europe
What happened to the declension of demonstrative pronouns and definite articles between OE and ME?
Rapid changes happened in demonstrative pronouns and definite articles between Old English and Middle English All singular forms merged into "the" and "that" All plural forms merged into "the" and "those"
What happened to the declension of personal pronouns between OE and ME?
Retained complexity Preserved distinctive subject and object case forms Lost all of dual number personal pronouns Different dialects use different pronoun forms (ik, ich, I)
What happened to the declension of nouns between OE and ME?
-es became the typical plural ending for most nouns Genitive case adopted singular ending -es (similar to today's "it's") Few nouns didn't switch to -es plural (oxen, feet, deer) -en was extended to nouns in ME, most of which disappeared Nearly all nouns reduced to 2 forms: plural (-s) and singular (-_)
During what periods has Latin been most influential on the English vocabulary?
3 periods of Latin borrowing Continental Latin Influence Pre-Invasion Before Hengist and Horsa Celtic transmissions from British invasion Celts learned Latin when Anglo-Saxons came in Latin borrowing from Christian missionaries Borrowed from Latin enthusiastically in Early Modern English
What languages have been most important to the development of English? When? What were the historical circumstances?
57 languages contributed to make up English Old English: 61.7% of Modern English Evolution of words over time French: 30.9% of Modern English Before 1250—some French words in English After 1250—explosive amounts of French words Power language switched from French to English Old Norse: 1.7% of Modern English Especially around late 8th/early 9th century Towns ending in "by" Latin: 2.9% of Modern English Large period of borrowing during EME Latin considered closest to perfect language
Why were the Vikings significant to English history (and the English language) and when?
787: 1st Viking Raids Missionaries brought back Latin (period of large Latin influence) Towns ending in "by" are Viking descent 850: Viking Warfare
What is the ablaut series?
A variation of vowels of the same root or in related roots Especially in Indo-European languages, an ablaut series is usually paralleled with differences in use or meaning Ex: sing, sang, sung
Why is Modern English spelling as unpredictable as it is?
Became fixed language while the Great Vowel Shift was still going on Caused discrepancies in language spelling
What do you know about the chronology of French borrowing?
Before 1250, few words borrowed from French (English speakers learned French) After 1250, many words borrowed from French (French speakers learned English) ...-1250: 46/1000 words borrowed 1251-1400: 405/1000 words borrowed (explosive growth) 1401-1550: 136/1000 words borrowed
Can you explain what things have to be considered when determining what demonstrative pronoun to use? What adjective?
Case Singular/plural Gender
What languages did the Anglo-Saxons borrow from? When?
Celtic: earliest and least Scandinavian: for daily life, less intellectual Latin: commercial trading, names of places, religious terms Old English: most was an evolution of Native Language
What happened to the declension of adjectives between OE and ME?
Comparative and superlative adjectives became more like Modern English -ra🡪-re🡪-er -ost🡪-est
What morphological process created the word cowherd? During what period of our linguistic history was that process particularly active?
Compounding Particularly active during Old English period 2 words🡪hyphenated word🡪1 word
What's the difference between a conjugation and a declension? Why is each one so called?
Declension: pattern for declining nouns, adjectives, pronouns, etc. Conjugation: deals with inflection of verbs
What is the difference between a definite article and a demonstrative pronoun in Modern English?
Demonstrative pronoun: a pronoun like this or that indicating relative closeness to the speaker Definite article: a function word signaling a definite noun, specifically the
What kinds of words are languages unlikely to borrow?
Function words: unlikely to change Do not have rich etymology
Why is the date of borrowing significant to the way in which a French-derived word is pronounced in English?
Depending on the type of French that the word is derived from, and the sounds the word makes, one can interpret whether the word was borrowed before 1400 (Norman French) or after 1400 (Central French) st=Norman French; t=Central French j=Norman French; ĵ=Central French
What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammar?
Descriptive: rules based on how language is used No right or wrong language Prescriptive: rules based on how people think language should be used Correct v. incorrect use of language
What did it mean to be "Duke of Normandy"?
Duke of Normandy more prestigious than King of England France was the language of power Most Kings didn't bother to learn English
Can you explain how the English of the Restoration and the 18th century differed from that of the EME period?
EME: Period of freedom and enrichment Restoration: Period of language regulation Language and grammar became most specific; a right and wrong way
What changes were happening to English syntax during the ME period?
English syntax became more fixed Shifting from Old English syntax to more of a SVO structure of Modern English Specific differences can be seen between earlier and later Middle English syntax
Following the conquest, what was the period of greatest borrowing from French? Why?
Explosive growth when English comes back into use As French are learning English, bring French words with them After 1250
Look over the declension of an OE noun, either in your book or in a handout. In what ways do the inflections correspond with ModE inflections?
Genitive case in Modern English has an inflection, seen in OE as well Plurals have an inflection (usually -s in Modern English)
How is a strong verb conjugated in ME?
Gradation distinctions expressed in root vowels of strong verbs fully preserved Seven classes of strong verbs survived Strong verb patterns continued in Middle English
How did William try to justify his new job title?
He had a claim to the throne Looking to upgrade to king of England All English leadership regarded as traitors because they didn't support William's birthright to the throne Built Tower of London to show power and appeal over pockets of resistance
How many kingdoms of the AS heptarchy can you name? What does the term heptarchy mean?
Heptarchy—7 kingdoms Wessex Sussex East Anglia Northumbria Essex Kent Mercia
What major categories of words did the English language borrow from French?
High Class (before 1250): baron, dame, servant, etc. Literary Terms (before 1250): story, rhyme, etc. Ecclesiastical (before 1250): cleargy, clerk, friar, abbey, piety, etc. Law Terms (after 1250): justice, equity, judgment, etc. Military Terms (after 1250): army, navy, defense, etc.
Can you explain step by step how to conjugate an Old English verb?
Identify principle parts Find stem of principle part Add appropriate ending
How did the Anglo-Saxons become Xians?
King Edwin of Northumbria converted to Christianity in 627 Had prolific epiphany because of a sparrow in the Great Room The citizens of his kingdom became Christians; Christianity spreads
What happened to the unstressed vowels of OE?
Loss or elision happens most often in unstressed syllables Inflectional endings are often unstressed vowels Many unstressed vowels became lost during this Middle English time period
Can you explain why syntax changed after the OE period?
Much the same as Modern English Pronoun might precede verb Some inversions, particularly in verse Simplifying
Can you explain the use of the cases in OE grammar?
Nominative (subject) Accusative (direct object) Genitive (possessive and objects of prepositions) Dative (indirect object) Instrumental (means of doing something) Different cases are used based on what part of speech/role a word plays within a sentence. Cases are extensively because Old English is inflectional.
What are the dialects of ME and what OE dialects did they come from?
Northern (from Northumbrian; North) Southern (from West Saxon; Southwest) Kentish (from Kentish; Kent) West Midland (from Mercian; Midlands) East Midland (from Mercian; Midlands)
Do you know what the dialects of OE were and where each was spoken?
Northumbrian (Northumbia) Mercian (mid region) Kentish (East and South) West Saxon (West and South)
What were the origins of prescriptive grammar in our English tradition?
Origins are from Latin Many authors, including John Dryden, used Latin as grammar basis for English Called for grammar authority; stricter rules
What happened when the Romans came into Celtic Britain?
Romans conquered Celtic Britain; Romans brought about many advancements (highways, running water, language); Romans built Hadrian's Wall to protect their barrier of what they had conquered; at the Fall of Rome, Rome recalled legionnaires from Britain, leaving it unprotected
How does Modern English syntax differ from OE syntax?
SVO v. Inflectional (no syntactical structure)
How does knowing the Great Vowel Shift help us pronounce the English of Chaucer's time?
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight very different from The Canterbury Tales Just based on dialect Knowing the Great Vowel Shift pushed all vowels up, you can readjust for Chaucer
Can you explain why morphology changed after the OE period?
Suppression of West Saxon prestige (merging of once distinct dialects) Not the power language Inflectional endings = unstressed syllables (full or partial loss occurs mostly in unstressed syllables)
What is a synthetic language? What is an analytic language? Why is the distinction significant to our study of OE and ModE?
Synthetic: subject is determined by inflection (like Old English) Analytic: subject is determined the order (like Modern English) Order has become important over the development of the language
How does the concept of phoneme and allophone apply to the pronunciation of s in OE? What other consonants follow the same rule as s? What is the rule?
The Old English "s" has 2 allophones Voiced: [z] Voiceless: [s] "f" and "ð/þ" follow same rule as "s" Rules is: voiced when they are intervocalic, voiceless in any other position, always voiceless when doubled
Why is 1250, although not an exact date, important?
This is the date that English became the favorable language again, used for everyday events Shirt forced French to learn English, as it was no longer the powerless language
What does it mean to say two words are cognate? Does the word on which you wrote your paper have any cognates?
Two words from different languages share a common ancestry language Ritardo (Italian) Retardo (Spanish, Portuguese)
List the various reasons English was able to change so rapidly after the Norman Conquest?
Unstressed syllables as last syllables Already weakened syllables Easy to drop inflections Not power language Language that is not in power adjusts to fit power language Had to effectively communicate with people speaking different language Simplified grammar forms
How is a weak verb conjugated in ME?
Weak verbs outnumbered strong verbs Weak -ed ending for preterit and past participle came to be used with many originally strong verbs
Could you explain the difference between weak and strong verbs and discuss the relevance of that to ModE (MME)?
Weak: adding a "d" or "t" to form preterits and past participles (talk🡪talked) All verbs follow same format Strong: changing stressed vowel to form preterits and past participles (sing🡪sang🡪sung) Verbs follow different formats, depending on stressed vowel Old English has significantly more strong verbs than Modern English, meaning that it has more individual patterns. Modern English follows one of several formats more often. Modern English weak verbs are much more prevalent
What is West Saxon and why is it important?
West Saxon is the most prestigious dialect of Old English The primary source of most remaining Old English texts
Besides creating a challenge for HEL students, why is the cowherd Cædmon significant?
Wrote Cædmon's Hymn (good for assimilating into a new religion) Created Cædmonian School of Thought Old English poet
Why did I use the spelling Xian in the previous sentence, and why, in December, do some people write notes that say "Merry Xmas"? (This question is just for the fun of it.)
X comes from Greek letter Chi Means Christ in English
What do you know about King Alfred?
translated intellectual works into vernacular tenacious put together English coalition King of Wessex called "the Great" because of Battle of Ethandun/Treaty of Wedmore, which controlled the Scandinavians to one side of Britain only King of England to be called "the Great
