henry VIII: government

how effective was wolsey as chief minister?

'he did the best he could given the huge workload and limited support from henry' - wolsey was in control of the legal system, foreign policy and domestic policy. henry was particularly uninterested in domestic policy. - wolsey raised £300,000 from the subsidy. - he increased the use of the star chamber from 12 to 120. - wolsey prosecuted people for illegally engrossing and enclosing. - wolsey had to give up his policy of engrossing and enclosing to raise money for henry. 'he failed to make a major impact and his alienation of the nobility and poor relationship with parliament caused problems for henry' - parliament wouldn't grant wolsey the £800,000 for war after he isolated parliament for 8 years, 1523. - wolsey had to result to the amicable grant- unapproved by parliament. - he abandoned his engrossing and enclosing policy - no lasting impact for removing the minions as by 1520 henry brought them back. 'he served henry well, but served himself better' - he used the legal reform to serve/ please henry but also as revenge.- increases royal control, maintained woolsey's power and influence. - wolsey expelled the minions and introduced the eltham ordinances.- henry is considered a more significant future whilst taking away negative influences and threats towards wolsey. - foreign policy- wolsey wanted to be cardinal, then papal legate, then papal legate for life (wolseys ulterior motive). - wolsey was considerably wealthy- more so than henry.

how did henry and cromwell try to pressurise the pope?

- 1531: clergy collectively accused of praemunire and fined- this began a sustained attack on the clergy and forced from the clergy an acknowledgement that the king was 'protector and supreme head of the english church' so far as 'the law of christ allowed'. - 1532: act of conditional restraint of annates- this was designed to increased pressure on the papcy by withholding conditionally the first years income from the office of bishop with the papcy had traditionally enjoyed. - 1532: house of commons supplication against the ordinaries- this was designed to increase anticlerical pressure within the house of commons. - 1532: formal submission of the clergy to henry VIII- this provoked the resignation of sir thomas more as lord chancellor.

what is meant by the 'conciliar' approach to government that was adopted by henry's father? why did this end under henry?

- a conciliar government is one in which decisions are made by the council. it lasted from 1509 to 1514. - henry became disenchanted with the reluctance of some of his father's senior councillors to support a war with france. - as he became more attuned to governing, he became increasingly his own man by asserting his undoubted rights to control decision-making. - he was surrounded with like-minded young courtiers who reinforced his suspicions of the 'old guard'. - henry became particularly impressed by the organisational skills of wolsey, whose contribution to the effective management of the french campaign earned him royal gratitude.

what was the court of chancery?

- as lord chancellor wolsey was responsible for overseeing the legal system. - he had the right to preside over the court of chancery and he tried to use the court to uphold 'fair' justice. - he used the courts to deal with problems relating to enclosure, contracts and land left to others in wills. - the main problem was that the court became to popular and justice was slow since it became clogged up with too many cases.

how did thomas cromwell fall?

- by 1540 cromwell's influence was declining. - the catalyst for his downfall was his failure to manage the kings marital affairs satisfactorily. - after the death of henrys third wife, jane seymour, who had given henry a male heir, tried to reconcile henry with the league of schmalkalden (1540), an organisation of the german princes and free cities within the holy roman empire who supported the reformer martin luther and his rejection of the catholic church, by arranging a marriage with a german protestant princess, anne of clevers - the partnership between henry and anne was unhappy and had become unwelcome politically. the marriage was quickly annulled, destorying what remained of cromwells credibility with the king. - cromwell was accused of treason and heresy at a council meeting and was executed on 28th july 1540, henry married catherine howard on the same day.

why did the commission at the court of blackfriars fail in 1529?

- campeggio and wolset dient get along - catherine refused to become a nun a go live in a nunnery - campeggio was told to deny proceedings for as long as possible - attempts to retake control of inlay failed at the battle of landriano. no more military attempts to take over italy from now. - henry can only get a divorce now if he breaks away from the catholic church.

why was wolseys situation to get the kings annulment difficult?

- he knew that he had to stop catherine from appealing to rome as the pope was in no position to side with henry. - in june 1527 catherine finds out about henrys plans - attempts to free the pope were useless and the league of cognac and trade and embargo led to nothing. - henry lacked the money to wage war. - catherine had powerful supporters at english court, e.g. john fisher.

what was the 'kings great matter'?

- henry had become dissatisfied at the state of his marriage. - catherine was 6 years older than henry and past child bearing age, with only one child, mary. - henry considered legitimating his son henry fitzroy from his mistress to succeed him - henry had fallen deeply in love with anne boleyn- anne refused to become the kings mistress, and so henry required wolsey to secure a papal dispensation for the annulment.

why did wolsey finally fall from power in 1529?

- henry lost faith in his most trusted and able minister. -henry soon began to believe the arguments that anne and the boleyn faction had said that wolsey was responsible - wolsey lost his position as lord chancellor in oct 1529 on charge of praemunire. - dec 1529, a petition against wolsey was presented in parliament. - wolsey was arrested and possessions confiscated. - feb 1530 wolsey was given royal pardon and restored to the archbishopric of york- exiled from court and told to live a modest life. - during this time wolsey wrote extensively to the king, french and imperial agents in hope to get enough support for the divorce that henry wanted.

how did the role of privy chamber change under henry VIII?

- it's role was extended as the kings courtiers (minions) became gentlemen of the privy chamber. - collectively they distrusted wolsey, who set himself the task of neutralising their influence. - the privy chamber retained prestige and influence and was one part of government which was outside woolsey's immediate control. - more people had access to henry, therefore, it was easier to influence him.

what was parliament like under henry VIII?

- jan-feb 1510- abolished the council leaned in the law - feb 1512-mar 1514- provided extraordinary revenue for invasions of france and scotland; anticlerical act restricting benefit of the clergy - feb 1515-dec 1515- act restricting benefit of the clergy not renewed despite the apparently anticlerical atmosphere of the house of commons. - apr 1523- aug 1523- provided extraordinary revenue for invasion of france; speaker if the house of commons, sir thomas more, made the first known plea for freedom of speech for mp's. despite parliaments ill-temper, the level of anticlericalism seemed much reduced. - nov 1529-apr 1536- 'reformation' parliament - jun 1536-jul 1536- called to enact a new succession act following the fall of anne boleyn - apr 1539-jul 1540- called to provide extraordinary revenue with invasion threatened; produced divergent religious legislation, for example the dissolution of the greater monasteries and the six articles act. - jan 1542-mar 1544- provided extraordinary revenue for invasions of scotland and france; dealt once more with the issue of succession. - nov 1545-jan1547- provided extraordinary revenue.

what happened in the execution of catherine howard and henrys marriage to katherine parr?

- norfolk, who's niece was catherine howard, had overlooked the unfortunate fact that his niece catherine howard, despite her youthfulnesss, was already sexually experienced. as well as a rumour that she had an affair with her distant cousin, thomas culpepper. - catherine and her lady of the bedchamber were executed for treason on 13th february 1542. several of catherine's relatives were also implicated and disgraced. - norfolk managed to extricate himself from the whole affair, he was wounded politically. - his problems were reinforced when henry choose his sixth wife the protestant katherine parr. - norfolk was fully aware of the danger with katherine, as a protestant, posed to his ambitions and tried to unsuccessfully to embroil her in accusations of heresy.

how did anne fall?

- relations between anne and cromwell publicly broke down. - cromwell was insecure enough to feel that his relationship with the king, as well as his life was threatened. - cromwell allied with the conservatives and together they persuaded henry that annes flirtatious manner had let to adultery. - annes downfall was sudden and spectacular. - accused of adultery, which for the wife of the monarch constituted treason, she was executed in 19th may 1536. - in catholic eyes henry was now a widower and free to remarry, and he had already had his eyes on one of annes ladies- in waiting, jane seymour.

what were the weaknesses of the church after the divorce and break with rome?

- the catholic church had been weakened by the humanism criticisms of comet and erasmus and the anticlerical satire of simon fish. - the churchs claims to legal supremacy had been challenged in 15298 by the lawyer chorister st german, who assisted the superiority of english law over the canon law of the church. this helped to prepare the way for the parliamentary attack on the churches power, which was masterminded by cromwell. - henry had been supplied with more intellectual justifications by means of the collectanea satis copiosa. this was a collection of historical documents complied by two cambridge theologians, thomas crammer and edward fox, which looked to justify the kings divorce on the basis of legal and historical principles. - to add to the pressure on the papacy , henry had sought and received universities, some of which were favourable to his position. the king himself humiliated the lord chancellor sir thomas more by requiring him to present the favourable opinions to both houses of parliament.

what was henrys government like in his last years 1540-47?

- the major political implication of the conservative revival of 1539 to 1540 was that a form of conciliar government was restored. - as the fall of cromwell saw the emergence of a privy council with fixed membership, supported by a secretary who kept a formal record of proceedings. - there is some debate as to the actual amount of power wield by the king: on one hand he is seen as firmly in control; on the other hand, he is seen by some historians as essentially weak and prey to the factions which existed at court. - in 1540, power, at least temporarily lay with the conservatives in the council such as norfolk, stephen gardiner and thomas wriothesley. - once again, however, it was the problems created by henrys marital issues which helped shift the balance of power.

what was the relationship like between england and rome by 1534?

- the relationship was smashed to pieces. - royal supremacy over the church had been created. - despite the assertion made in the act of supremacy that the kings role was recognised by the clergy, the supremacy had come about largely by means of parliamentary statute. - parliaments role as a law-making body had been strengthened. henry now had control over the church in england, and religious policies would essentially be based on royal whim. - the most important policy was the dissolution of the monasteries (1536-1542), the dissolution ensured that a vast amount of churchs land was confiscated by the crown. - this significantly increased the wealth and therefore the power of the crown. - however, the benefit to henry was short-lived as much of the property was granted away or sold, often below the market price, so that the crown could raise money to finance its foreign policy.

what was the second stage that wolsey went through to try and get the kings annulment?

- this didn't involve challenging the pope as wolsey tried to argue technicality on the original paperwork. this meant the pope would admit a clerical error only. - catherine's supporters and agents soon found another copy of the documents amongst royal papers in spain which satisfied the criteria that the documents held in england had omitted.

how was the divorce from catherine of aragon and the break with rome finally accomplished?

- through the use of the statute law, whose supremacy over canon law was firmly established.

what political rivalries existed near the death of henry VIII?

- whoever was most influential in the kings last months was likely to be in a position to dominate under his successor. - in this battle, norfolks rival, edward seymour could his position as uncle of jane seymour's son, the male heir to the throne. - norfolk was also compromised by the over ambitious arrogance of his son henry howard, earl of surrey, who threatened the kings throne and was executed for treason. - henry consented norfolks death, but norfolk was spared the axe by the kings death on 28th january 1547; the new council did not want to inaugurate the reign with bloodshed. - norfolk remained a prisoner in the tower for the whole of young edward IV's reign.

what was the first stage that wolsey went through to try and get the kings annulment?

- wolsey and henry decided to argue that the previous pope julius had no right to grant dispensation for the original marriage as it went against scriptures. - henry had numbers of leading theologians write treaties that supported henrys view. - questioning the popes authority gave the case such a high international profile that the papacy would not be able to deny it with degreee.

what reforms did wolsey make in government? what were the positives and negatives?

- wolsey could not attend the king on a daily basis, so much so that wolsey often had to turn his attention at court due to him needing to keep a careful eye on who summoned henry on a daily basis. positives: - wolsey managed to expel the minions in 1518 for their bad influence on the king. - wolsey kept his powers by encouraging the king in his pleasures. - the minions were successfully expelled and their replacement was more serious, middle-aged careerists. - the ethlam ordinances of 1526 was a success as it reduced the members of the privy chamber from 12 to 6. - he removed his chief enemies who threatened his power. wolsey managed to maintain his power. negatives: - the onset problems surrounding the kings divorce (1527) were to undermine the cardinals influence at court. - once wolsey had achieved his main objectives, wolsey dropped the programme of reform, resulting to henry re-admitting the minions to royal favour.

what reforms did wolsey make with the nobility? what were the positives and negatives?

- wolsey had a vendetta against the nobility - some historians say that when the nobility seized opportunity for revenge when he failed to secure the papal annulment of henrys marriage to Catherine of Aragon. positives: - the political relationship between the king and cardinal operated on mutual respect and trust. the king respected wolsey because he achieved things and carried out the kings wishes effectively. negatives: - wolseys monopoly of power for 15 years produced attacks on his character and policies. - allegations of misleading the king, misreporting events and deliberately alienating noble rivals were common. - wolsey had been rumoured to have had a part in the execution of the duke of Buckingham in 1521. - the nobility didn't like that wolsey came from nothing to having so much power.

what economic reforms did wolsey make? and what were the positives and negatives?

- wolsey insisted that the enclosing and engrossing laws (1489 and 1514-15). - in 1517 he launched an enquiry to discover the extent of enclosure and who had been affected. - by attacking poor and rich, he was increasing royal control. positives: - wolseys debasement of the coinage 1526 stimulated exports. - wolsey used the star chamber to enforce his 1518 policy of 'just price'. - wolsey took the initiative of buying up surplus grain and selling it off cheaply to the needy. this act of generosity greatly eased disorder and became common practice after a disappointing harvest. negatives: - 1523 wolsey agreed to abandon his enclosure policy after 18 months in return for a large subsidy. - foreign policy easily disrupted trade- wolseys alliance with france against spain caused problems (trade embargo from burgundy) - wolseys recoinage contributed to the rise in prices as the coins were seen as worthless. - this caused problems for the poor and resulted to many riots in the south east spring 1528. - 74 provincial grazers and dozens of london butchers were brought before the court, but nothing happened.

what were the eltham ordinances 1526?

- wolsey introduced the waltham ordinances in order to reform the finances of the privy council. - in the guise of pushing forward proposals for a reduction of royal household expenditure, wolsey secured a reduction in the number of the gentlemen of the privy chamber, the one area of government over which he did not have control. - he secured the removal of henrys groom of the stool, replacing him with the more compliant henry norris.

what reforms did wolsey make to finance and parliament? what were the positives and negatives?

- wolsey made an important contribution to tudor finance, being credited with the intervention of the parliamentary subsidy. - the problem with raising taxation to pay for wars was that by the early 1500s the existing parliamentary taxes, had, in effect, become fixed sums. positives: - the subsidy was just the tax needed to pay for henryVIII's constant desire for wars, and his extravagance in building, improving and furnishing his growing number of palaces. the subsidy proved a success. - he introduced the act of resumption. - wolsey did manage to raise £250,000 in 1522 to pay for war but this was done by means of loans from propertied classes. negatives: - royal lands produced insufficient revenue. - the act of resumption did little to meet henrys financial demands. - people began to resent parliamentary taxes. - wolsey began to make himself unpopular with the political propertied classes of england. - the amicable grant 1525 was the nearest england had come to a rebellion since the Cornish rising. - wolsey had poor relationship with parliament.

what was the third stage that wolsey went though to try and get the kings annulment?

- wolsey tried to use his role as papal legate whilst the pope was prisoner to allow the case to be heard in england- with the case being delegated to the pope's representative wolsey. - after delaying tactics, communications and missing papers the pope said this can only happen if the pope has the final say.

what legal reforms did wolsey make? and what were the positives and negatives?

- wolsey was responsible for the legal work of the kings council and courts, such as, the star chamber and the chancery. as lord chancellor, wolsey had to oversee the whole legal system. positives: - wolsey had direct control of the legal system of the state. - he put forward a plan to improve the legal system, with the aim to enhance the star chamber. - the star chamber was successfully reformed as the caseload increased from 12 a year to 120 a year. - wolsey lay the groundwork for his successor by modernising english law and it's courts as they were able to ensure their effectiveness in maintaining law and order and providing justice for the kings subjects. negatives: - wolsey took his legal duties seriously, but became increasingly distracted by foreign policy. - wolseys position at the court of chancery as a judge brought limited impact, with only a slight increase in the number of cases. - by wolsey encouraging individuals to bring their cases to chancery and the star chamber, he greatly increased the workload. so much so that the system became overworked.

what was the court of star chamber?

- wolseys most distinctive contribution came through the operation of the court of star chamber. - this became the centre of both government and justice under wolsey. - wolsey encouraged the star chamber for private lawsuits. - wolsey proved too successful and he was forced to set up a series of 'overflow tribunals' to deal with the pressure of business. - a permanent committee which he set up in 1519 became the ancestor of the later court of requests, whose job was to deal with cases involving the poor.

what series of measures did cromwell go through between 1529-34 to achieve the break from rome and establish royal supremacy?

1529 PROBATE, PULRAITIES AND MORTUARIES ACT: - limited fees charged for probate and mortuaries and the number of offices to be held by any one man was reduced to 4. - intially henry used pressure by opposition to pass the bill through convocation, but henry resulted to use academies from universities to investigate the great matter. thomas more presented the findings to parliament, which was very favourable for henry. 1532: COMMONS SUPPLICATION AGAINST THE ORDINARIES: - a petition introduced by cromwell that asked the commons to curb the legislative power of the church - convocation defended their right to make laws, but henry was determined to assert his supremacy 1532: SUBMISSION OF THE CLERGY: legislative independence was surrendered to the crown: - convocation only met with permission of the king - new canon laws had to be approved first by the king - existing canon laws were inspected and any that undermined royal authority were to be removed 1532: ACT IN 'CONDITIONAL' RESTRAINT OF ANNATES: - this act intended to end the clerical payments to rome, but 'conditional' was added. this meant the king had power to allow payments to continue if he wanted to. - the act remained conditional until 1533. THE ACT IN RESTRAINT OF APPEALS: - drafted by Cromwell in april 1533 and founded on the evidence in the collectanea. - the preamble to the act declared that the monarch possessed an imperial jurisdiction which was not subject to any foreign power. - the act declared that appeals could not to be made to rome regarding church court decisions 'incases matrimonial' and other areas. the act the meant that catherine could not appeal to rome against her marriage annulment. JAN 1534: ACT IN RESTRAINT OF ANNATES: - the king had the sole right to appoint bishops - praemunire would be the punishment for those who failed to obey this. JAN 1534: ACT OF DISPENSATION: - stopped all payments to Rome, including the Peter's pence. THE ACT OF SUPREMACY: - gave legislative force to the royal supremacy. - it stated that the 'kings majesty justly and rightfully is and worth to be the supreme head of the church of england'. - this act effectively accomplished the break from rome. - the legal basis for the enforcement of the break with rome was also strengthened. THE ACT OF SUCCESSION; - henrys marriage to catherine was void - the succession should be vested in the children of his marriage to anne - to deny the validity o henrys marriage to anne was treasonable - an oath should be taken to affirm an indivualds acceptance of the new marriage THE TREASON ACT: - this was tightened so that treason could be committed by the spoken word as well as by deed or writing and so that it was treasonable to describe the king as a 'heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel or usurper of the crown'. THE ACT ANNEXING FIRST FRUITS AND TENTHS TO THE CROWN: - the agnates paid by a bishop, which had been 'intolerable' when paid to the pope, now became perfectly acceptably when paid to the king. - this act increased the financial burden on the clergy, and strengthen the royal supremacy.

what was the 'tudor subsidy' and how did this differ to other subsidies?

A quite new system of taxation, by which Parliament granted taxes of stated amounts on property and incomes, based on direct and realistic assessments of the wealth of individual taxpayers.

what were the leviticus argument used by henry to justify an annulment?

leviticus- henry will be without sons for marrying his brothers wife. however, many people did not agree with this interpretation of the bible because of the Deuteronomy argument: if your brother dies without a child then your brother should marry her his wife.

what was henrys relationship like with parliament under wolsey (1509-1529) compared to cromwell (1529-1540)?

wolsey: - henry only summoned parliaments in 1510, 1512, 1515 and 1523. - wolsey regarded parliament with dictate and only one parliament was called in his period of dominance. cromwell: - cromwell exploited parliaments legislative possibilities much more thoroughly. - consequently, parliament met much more frequently in the second half of henry VIII's reign.