HIST 1003 - The Scramble for Africa + Asia/American Expansion and Imperialism

lndentured Labor Migration (where did indentured come from?, where did they work?, After opium and meiji restoration, laborers went where for what?)

-*Indentured laborers came from India.* but sizable numbers also came from *China. Japan. Java. Africa. and the Pacific islands*. lndentured laborers went *mostly to tropical and subtropical lands* in the Americas. the Caribbean, Africa. and Oceania. Large numbers of *Indian laborers went to work on rubber plantations in Malaya* and sugar plantations in south Africa. the Pacific island of Fiji. the Guianas. and the Caribbean islands of Trinidad. Tobago. and Jamaica. -*After the Opium War, Chinese laborers went to sugar plantations in Cuba and Hawai'i*. guano mines in Peru, tin mines in Malaya. gold mines in south Africa and Australia. and railroad construction sites in the United States. Canada. and Peru. -*After the Meiji restoration in Japan, Japanese laborers migrated to Hawai'i to work on sugar plantations*.and a smaller group went to work in *guano mines in Peru*. lndentured laborers from Africa went mostly to sugar plantations in Reunion. the Guianas. and Caribbean

Cultural Motives of Imperialism (missionaries introduced what, French imperialists?)

-*Missionaries* - introduce *Christianity to subject ppl*. their goals were *compatible w/ Euros "civilization" in the form of political order and social and cultural* -*Enlightenment. French imperialists* routinely invoked the mission civilization - *("civilizing mission")* as* justification for their expansion into Africa and Asia. and other European powers* routinely justified foreign intervention as their duty to civilize "backward" peoples.

Empire and Economy

-*One principal motives of imperialism* was the desire to gain *access to natural resources* and agricultural products. As imperial powers consolidated their hold on foreign lands. *colonial administrators reorganized subject societies *so they would be— come efficient suppliers of *timber. rubber. petroleum. gold. silver. diamonds. cotton. tea. coffee. cacao.* and other products. As a result. global trade in those commodities surged during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The advantages of this trade went mostly to the colonial powers. whose policies encouraged sub— ject lands to provide *raw materials for processing in the industrialized societies of Europe. North America. and Japan.*

Economic Motives of imperialism (Euros could conquer, what were overseas colonies reliant on?)

-2nd 1/2 of 19th c. = *Euros thought expansion/colonial domination was important for survival* -*Motives encouraged Euros to launch domination conquest/control* Some argued that imperialism was in the economic *interests of individuals* - They pointed out that *overseas colonies were reliant on: rubber. tin. and copper* were vital industrial products. for example. and by the late nineteenth century *petroleum*

Multicultural Society in the U.S.+ Monroe Doctrine

-By the late nineteenth century. the *United States had become a boisterous multicultural society* whose population included *indigenous peoples, Euro-American settlers. African-American laborers. Europe and Asia migrants*. -The poet *Walt Whitman described the United States as "not merely a nation but a teeming nation of nations."* Yet political and economic power rested almost exclusively with *white male elites power* of European ancestry. The United States *experienced tension and occasional conflict as members of various constituencies worked for dignity. prosperity. and a voice* in society - MD: United States promised to stay out of European business and told the Europeans to stay out of the Western Hemisphere's business. And U.S. couldn't deal w/ colonies

Communications Technology (used to take Britain __ years to write toe India, now with the _____, it takes 5 hours, the lines allowed imperialism to ____)

-Communications also benefited from industrialization. -In the 1830s it took *2 years for a British correspondent to receive a reply to a letter sent to India* by sailing ship. -By the 1850s after the *introduction of steamships* correspondence could make the round-trip between London and Bombay in *four months* -With the opening of the *Suez Canal in 1869*, steamships traveled from Britain to India in *less than two weeks*. The invention of the *telegraph made it possible to exchange messages even faster*. -By 1870 submarine cables carried messages between Britain and India in about *five hours*. -By 1902 *cables linked all parts of the British empire throughout the world* and other European states maintained cables to support communications with their own colonies. Their monopoly on telegraphic communications *allowed imperial officials to rapidly mobilize forces* to deal with troubles, and the telegraph allowed merchants to respond quickly to developments of economic and commercial significance. Rapid communications an integral structural element of empire

Scientific Racism

-Social and cultural differences were the foundation of an academic pursuit known as scientific racism. Theorists such as the *French nobleman Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau* (1816—1882) took race as the most important index of human potential. In his dense, *four-volume Essay an [he Inequality of the Human Races* (1853—1855). Gobineau *divided humanity into four main racial groups*. Gobineau characterized *Africans as unintelligent and laz*y; *Asians as smart but docile*; the native peoples of the *Americas as dull and arrogan*t; and *Europeans as intelligent*. noble. and morally superior to others. -Throughout the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. racist thinkers sought to identify racial groups on the basis of skin color. bone structure. nose shape. cranial capacity. and other physical characteristics. After the 1860s scientific racists drew heavily from the writings of *Charles Darwin (1809—1882), an English biologist whose book On the Origin of Specter* (1859) argued that all living species had evolved over thousands of years in a ferocious contest for survival. *Species that adapted well to their environment survived*. reproduced. and flourished. according to Darwin. whereas others declined and went into extinction. The slogan "survival of the fittest" soon became a byword for Darwin's theory of evolution. The *English philosopher Herbert Spencer relied on evolution to explain differences btwn strong and the weak individuals* and races had competed better in the natural world and consequently evolved to higher states than did other, less fit. peoples. On the basis of that reasoning. Spencer and others justified the domination of European imperialists over subject peoples as the inevitable result of natural scientific principles. Racist views were by no means a monopoly of European imperialism *US. and Japanese empire developed superiority overruled* -*Philippines-American War: US. forces in Philippines disparaged rebels as "gooks." and tortured enemies in a conflict to "civilize and Christianize" the Filipinos* Japanese newspapers portrayed Chinese and Korean peoples as dirty. backward. stupid. and cowardly. After their victory in the Russo-Japanese War. political and military leaders came to believe that Japan had an obligation to oversee the affairs of their backward neighbors and help civilize their little Asian brothers

Rudyard Kipling, "The White Man's Burden" (Euros were to do what tononwhites)

British writer; called responsibility to spread religion and culture to people whom they considered to be less civilized-the idea that Europeans could and should "civilize" more primitive, nonwhite peoples- racist idea of imperialism

Political Motives of imperialism (when socialists confronted ____, Jesuits missionaries flocked to)

Geopolitical arguments were also important for justifying imperialism. Even if colonies were not economically beneficial. -*Imperialism - domestic politics. in an age when socialists/communists directly confronted industrialists.* - *Euro politicians/nat leaders* sought to *defuse social tension* and inspire patriotism by focusing public attention on *foreign imperialist ventures* Ex: *the Jesuits* in the early modern era. *missionaries flocked to African and Asian* lands in search of *converts to Christianity*, and their spiritual campaigns provided a powerful religious

Migration to the Americas

Underpinning the *economic development of the Americas was the mass migration of European and Asian* peoples to the United States, Canada. and Latin America. -*Gold discoveries in California and Canada* drew prospectors hoping to make a quick fortune. but *outnumbering European and Asian migrants who went to factories, RR construction sites, and plantations* of the Americas. Following them were others who offered the support services that made life for migrant workers more comfortable and at the same time transformed the ethnic and cultural landscape of the Americas.

Legacies of Imperialism

*-Imperialism and colonialism* profoundly influenced the development of world history. In some ways they *tightened links btwn the world's ppl: trade and migration* increased dramatically as imperial powers exploited the resources of subject lands and *recruited labor forces* to work in colonies throughout the world. Yet imperialism and colonialism also brought *peoples into conflict and heightened senses of difference* between peo~ ples. European. Euro-American. and Japanese imperialists all came to think of themselves as superior to the peoples they overcame. Meanwhile. foreign intrusion stimulated the development of resistance in colonized lands. which over time served as a *foundation for anticolonial independence movements*.

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

*law that suspended Chinese immigration into America*. The *ban was supposed to last 10 years, but it was expanded several times* and was essentially in effect until WWII. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant law that restricted immigration into the United States of an ethnic working group. Extreme example of nativism of period.

Dlrect and Indlrect Rule (what are each?)

- Europeans struggled for a *effective and efficient system of rule in Africa*. By the early twentieth century. after some experimentation, most *European govts establish their own rule* which took the form of either *direct rule. (like French colonies) or indirect rule (British colonies)* -Under *direct rule, Colonies are part of the Empire, colonies were headed by Euro for labor and military recruitment*, and the maintenance of law and order. Admin— istmtive boundaries intentionally cut across existing African political and ethnic boundaries to divide and weaken potcnr tially powerful indigenous groups. -In contrast *indirect rule exercise control over subject pops w/ "tribal" authorities and "customary laws. Influence and control—Force to trade—Britain* Both methods of government were flawed: under direct rule, imperial powers struggled with a constant shortage of European personnel. which undermined the effectiveness of rule, and indirect rule imposed erroneous and rigid European ideas about what constituted tribal categories and boundaries onto African societies.

EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM ( (Euros took over all of ______ territories b/c they were what?)

- W/ powerful technologies, *Euro states had more empire-building* in the second half of the nineteenth century. -Imperial expansion *began with the British conquest of India.* Competition between imperial powers led to *Euro intrusion into central Asia*, the establishment of colonies in southeast Asia, and *interference in the Ottoman and Qing empires *in the southwest and east Asia. -*Fearful of comp., Euros had campaign of expansion in the 1880s* that brought almost all of *Africa/Pacific Ocean territories* into their empires. Throughout this period. Europeans were engaged simultaneously in projects of *settler colonialism*. formal *imperialism w/o large numbers of settlers*, and *informal imperialism w/o sovereignty* was compromised by widespread economic interference. Whether European powers engaged in one kind or another of imperial project depended largely on rivalries with other European powers. the strategic or economic importance of a given area. and the level and type of resistance offered by indigenous peoples

Women

-* small but grow' ing women's movemen*t had emerged in the United States. At the *Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.* feminists tssued a declaration arguing "that all men and women are r created equal" and demanding equal political and ecoVotlng rights tor free blacks. } nomic rights. Women fought for equal rights throughout Altlhogtaph from *Harper's Weekly * the nineteenth century. and new opportunities for edur a middle-Lies; Arman-American. and a black Union soldier are in the process otvotmg, perhaps for the first lime m that was *education and employment offered alternatives to marriage/domesticity.*

Modern Imperialism (imperialism is domination over what? informal imperialism dominates?)

-*19th c.* = *Euro observers recognized empires diff from earlier times* -Mid 19th c. = *imperialism* + *1800s* = the recently *coined term* -*Imperialism* = *domination over subject lands* in the larger world *through formal imperialism w/ military conquest/political control* - *Informal imperialism:* *domination of trade, investment* and *business activities* -Modern Racism: -outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes-example of a shift in normative rules about prejudice-people reject racist beliefs

The Berlin Conference (__ states met to?, who wasn't there?, what two places weren't?, Menelik II)

-*British occupation of Egypt intensified tensions* between those European powers who were seeking African colonies. To avoid war, delegates from *14 Euro states and U.S. United but not a single African* was present—*met at the Berlin West Africa Conference* to devise *ground rules for colonization of Africa*. According to those rules, any European state could establish African colonies after notifying the others of its intentions and occupying previously unclaimed territory. During the 18905 *European imperialists sent armies to impose colonial rule* on the African territories they claimed. Although resistance to colonial rule was often fierce, *Euro-pean cannons and machine guns rarely failed* to defeat African forces. By the turn of the century. *European colonies embraced all of Africa except for Ethiopia* where native forces fought off Italian efforts at colonization in 1896. and Liberia, a small republic in west Africa that was effectively a dependency of the United States.

Modern Colonialism (what did Euro powers create, Ottoman and China has no)

-*Building of empires/colonies* = practice dating *from ancient times* -*modern times* = *colonialism - settlement of colonists in new lands* to *political. social. economic, cultural structures* that enabled imperial powers to dominate subject lands -In *North America.* Chile. Argentina. Australia, New Zealand. and South Africa = *Euros powers established settler colonies* populated largely by migrants from the home societies. -Yet contemporary *scholars spoke of Euro colonies in India*, southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa even though *Euro migrants didn't settle largely* -In such places, *Euros made pol control* and controlled *domestic/foreign policy*. integrated ecos into the network of global capitalism, *promoted Euro educational/cultural preferences* -*Ottoman Empire and China*- *no Euro formal colonies*, dominated *finances*, economy, and *foreign policies* to such a degree that they represented the form of imperial domination known as informal imperialism

Industrial Migrants

-*Euro migrants flocked to NA where they filled factories* of the growing industrial economy of the United States. -Their *lack of skills = attractive to industrialists seeking workers to operate machinery* or perform heavy labor at *low wages*. By keeping labor costs down, migrants helped *increase the profitability and fuel* the expansion of U.S. industry. -In the first half of the century, *migrants came from Ireland, Scotland. Germany., Scandinavia to escape high rents/debt* -By the late nineteenth century, came from southern and eastern Europe and included *Poles, Russian Jews. Slavs. Italians. Greeks, Portuguese*. -*Chinese migration grew rapidly after the 1840s*, when *British gunboats opened China to foreign influences*. 1852 and 1875 some two hundred thousand *Chinese migrated to California like Fatt Hing Chin* negotiated their *own passage most traveled on contracts that required them to cultivate crops or work the Central Pacific Railroad*. An additional five thousand Chinese entered Canada to search for gold in British Columbia or work on the Canadian Pacific Railroad

Military Technologies (what weapons did they use and where did they use it?)

-*Euros had powerful weapons*. By the middle of the nineteenth century. *Euro armies used breech-loading firearms w/ rifled bores* that were for more accurate and reliable than any other firearm -By the 1870s *Euros experimenting w/ rifled machine guns* and in the l880s they *adopted the Maxim gun*= a light and powerful weapon that *fired 11 bullets per sec* -These firearms provided European armies with an arsenal vastly *stronger* than any other in the world. Accurate rifles and machine guns devastated imposing overseas forces, enabling *Euros imposed colonial rule on more numerous opponents* in 1898. for example, a British army with twenty machine guns and six guns boats *encountered at Sudanese force at Omdurman*, near Khanoum on the Nile River. During five hours of fighting. the British force lost 368 men, whereas machine guns and explosive charges fired from gunboats killed some H.000 Sudanese. *The battle of Orndurntan opened the door for British colonial rule in Sudan.*

Male domination

-*Even more than in the United States/Canada* -*male domination was central characteristic of LA society* in the nineteenth century. -*Women could not vote or hold office*. nor could they work or *manage estates without permission* from their male guardians. in rural areas. women were liable to *rough treatment and assault by gauchos* and other men steeped in the *values of machismo—a social ethic that honored male strength*, courage. aggressiveness, assertiveness, and cunning. -*Women did carve spaces for themselves* outside or alongside the male world of machismo. and this was especially true in the home and in the marketplace. where *Latin American women exerted great influence* and control. In addition, although Latin American lands *did not generate a strong women's movement*. they did *expand educational opportunities* for girls and young women after the mid— nineteenth century In large cities most girls received some *formal schooling*. and women usually filled teaching positions in the public schools that proliferated throughout Latin America in the late nineteenth century

Native Peoples

-*Expanded to the west. Euro— American settler*s and ranchers pushed *Indigenous peoples onto reservations* Begrudging Native Americans even those *meager lands*. the United States embarked in the latter half of the nineteenth century on a policy designed to *reduce native autonomy* even further through *laws and reforms* aimed at assimilating tribes to the white way of life. The U.S. government and private citizens acted to undermine or destroy outright the bases of native cultural traditions. For example. government officials removed *native children from their families* and tribes and enrolled them in white~controlled boarding schools. These schools. such as the *Carlisle Indian School and the Toledo Indian School. illustrated the extent to which white society sought to eliminate tribal influences* and inculcate Christian. U.S. values. Tribal languages as well as native dre. and hair fashions were banned. further distancing the children from their cultures. *Native Americans. however. resisted those forms of assimilatio*n, and over the following decades tribes rebuilt and reaffirmed native identities.

British Latin American Investment (who supplied most meat from)

-*Foreign influence* in Latin America generally took the form of *investment* which brought handsome *profits and considerable control* over Latin American economic affairs. -*In Argentina*. for example. *British investors encouraged cattle and sheep ranching*. After the 18605 and the invention of *refrigerated cargo ships. meat became Argentina's largest export*. British investors controlled the industry and reaped the profits. however. as *Argentina became Britain's principal supplier of meat*

South Africa (who were the Boers, Boers moved away from British who?, which ppl were left landless)

-*Inhabited by Euros long before the scramble* for Africa, still the southern tip of the African continent did not escape conflict at the close of the nineteenth century. In this case. however. the *main antagonists from European descent*: one side was composed ofthe descendants of *Dutch settlers who had founded Cape Town + dimaonds in 1652 (called "Boers"* or "Afi'iknners . and the other of *British settlers who had taken the Cape in 1815*. Relations between the two groups had never been good. When the British established at the Cape, they subjected *British language and law*—including the abolition of slavery when it became law in 1833. The abolition of slavery was particularly contentious. as *Afrikaners believed that God right to exploit people and the resources* of the Cape—the results of what left the indigenous *Khoikhoi and Xhosa peoples decimated and virtually landless* Chafing "Dd" Bmlsh rule. Afrtkuners left "'91" farms in Cape Colony and gradually migrated 935' in -*Great Trek fierce w/ Nbdele and Zulu = Dutch colonists into s. Africa for land to establish their own homeland, independent of British rule who outlawed slavery*

Latin American Dependence

-*LA states did not undergo industrialization* or enjoy economic development as did the United States and Canada. -*Colonial legacies* are part of the explanation. Even when Spain and Portugal controlled the trade and investment policies of their American colonies. their *home economies unable to supply sufficient quantities of the manufactured goods* that colonial markets demanded. As a result. they *opened colonies to British. French and German trade*. which in turn snuffed out local industries that *could not compete w/ British. French. and German producers* of inexpensive manufactured goods. Moreover. both in colonial times and after independence, Latin American elites retained control over local economies. *Elites profited handsomely from European trade and investment and thus had little incentive to work toward economic diversification.*

Transportation Technologies (who takes over Egypt after Suez?, Khartoum, Caveman and Julloierd allowed labor

-*Most important innovations in transportation* involved sleamships and railroads - l8303 *British naval engineers Omdurm-n Khartoum (khanoom) Extracting quinine., Joseph Biendime Caveman "7951877) and Julloiier [1788—1842) in iht'lr laboratory working on their extraction Dr quinine iri i820 i adapted *steam power to military uses and built large, ironclad ships equipped with powerful guns.* -*steamships traveled much faster than any sailing vessel*, and as an additional advantage they could ignore the winds and travel in any direction. Because of that. they could travel much farther upriver than sailboats. which enabled imperialists to project power deep into the interior regions of foreign lands. The construction of new canals enhanced the diettiveness of steamships. -*Both the Suez Canal (constructed 1859-1869) and the Panama Canal (constructed 190% 1914)* facilitated the building and maintenance of empires = *enabling naval vessels to travel rapidly* between the world's seas and ocean. They also *lowered costs of trade between imperial powers and subject lands*. Once imperialists had gained control of overseas lands. railroads helped them to maintain their hegemony and organize local economies to their own advantage. Rail transportation enabled colonial officials and armies to travel quickly through the colonies. It also facilitated trade in raw materials and the distribution of European manufactured goods in the colonies. •French and British Take control of Egypt

Attempted LA Industrialization

-*Ruling elites made attempts to encourage industrialization* but with only limited success. The most *notable efforts of dictatorial general Porfirio Diaz* ruled Mexico (1876—191 l) *knew interests of large landowners, wealthy merchants, foreign investors* -Under his rule. *railroad tracks and telegraph lines connected Mexico* and the production of mineral resources surege -*Small steel industry produced railroad track and construction materials*, and entrepreneurs also established *glass. chemical, and textile industries*. The capital. *Mexico City. underwent a transformation* during the Diaz years: it acquired *paved streets. streetcar lines. and electric street lights*. -But the profits from Mexican enterprises did not support continuing industrial development. *pockets of Mexican oligarchy* and for eign investors who supported Diaz while a growing and *discontented urban working class w low wages. long hours*. and foreign managers. Even as agriculture. railroad construction. and mining were booming. the standard of living for average Mexicans was declining in the late nineteenth century. = violent rev in 1911 -Large proportion of foreign/ British control. Latin American economies *expanded* rapidly in the litte nineteenth century, *Exports drove this growth: copper and silver from Mexico* *bananas* from Central America. *rubber and coffee from Brazil*. *beef and wheat* from Argentina. *copper from Chile. and tobacco and sugar* from Cuba. Other areas in the world also developed many of these same products for export. however. and competition for markets tended to drive prices down. As in the United States and Canada. -foreign investment in Latin America provided *capital for development*, control over industries and exports remained in *foreign hands*. Latin American Economies made in the interests of foreign investors. -*unstable govts did little in the face of strong foreign intervention.* Controlled by the *very elites who profited* from foreign intervention at the expense of their citizens. Latin American governments helped promote the region's *economic dependence*. despite growth in industrial and export economies.

Imperial Japan

-*Strengthened by the rapid industrialization* during the Meiji era, Japan joined the ranks of imperial powers in the late nineteenth century. -Indeed. while founding rep political institutions to *demonstrate trustworthiness to American/Euro diplomats* -* Japanese leaders launched a campaign of imperial expansion*

Spanish-Cuban-American War (1898-1899)

-*The United States emerged as a major imperial* and colonial power after the brief Spanish-Cuban-AmericanWar (1898—1899). *War broke out as anticolonial tensions mounted in Cuba and Puerto Rico*(last remnants of Spain's American empire) where *US. business interests had made large investments*. -In 1898 the *US. battleship Maine exploded and sank in Havana harbor*. US. *sabotage and declared war on Spain.* The United States *easily defeated Spain and took control and possession of Cuba and Puerto Rico.* -After the U.S, navy destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila in a single day. the *US also took possession of Guam and the Philippines* to *prevent falling under German or Japanese control*. The consolidation of US. authority in the Philippines was an especially difficult affair. The Spanish-Cuban-American War coincided with *a Filipino revolt against Spanish rule*. and US. forces promised to *support independence of the Philippines in exchange for an alliance against Spain*. -After the victory over Spain, however, President *McKinley took Philippines under American control* instead. In response, *Filipino rebels—led by Emilio Aguinaldo*—turned their arms against the new intruders. The result was a *bitter insurrection that raged until 1902 and claimed the lives of 4.200 American soldiers*. 15.000 rebel troops. and some 200.000 Filipino civilians. *instability and disorder prompted the US to intervene in the affairs of Caribbean and Central American* lands. even those that were not US. possessions. to prevent rebellion and protect American business interests. In the early twentieth century, US. military forces occupied Cuba. the Dominican Republic. Nicaragua. Honduras. and Haiti

Freed Slaves

-Assimilatlan programslorNatlveAmerlcans + freed slaves and their African! the Apache youths at the Carlrste Indtan School olfet stark rates to the camera. ] Ammo", descendants. In an effort to Suggestingtheir distontenl with reform cflons directed at asstmrlalton through education . establish a place for freed slaves in American society. *northern forces sent armies of occupation to the southern states* and forced them to *undergo a program of social and political reconstruction* (l867—l877). They *extended civil rights to freed slaves and provided black men with voting rights* People in *southern states elected biracial governments* for the first time in U.S. history. and freed slaves participated actively in the political affairs of the republic. After Reconstruction. however, *the armies of occupation went home*. and a violent backlash soon dismantled the reforms of Reconstruction. By the turn of the century, *U.S. blacks faced violence and intimidation when they tried to vote.* Southern states ' hioncd a rigidly segregated society that deprived the African-American population of educational. economic, and political opportunities. Air though freedom was better than slavery. it was far different from the hopeful visions of the slaves who had won their emancipation

Canadian National Policy

-Canada took advantage of British capital w/ falling to British -*After Dominion* = started a program of *economic development known as the National Policy* was to *attract migrants. protect nascent industries through tariffs, transportation systems* -The centerpiece of the the *transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railroad built w/ British investment capital* and completed in 1885. The Canadian Pacific Railroad *opened the western prairie lands to com merce* stimulated the development of other industries. and promoted the emergence of a Canadian national economy. -*The National Policy* changed *indigenous peoples who resisted* cncmachment on their lands and with [rappers who resented disruption of their way of life. . As a result of the National Policy,*Canada experienced booming agricultural. mineral. and industrial pro duction* in the late nineteenth and curly twentieth centuries. Canadian population surged as a result of both migration and natural increase.Migrants flocked to Canada's shores from Asia and especially from Europe: between -*Canadian economic expansion increasing wheat production and mineral resources gold. silver. copper. nickel, and asbestos*. lndustria » also tapped Canadian rivers to produce the hydroelectric power necessary for manufacturing. -*Americans owned 30 percent of Canadian industry.* and thereafter the U.S. and Canoe dian economies became increasingly *interdependent*

Railroads

-Economic development of the later nineteenth century was the *construction of RR* that linked all US. regions and helped *create an integrated national economy* Because of its *enormous size and environmental diversity* -*US offered natural resources for industrial exploitation* until a boom in railroad construction created a *dense transportation. communication. and distribution* network. ast to coast. -*Railroads cheap transportation for agricultural commodities. manufactured goods. and individual travelers* Railroads hauled *grain. beef. and hogs* from the plains states. *cotton and tobacco* from the south. *lumber* from the northwest. *iron and steel* from Pittsburgh. and finished products from the eastern industrial cities. -They *required huge amounts of coal. wood. glass. rubber.* Railroads also required the development of *new managerial skills* to operate largely. complicated businesses with multiple employees -*Railroads even shaped the American sense of time. Until rapid and regular rail transportation became available. communities set their Clock: by the sun.*. -*New products*: *electric lights. telephones. typewriters. phonographs. film photography. motion picture cameras. and electric motors* all made their appearance during this era.

The Scramble for Africa (Ottomans/Qing embarked on?, Euros had limited presence in Africa mostly just in Portuguese colonies of ______/______)

-Even as European powers sponsored informal imperialism in the *Ottoman and Qing empires* in the last half of the nineteenth century, *embarked formal imperialism in Africa* This was all the more remarkable. since as late as *1875 Euros had limited presence in Africa like Portuguese colonies of Angola + Mozambique* the *French settler colony in northern Algeria*, and a cluster of settler colonies populated by *British and Dutch migrants in south Africa*. -Between 1875 and 1900. however. the relationship between Africa and Europe dramatically changed. Within a quarter century *European imperial powers partitioned and colonized all African continent* Prospects of exploiting African resources and nationalist rivalries between European powers help to explain this frenzied quest for empire. often referred to as the *"scramble for Africa."*

Imperialists In Paradise (french protectorate?)

-Imperial powers had little interest in establishing direct colonial rule river the islands. Rather. they were content to *use the Pacific islands as naval ports, coaling stations for primary products.* however. in the late nineteenth century. as European nationalist rival» ries encouraged the imperial powers to stake their claims in the Pacific as they had done in Africa. Thus. although *France had established a protectorate in Tahiti, Society Islands, Marquesas* as early as I84l. it only imposed *direct colonial rule in 1880*. Britain made Fiji a crown coir my in l874. and Germany annexed several of the Marshall Islands in 1876 and 1878. At the *Berlin Conference. European diplomats agreed on a partition of Oceania well as Africa* and Britain. France. Germany. and the United States proceeded to claim almost all the Pacific islands. By I900 only the kingdom oi'Tonga remained independent. and even *Tonga accepted British protection* against the possibility of eneroachments by other imperial powers

Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) (•Korea independent from China—Japanese protectorate, control Taiwan, unequal treaty with China)

-In 1876 Japan *purchased modern warships fmm Britain*. and the newly strengthened Japanese navy immediately began to *flex its muscles in Korea*. In 1894 conflict erupted *between Japan and China over the status of Korea*. When an *antiforeign rebellion* broke out in Korea in 1893. *Qing rulers sent an army to restore Chinese authority in Korea*. However, *Japanese businesses had interests in Korea, Meiji leaders were unwilling* to recognize Chinese control over such an economically important land -Thus in August 1894 they *declared war on China*. The *Japanese gained control of the Yellow Sea* and *demolished Chinese fleet* in a battle lasting a mere five hours. Within a few months the conflict was over. When the combatants made peace in April l895. *Qing recognized the independence of Korea*. thus making it essentially a dependency of Japan. They also *ceded Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong* peninsula. which strengthened Japanese control over east Asian waters. Alongside territorial acquisitions, Japan gained unequal treaty rights in China like those enjoyed by European and American powers

Introductlon of New Crops

-In some cases. colonial rule led to the introduction of new crops that transformed both the landscape and the social order of subject lands. 1n the early nineteenth century. for example. *British colonial officials introduced tea bushes from China to Ceylon and India.* The effect on Ceylon was profound. British planters felled trees on much of the island. convened *rain forests into ten plantations. and recruited Ceylonese women* by the thousands to carry out the labor-intensive work of harvesting mature tea leaves. *-Consumption of tea in India and Ceylon was almost negligible* but increased supplies met the growing demand for tea in Europe. where the beverage became accessible to individuals of all social classes. The value of south Asian tea exports rose from about 309.000 pounds sterling in 1866 to 6.] million pounds sterling in 1900. *Malaya and Sumatra underwent a similar social transformation after British colonial agents planted rubber trees* there in the 1870s and established plantations to meet the growing global demand for rubber products.

The Belgian Congo (established what colony + for what?, what were the working conditions/govt like in Congo, Britain and France did what?)

-In the 1870s *King Leopold II of Belgium* employed the *American journalist Henry Morton Stanley to help trade ventures + establish Congo FreeState colony* (modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) in the basin of the Congo River. To forestall competition from Belgium's much larger and more powerful European neighbors, *Leopold announced Congo region would be free-trade zone accessible to merchants and business people from all European lands*. In fact. however. he carved out a personal colony with the sole purpose of *extracting lucrative rubber using forced labor*. in the Congo Free State were so *Working conditions brutal*, *high taxes*, and *abuses *so many that four to eight million Africans died under Leopold's personal rule. Once those abuses became public, -*humanitarian pressure induced Belgian govt to take control away from Leopold* in I908 and administer the colony directly. As Leupold colonized central Africa. *Britain established an imperial presence in Egypt*. In an effort to build up their army, strengthen the economy. and *distance themselves from Ottoman* authority. Egypt's leaders had borrowed heavily from European lenders in the mid-nineteenth century. By the 1870s crushing debt *forced Egyptian officials to impose high taxes,* which provoked popular unrest and a military rebellion. Concerned over the status of their financial interests and the security of the Suez Canal. *British forces occupied Egypt in 1882*

Imperial Medical Technologies (deadliest disease, Euros established but fought off disease w/)

-One of the most common. debilitating. and often *deadly diseases affecting the tropical and subuopical* regions of the world was (and is) *malaria*. -As Europeans established colonies in the tropics. they faced a mortal threat from this mosquitdomedisease. The effective *treatment of malaria in the form of quinine* for European quest to conquer and rule distant lands during the nineteenth century. - The *remedy for malaria came to Europe from Peru*. -*used the bark from the cinchona tree * to treat various fevers. including malaria. -ln l820, two French chemists, Pierre Pelletier and Joseph Cavcntou. extracted the alkaloid of quinine from cinchona bark. and by the l840s European colonizers kept quinine pills by their bed stands. The use of' quinine proved to be a major force in the expansion of' European empires and ultimately *permitted small Euros to survive in tropical regions*

Settler Colonies In the Pacific (wo reported Australia suitable?, what did they find there?, established what in New Zealand?, what diseases?, New Zealand Wars?)

-Settlers began to arrive in *Australia in 1788*. nearly two decades *after Captain James Cook reported that suitable for settlement*. In that year. a *British fleet with about one thousand convicted criminals*. arrived at Sydney harbor and *established colony of New South Wales.* By the |830 *voluntary migrants outnumbered convicts* and the *discovery of gold brought a surge in migration to Australia European seniors *established communities also in New Zealand fertile soils/timber drew large numbers* of migrants. -European migration rocked the societies of Australia and New Zealand. *Diseases of smallpox, measles devastated ppl* at the same time that European migrants flooded into their lands. -Increasing migration also *fueled conflict between European settlers and native populations*. Large settler societies pushed indigenous peoples from their lands, often following violent confrontations. Because the nomadic foraging peoples of Australia did not occupy lands permanent] Despite native resistance. by I900 the *British succeeded in displacing most indigenous Australians* from their traditional lands and dispersing them throughout the continent. A similarly disruptive process transpired *in New Zealand Maori leaders organized longlasting opp to British* attempts to usurp their land and sovereignty. Conflicts over land confiscations and disputed land sales. for example. helped to *sparked the New Zealand Wars* = a series of confrontations between the *Maori and the British* Despite that resistance. by the end of the century the *British had forced Maori into poor rural communities separated from Euros*

Ethnicity, Idenity, Gender in LA

-The heritage of *Spanish and Portuguese colonialism* and the legacy of slavery *inclined LA* toward the establishment of *hierarchical distinctions* based on ethnicity and color. At the *top of society stood the creoles*. individuals of European ancestry born in the Americas; indigenous peoples. freed slaves. and their *black descendants occupied the lowest rungs* ofthe social ladder In between were various groups of mixed ancestry. -Although most Latin American states ended the legal recognition of these groups, the distinctions themselves persisted and limited their opportunities Large *migration brought cultural diversity* to Latin America in the nineteenth century. -*Indentured laborers who went from Asian lands to Peru. Brazil. Cuba* and other Caribbean destinations carried with them many of their native cultural practices. When their numbers were relatively large. as in the case of *Indian migrants to Trinidad and Tobago. they formed distinctive communities* which they observed their inherited cultural and social traditions. Migration of European workers to Argentina brought a lively diversity to the capital of Buenos Aires. which was most cosmopolitan city of nineteenth century Latin America. With its broad avenues. smart boutiques. and handsome buildings graced with wrought iron, Buenos Aires enjoyed a reputation as "the Paris of the Americas."

Colonial Conflict (Sepoy and Maji Rebllion)

-The policies adopted by imperial powers and colonial officials forced peoples of different societies to deal with one another on a regular systematic basrs. Their interactions often led to *violent conflicts between colonizers and subject peoples* -*The Sepoy Rebellion* was only one among many insurrections *organized by Indian subjects* between the midnineteenth and the midtwentieth centuries. -Colonized lands in southeast Asia and Africa also became hotbed: of resistance. as *subject peoples revolted against foreign rule*. the tyrannical behavior of colonial officials. the introduction of *European schools and curricula, high taxation. and requirements* that subject peoples provide compulsory labor for colonists' enterprises. Many rebellions drew strength from *traditional religious beliefs. and priests or prophets often led resistance* to coioNnial rule. In Tanganyika. for example. a local prophet organized the huge *Maji-Maji rebellion* (l90&l906) to *expel German colonial authorities from east Africa *Rebels sprinkled themselves with *maji-maji ("magic water"). which they believed would protect them from German weapons*. Although the rebellion failed and resulted in the deaths of as many as seventy-five thousand insurgents, it testified to the fact that rebellion was a constant threat to colonialrule Even when subject peoples dared not revolt. they resisted colonial rule by boycotting European goods. organizing political parties and pressure groups. and pursuing antioolonial policies through churches and religious groups

European Imperialism in the Pacific (where did they already start imperializing, what new areas?)

-While scrambling for Africa. *Europe*an imperial powers did not overlook opportunities to *establish their presence in the Pacific Ocean basin*. Imperialism in the Pacific took two main forms. *In Australia and New Zealand.* -*Europe established settler colonies and dominant political institutions*. In most of the Pacific islands, however. they sought commercial opportunities and reliable bases for their operations but did not wish to go to the trouble or expense of outright colonization. -Only in the late nineteenth century did they begin to impose *direct colonial rule* on the islands.

Gauchos

One prominent *symbol of Latin American identity* was *Argentina's gauchos (cowboys)*. Most gauchos were *mixed ancestry* but there were also white and black gauchos. In fact. anyone who *adopted gaucho ways became a gaucho* and gauche society acquired an ethnic egalitarianism rarely found elsewhere in Latin America. -Gauchos were most *prominent in the Argentine pampas* but their Cultural practices linked them to the *cowboys, or vaqueros*. found throughout the Americas. As pastoralists herding cattle and horses on the pampas. *gauchos stood apart front both the indigenous peoples* and the growing urban and agricultural elites who gradually displaced them with *large landholdings and cattle ranches that spread to the papas*

Earty Japanese Expansion (only asian country to?, leaders consolidated what lands?)

The Japanese drive to empire began in the east Asian islands. During the 1870 *Japanese leaders consolidated Hokkaido and the Kurile Islands* to the north. and they *encouraged Japanese migrants to populate the islands to forestall Russian expansion* there. -By 1879 they had also *established their hegemony over Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands* to the south.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) (Japan colonizes Korea and Liaodong and Manchuria War)

The unexpected Japanese vic» tory startled European imperial powers. especially *Tensions between Japan and Russia soon mounted.* because both imperial powers had *territorial ambitions in the Liaodong peninsula* Korea. and *Manchuria War broke out in 1904* and Japanese forces overrun Russian installations before reinforcements could arrive from Europe. The *Japanese navy destroyed the Russian Baltic fleet* which had sailed halfway around the world to support the war effort. By I905 the war was over. and *Japan won international recognition of its colonial authority over Korea and the Liaodong peninsula.* Furthermore. Russiaceded the southern half of Sakhalin island to Japan. along with a railroad and economic interests in southem Manchuria. Victory in the Russo-Japanese War transformed Japan into a major imperial power.

Plantation Migrants

Whereas migrants to the United States contributed to the development of an industrial society, those who went to *Latin American lands mostly worked on agricultural plantations*. Some Europeans figured among these migrants (Italians sought opportunities in Argentina in the 18805 and 18905) for example. and the *Brazilian government paid Italian migrants to cross the Atlantic and work for coffee growers* after the abolition of slavery there (1888). Other migrants came from Asia. -*15K indentured laborers from China in the sugarcane fields of Cuba* during the nineteenth century. and *lndian migrants traveled to Jamaica, Trinidad, Tobago, and Guyana* Laborers from both China and Japan migrated to Peru, where they *worked on cotton plantations* mined guano deposits, and helped build railroad lines. After the middle of the nineteenth century, expanding U.S. influence in the Pacific islands also led to *Chinese. Japanese, Filipino, and Korean migrations to Hawai'i for indentured laborers on sugarcane*

Metis and Louis Riel

indeed. a major outbreak of civil strife took place in the l870s and 18805. Native peoples and métis had moved west throughout the nineteenth century to preserve their land and trading rights. but the drive of British Canadians to the west threatened them. Louis Riel (1844-1885). who was himselfa métis. emerged as the leader of the métis and indigenous peoples of western Canada. of particular importance was his leadership in the resistance to the Canadian Pacific Railroad—and the white settlement it promised to bring— during the 18805. in 1885 he organized a military force of métis and native peoples in the Saskatchewan river country and led an insurrection known as the Northwest Rebellion Canadian forces quickly subdued the make— shift army. and government authorities executed Riel for treason Although the Northwest Rebellion never had a chance of success. the execution of Riel nonetheless threatened to undermine the beginnings of Canadian national unity and foreshadowed a long term of cultural conflict between Canadians of British. French. and indigenous ancestry

Cecil John Rhodes Discovers Imperial Diamonds Are Forever

•"I contend that we are the finest race in the world and that the more of the world we inhabit the better it is!" •Diamond mines in Rhodesia •Shona people rebel