HIST 207A - Final

THE AMERICAN NATION DIVIDES, 1854-1865 Why are the following books influential to American history? -Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin -Hinton Rowan Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South -George Fitzhugh, Cannibals All!

1) Hinton Rowan Helper, a white man from the slave state of North Carolina. His book was titled The Impending Crisis of the South. Helper attributed the backwardness of the South and the poverty of poor whites directly to the slave system and thegreed of slaveholders. He used government statistics to prove his point—how the unbridled cultivation of cotton had exhausted the soil and had hampered crop diversification; how King Cotton and slavery had reduced millions of whites to abject poverty and political and social disenfranchisement and dispossession, asthe wealth and influence in the South were dominated by a minority of slaveholding families. Thus, Helper was not concerned how slavery oppressed blacks, but how it was ruinous to poor whites and the Southern economy RACIST AMBLOIST 2) Perhaps the most famous literary work in defense of slavery was Southerner GeorgeFitzhugh's Cannibals All! (1857). Fitzhughcontrasted the lives of poor Northernwhites—often unemployed and nearlystarving—with the fate of Southern slaves,who, Fitzhugh claimed, were almost alwayscared for by their owners. 3) Harriet Beecher Stowe was the most prominent white American to write against slavery. In 1852, her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin was published. Stowe was a thirty-nine-year-old mother of six living in Maine. Her devoutChristianity led her into the abolitionist movement. Stowe's first-hand acquaintance with slavery came only from a few visits to Kentucky made when she lived in Cincinnati during the 1830s and 1840s. Later, she had some passing contact with former slaves who visited her in Maine.

THE AMERICAN NATION DIVIDES, 1854-1865 Why are the following terms important? -Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 and Bleeding Kansas -John Brown's roles in Bleeding Kansas and the Harpers Ferry raid -Dred Scott v. Sandford decision (1857)

1) On January 4, 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois proposed the Kansas-Nebraska bill to organize the Midwestern territories and to construct a transcontinental railroad along a Northern route. Southern lawmakers immediately protested. They insisted on a Southern route for the proposed transcontinental railroad. The Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed the people in the territories to decide on slavery, intensified sectionalist strife. Thousands of abolitionists migrated to Kansas from New England. The abolitionists Established homes and farms and abolitionist towns in the Kansas territory. Pro-slavery settlers faced off against the anti-slavery settlers in Kansas. A terrible confrontation loomed on the plains of Kansas. The attack on Lawrence, followed by the counterattack at Pottawatomie, erupted into a bloody, decade-long guerrilla war that became known as "Bleeding Kansas." It was a Civil War in microcosm; a prelude to the War Between the States. In late 1856, Brown crossed over from Kansas to Iowa, and then went on to the East. Itwould not be long before John Brown was heard from again 2) The issue of slavery reached an emotional zenith in 1859. In Boston and New York City, John Brown caucused with leading Northern philanthropists, scholars, and anti-slavery leaders about his plans to carry out a monumental attack upon slavery in Virginia. Brown raised thousands of dollars from a number of abolitionist which he used to buy guns. Brown's plan involved three main components: instigating a slave insurrection in Virginia (by providing arms to slaves); establishing a free African-American state in the southern Appalachian Mountains; and establishing a mobile guerrilla force in the Appalachian wilderness, where it could strike at will into Alabama, Kentucky, and the Carolinas. 3) Emerson and Scott "set" up the case: Dred Scott "sued" Sandford, declaring that the slave's prior history had included periods of time residing in free territory and living, for a time, in Illinois, a free state which did not recognize slavery. Therefore, Dred Scott should be considered free. The Taney court ruled that Dred Scott was not a citizen on two grounds: because he was black, and blacks could not be a citizen; and because he was aslave, and slaves could not be citizens. Chief Justice Taney assumed that blacks were inferior human beings and that the Constitution was never going to grant them civil rights. Taney insisted thatthere were two types of citizenship: state and federal. If one is a citizen of a state, one is a citizen of the federal government. But, the Taney Court argued,state citizenship for blacks did not in any manner confer federal citizenship to them. Taney should have stopped there—since Dred Scott was not a citizen, then he could not sue in federal court.

CHAPTER 11: A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 1800-1860 Consider the arguments over the expansion of slavery made by both northerners and southerners in the aftermath of the U.S. victory over Mexico. Who had the more compelling case? Or did each side make equally significant arguments?

A fervent belief in expansion gripped the United States in the 1840s. In 1845, a New York newspaper editor, John O'Sullivan, introduced the concept of "manifest destiny" to describe the very popular idea of the special role of the United States in overspreading the continent—the divine right and duty of white Americans to seize and settle the American West, thus spreading Protestant, democratic values. In this climate of opinion, voters in 1844 elected James K. Polk, a slaveholder from Tennessee, because he vowed to annex Texas as a new slave state and take Oregon. Annexing Oregon was an important objective for U.S. foreign policy because it appeared to be an area rich in commercial possibilities. Northerners favored U.S. control of Oregon because ports in the Pacific Northwest would be gateways for trade with Asia. Southerners hoped that, in exchange for their support of expansion into the northwest, northerners would not oppose plans for expansion into the southwest. The compromise of 1850 The election of 1848 did nothing to quell the controversy over whether slavery would advance into the Mexican Cession. Some slaveholders, like President Taylor, considered the question a moot point because the lands acquired from Mexico were far too dry for growing cotton and therefore, they thought, no slaveholder would want to move there. Other southerners, however, argued that the question was not whether slaveholders would want to move to the lands of the Mexican Cession, but whether they could and still retain control of their slave property. Denying them the right to freely relocate with their lawful property was, they maintained, unfair and unconstitutional. Northerners argued, just as fervidly, that because Mexico had abolished slavery, no slaves currently lived in the Mexican Cession, and to introduce slavery there would extend it to a new territory, thus furthering the institution and giving the Slave Power more control over the United States. The strong current of antislavery sentiment—that is, the desire to protect white labor—only increased the opposition to the expansion of slavery into the West. Most northerners, except members of the Free-Soil Party, favored popular sovereignty for California and the New Mexico territory. Many southerners opposed this position, however, for they feared residents of these regions might choose to outlaw slavery. Some southern politicians spoke ominously of secession from the United States. Free-Soilers rejected popular sovereignty and demanded that slavery be permanently excluded from the territories. The Compromise of 1850 brought temporary relief. It resolved the issue of slavery in the territories for the moment and prevented secession. The peace would not last, however

Temperance; Sylvester Graham; phrenology

A variety of reformers created organizations devoted to temperance, that is, moderation or self-restraint. Each of these organizations had its own distinct orientation and target audience. The earliest ones were formed in the 1810s in New England. The Massachusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemperance and the Connecticut Society for the Reformation of Morals were both formed in 1813. Protestant ministers led both organizations, which enjoyed support from New Englanders who clung to the ideals of the Federalist Party and later the Whigs. These early temperance societies called on individuals to lead pious lives and avoid sin, including the sin of overindulging in alcohol. They called not for the eradication of drinking but for a more restrained and genteel style of imbibing. Sylvester Graham stands out as a leading light among the health reformers in the antebellum years. A Presbyterian minister, Graham began his career as a reformer, lecturing against the evils of strong drink. He combined an interest in temperance with vegetarianism and sexuality into what he called a "Science of Human Life," calling for a regimented diet of more vegetables, fruits, and grain, and no alcohol, meat, or spices. Graham advocated baths and cleanliness in general to preserve health; hydropathy, or water cures for various ailments, became popular in the United States in the 1840s and 1850s. He also viewed masturbation and excessive sex as a cause of disease and debility. His ideas led him to create what he believed to be a perfect food that would maintain health: the Graham cracker, which he invented in 1829. Followers of Graham, known as Grahamites, established boardinghouses where lodgers followed the recommended strict diet and sexual regimen. During the early nineteenth century, reformers also interested themselves in the workings of the mind in an effort to better understand the effects of a rapidly changing world awash with religious revivals and democratic movements. Phrenology—the mapping of the cranium to specific human attributes—stands as an early type of science, related to what would become psychology and devoted to understanding how the mind worked. Phrenologists believed that the mind contained thirty-seven "faculties," the strengths or weaknesses of which could be determined by a close examination of the size and shape of the cranium.

CHAPTER 13: Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820-1860 In what ways do temperance, health reforms, and phrenology offer reflections on the changes in the United States before the Civil War? What needs did these reforms fill in the lives of antebellum Americans?

According to many antebellum reformers, intemperance (drunkenness) stood as the most troubling problem in the United States, one that eroded morality, Christianity, and played a starring role in corrupting American democracy. A variety of reformers created organizations devoted to temperance, that is, moderation or self- restraint. Beyond temperance, other reformers looked to ways to maintain and improve health in a rapidly changing world. Without professional medical organizations or standards, health reform went in many different directions; although the American Medical Association was formed in 1847, it did not have much power to oversee medical practices. Too often, quack doctors prescribed regimens and medicines that did far more harm that good. Sylvester Graham stands out as a leading light among the health reformers in the antebellum years. A Presbyterian minister, Graham began his career as a reformer, lecturing against the evils of strong drink. He combined an interest in temperance with vegetarianism and sexuality into what he called a "Science of Human Life," calling for a regimented diet of more vegetables, fruits, and grain, and no alcohol, meat, or spices. During the early nineteenth century, reformers also interested themselves in the workings of the mind in an effort to better understand the effects of a rapidly changing world awash with religious revivals and democratic movements. Phrenology—the mapping of the cranium to specific human attributes—stands as an early type of science, related to what would become psychology and devoted to understanding how the mind worked

SECTIONAL TENSIONS, 1817-1853 What is significant about the following names and terms? -Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy

An American Presbyterian minister, journalist, and newspaper editor who was murdered by a mob in Alton, Illinois for his abolitionist views.

CHAPTER 15: The Civil War, 1860-1865 What role did women and African Americans play in the Civil War?

As men on both sides mobilized for the war, so did women. In both the North and the South, women were forced to take over farms and businesses abandoned by their husbands as they left for war. Women organized themselves into ladies' aid societies to sew uniforms, knit socks, and raise money to purchase necessities for the troops. In the South, women took wounded soldiers into their homes to nurse. In the North, women volunteered for the United States Sanitary Commission, which formed in June 1861. They inspected military camps with the goal of improving cleanliness and reducing the number of soldiers who died from disease, the most common cause of death in the war. They also raised money to buy medical supplies and helped with the injured. Other women found jobs in the Union army as cooks and laundresses. Thousands volunteered to care for the sick and wounded in response to a call by reformer Dorothea Dix, who was placed in charge of the Union army's nurses. According to rumor, Dix sought respectable women over the age of thirty who were "plain almost to repulsion in dress" and thus could be trusted not to form romantic liaisons with soldiers. Women on both sides also acted as spies and, disguised as men, engaged in combat. Since the beginning of the war, thousands of slaves had fled to the safety of Union lines. In May 1861, Union general Benjamin Butler and others labeled these refugees from slavery contrabands. Butler reasoned that since Southern states had left the United States, he was not obliged to follow federal fugitive slave laws. Slaves who made it through the Union lines were shielded by the U.S. military and not returned to slavery. The intent was not only to assist slaves but also to deprive the South of a valuable source of manpower. Congress began to define the status of these ex-slaves in 1861 and 1862. In August 1861, legislators approved the Confiscation Act of 1861, empowering the Union to seize property, including slaves, used by the Confederacy. The Republican-dominated Congress took additional steps, abolishing slavery in Washington, DC, in April 1862. Congress passed a second Confiscation Act in July 1862, which extended freedom to runaway slaves and those captured by Union armies. In that month, Congress also addressed the issue of slavery in the West, banning the practice in the territories. This federal law made the 1846 Wilmot Proviso and the dreams of the Free-Soil Party a reality. However, even as the Union government took steps to aid individual slaves and to limit the practice of slavery, it passed no measure to address the institution of slavery as a whole. The proclamation generated quick and dramatic reactions. The news created euphoria among slaves, as it signaled the eventual end of their bondage. Predictably, Confederate leaders raged against the proclamation, reinforcing their commitment to fight to maintain slavery, the foundation of the Confederacy. In the North, opinions split widely on the issue. Abolitionists praised Lincoln's actions, which they saw as the fulfillment of their long campaign to strike down an immoral institution. But other Northerners, especially Irish, working-class, urban dwellers loyal to the Democratic Party and others with racist beliefs, hated the new goal of emancipation and found the idea of freed slaves repugnant. At its core, much of this racism had an economic foundation: Many Northerners feared competing with emancipated slaves for scarce jobs.

CHAPTER 14: Troubled Times: The Tumultuous 1850s Why would Americans view the Compromise of 1850 as a final solution to the sectional controversy that began with the Wilmot Proviso in 1846?

At the end of the Mexican-American War, the United States gained a large expanse of western territory known as the Mexican Cession. The disposition of this new territory was in question; would the new states be slave states or free-soil states? In the long run, the Mexican-American War achieved what abolitionism alone had failed to do: it mobilized many in the North against slavery. Antislavery northerners clung to the idea expressed in the 1846 Wilmot Proviso: slavery would not expand into the areas taken, and later bought, from Mexico. Though the proviso remained a proposal and never became a law, it defined the sectional division. The issue of what to do with the western territories added to the republic by the Mexican Cession consumed Congress in 1850. Other controversial matters, which had been simmering over time, complicated the problem further. Chief among these issues were the slave trade in the District of Columbia, which antislavery advocates hoped to end, and the fugitive slave laws, which southerners wanted to strengthen. Douglas pushed five separate bills through Congress, collectively composing the Compromise of 1850. First, as advocated by the South, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act, a law that provided federal money—or "bounties"—to slave-catchers. Second, to balance this concession to the South, Congress admitted California as a free state, a move that cheered antislavery advocates and abolitionists in the North. Third, Congress settled the contested boundary between New Mexico and Texas by favoring New Mexico and not allowing for an enlarged Texas, another outcome pleasing to the North. Fourth, antislavery advocates welcomed Congress's ban on the slave trade in Washington, DC, although slavery continued to thrive in the nation's capital. Finally, on the thorny issue of whether slavery would expand into the territories, Congress avoided making a direct decision and instead relied on the principle of popular sovereignty. This put the onus on residents of the territories to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. Popular sovereignty followed the logic of American democracy; majorities in each territory would decide the territory's laws. The compromise, however, further exposed the sectional divide as votes on the bills divided along strict regional lines. The hope that the Compromise of 1850 would resolve the sectional crisis proved short-lived when the Fugitive Slave Act turned into a major source of conflict. The federal law imposed heavy fines and prison sentences on northerners and midwesterners who aided runaway slaves or refused to join posses to catch fugitives. Many northerners felt the law forced them to act as slave-catchers against their will.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY How did the law of supply and demand affect the U.S. cotton trade and slavery?

By 1790, 1,000 tons of cotton were being produced every year in the South. That amount altered spectacularly over the next next seven decades—as a result of Whitney's cotton gin, British steam-powered textile machinery, Fulton's steamboat, expulsion of the indigenous southeasterners, and ever-increasing world consumer demand for cotton. By 1860, annual cotton production in the American South had soared to a million tons

Copperheads

Democrats who opposed Lincoln in the 1864 election Lincoln's assassination elevated Vice President Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, to the presidency. Johnson had come from very humble origins. Born into extreme poverty in North Carolina and having never attended school, Johnson was the picture of a self-made man. His wife had taught him how to read and he had worked as a tailor, a trade he had been apprenticed to as a child. In Tennessee, where he had moved as a young man, he gradually rose up the political ladder, earning a reputation for being a skillful stump speaker and a staunch defender of poor southerners. He was elected to serve in the House of Representatives in the 1840s, became governor of Tennessee the following decade, and then was elected a U.S. senator just a few years before the country descended into war. When Tennessee seceded, Johnson remained loyal to the Union and stayed in the Senate. As Union troops marched on his home state of North Carolina, Lincoln appointed him governor of the then-occupied state of Tennessee, where he served until being nominated by the Republicans to run for vice president on a Lincoln ticket. The nomination of Johnson, a Democrat and a slaveholding southerner, was a pragmatic decision made by concerned Republicans. It was important for them to show that the party supported all loyal men, regardless of their origin or political persuasion. Johnson appeared an ideal choice, because his nomination would bring with it the support of both pro-Southern elements and the War Democrats who rejected the conciliatory stance of the Copperheads, the northern Democrats who opposed the Civil War.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY The debate over slavery (circa 1820) focused on three fundamental questions. What were those questions and how did the North and South answer them?

Did Congress possess the authority to impose conditions which had to be met before a territory would be granted statehood? To what extent, if any, could Congress legislate for territories? Could Congress prohibit slavery in a territory?

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY Why were the economic benefits of slavery to the American South doubtful during the early 1780s and 1790s—before the rise of cotton as a cash crop?

During the late eighteenth century, slavery's economic benefits the American South were extremely doubtful, as the price of tobacco, rice, indigo, land, and slaves had fallen. (Rice was crucial to the economy of South Carolina, which had the heaviest concentration of slaves in the nation.) These were false economic barometers that slavery's days were numbered. There was yet no great cash crop to make slavery immensely profitable. And then came cotton.

CHAPTER 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 1820-1840 What were some of the social and cultural beliefs that became widespread during the Age of Jackson? What lay behind these beliefs, and do you observe any of them in American culture today?

Expanded voting rights did not extend to women, Indians, or free blacks in the North. Indeed, race replaced property qualifications as the criterion for voting rights. American democracy had a decidedly racist orientation; a white majority limited the rights of black minorities. But property holding was no longer seen as a distinguisher for virtue, this came with the questioning of ordinary men from the middle and lower classes of a correlation between ownership and virtue. First movements towards a more democratic system. Campaign and Election of 1828: the year saw the further unfolding of a democratic spirit in the United States. Political authority appeared to rest with the majority as never before. The birth hour of the Democratic Party. Manifest Destiny—>Westward Expansio

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY What was the natural limits theory on the expansion of slavery? What is significant about when the theory was conceived? Why did the theory fail in reality?

First, slavery was dying in the North. Following the Revolution, Northern states began to abolish slavery various manners—abolishing slavery gradually by writing new state constitutions, new state laws, or by judicial decree. The Northern states justified the abolition of slavery by arguing that slavery contradicted the causes of the American Revolution and that it was not a viable, efficient, and legitimate economic force. Therewas also an acknowledgment that the Northern economy did not require slavery. Second, slavery would not expand beyond the Southern states in which slave labor existed at the inception ofthe nation. In other words, nature would constrict the slave institution to the rich farmlands in the South, east of the Appalachian Mountains.Third, since slavery would be so restricted, it would not move west, but would eventually disappear.Anti-slavery delegates believed confidently that American slavery in the 1780s was already on the course of ultimate extinction. They believed there was no need to write federal anti-slavery y flawed. The argument was conceived in 1787, before the invention of the cotton gin, which opened vast, virgin western lands to cotton cultivation using thelabor of slave.

CHAPTER 15: The Civil War, 1860-1865 Could the differences between the North and South have been worked out in late 1860 and 1861? Could war have been avoided? Provide evidence to support your answer.

For decades before Lincoln took office, the sectional divisions in the country had been widening. Both the Northern and southern states engaged in inflammatory rhetoric and agitation, and violent emotions ran strong on both sides. Several factors played into the ultimate split between the North and the South. One key irritant was the question of slavery's expansion westward. Despite the ruptures and tensions, by the 1860s, some hope of healing the nation still existed. Before Lincoln took office, John Crittenden, a senator from Kentucky who had helped form the Constitutional Union Party during the 1860 presidential election, attempted to diffuse the explosive situation by offering six constitutional amendments and a series of resolutions, known as the Crittenden Compromise. Crittenden's goal was to keep the South from seceding, and his strategy was to transform the Constitution to explicitly protect slavery forever. Specifically, Crittenden proposed an amendment that would restore the 36°30′ line from the Missouri Compromise and extend it all the way to the Pacific Ocean, protecting and ensuring slavery south of the line while prohibiting it north of the line Republicans, including President-elect Lincoln, rejected Crittenden's proposals because they ran counter to the party's goal of keeping slavery out of the territories. The southern states also rejected Crittenden's attempts at compromise, because it would prevent slaveholders from taking their human chattel north of the 36°30′ line. The differences on the issue of slavery were to big to get together

Lincoln-Douglas debates

Freeport Doctrine: a doctrine that emerged during the Lincoln-Douglas debates in which Douglas reaffirmed his commitment to popular sovereignty, including the right to halt the spread of slavery, despite the 1857 Dred Scott decision affirming slaveholders' right to bring their property wherever they wished.

SECTIONAL TENSIONS, 1817-1853 What is significant about the following names and terms? -William Lloyd Garrison's radical abolitionism

Garrison based his visceral hatred of slavery on two fundamental convictions: 1: Garrison insisted that the slaveholders, together with all those Americans who accepted slavery and did nothing about it, were guilty of personal sins against God and crimes against humanity. 2: He argued that thecrimes and sins of slavery were sustained by the curse of racial prejudice, not only in the South, but by racism which was also deeply embedded in Northern societyGarrison was so radical in the abolitionist crusade, that many Americans who had never seen him or seen a picture or sketch of him, assumed that he was black. They were astonished to learn that he was white. They wondered how a white man could be so repulsed by slavery and fanatically supportive of emancipation?Garrison was a frequent speaker at black conventions. One evening, before speaking to a gathering of AfricanAmerican abolitionists, Garrison turned to a white Northern reporter and remarked: "I never rise before a black audience without feeling ashamed of my race."

DEMOCRATIC OPTIMISM VERSUS SLAVERY Why did Thomas Jefferson fail to vigorously support emancipation?

He put forward proposals calling for the gradual emancipation of slaves in Virginia and the deporting them to Africa. But all of Jefferson's motions were soundly defeated by Virginia legislators who wished to perpetuate slavery inVirginia—and not place the slave institution on the course of ultimate extinction. Jefferson was denounced for his "dangerous," radical emancipationist views.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY What were the provisions of Henry Clay's Missouri Compromise of 1820? Why did the U.S. Supreme Court nullify it in the Dred Scott decision of 1857?

Henry Clay then skillfully led the forces of compromise, engineering separate votes on the controversial measures. On March 3, 1820, the decisive votes in the House admitted Maine as a free state, Missouri as a slave state, and made free soil all western territories north of Missouri's southern border. The High Court ruled that the Missouri Compromise was egregiously unconstitutional because it prevented American citizens from taking their slaves (which the court deemed as legal property) into states and territories of the United States.

DEMOCRATIC OPTIMISM VERSUS SLAVERY What is the concept of inalienable rights? Why was it a radical ideal in the eighteenth century?

In 1776, the Americans argued that citizens have inalienable rights of life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness. Since these are God-given rights, no government can deprive citizens of their rights without due process of law. Americansdid not invent the concept of inalienable rights Yet, in 1776— the year Americans declared their freedom from Britain—539,000 African-Americans were held as slaves, the chattel property of white Americans. Slavery completely undercut the fundamental values and aspirations of the American ideals of inalienable and universal rights

SECTIONAL TENSIONS, 1817-1853 What is significant about the following names and terms? -Amistad affair

In 1839, two years after Lovejoy's assassination, the mutinyaboard the Spanish slave ship Amistad captured national, andeven international, attention. The captives aboard the ship wereMende people—Africans from Sierra Leone, West Africa. Theyhad been kidnapped into slavery by Spanish slave traders, whoplanned to sell the Africans to Spanish sugar plantation ownersin Cuba. One of the captives was a Singbe Pieh, a Mende prince,whom U.S. abolitionists would later name Cinque.The Amistad decision, as monumental as it was, did not affect the condition of American slaves held asproperty in the United States. However, the decision affirmed the right of blacks to a fair trial in Americancourts. The Amistad ruling gave abolitionists cause for hope that one day the United States would fully honorits founding creed that all people are created equal and must be invested with full civil and political rights andequal opportunities.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY How did the cotton gin, steamboat, and Trail of Tears contribute to the entrenchment of slave-cultivated, cotton-based plantation agriculture in the South? Be sure to identify Robert Fulton's contribution to American history.

In the 1830s, the U.S. Army drove the five civilized nationsof the Southeast (Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Seminoles) from their ancestral lands and ontoreservations in Oklahoma. The natives were driven westward on the infamous Trail of Tears. The forced removal of the natives removed the threat of native attacks and allowed for the entrenchment of slave-grown, cotton-based plantation agriculture in the U.S. Southeast

CHAPTER 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 1800-1860 Consider filibustering from the point of view of the Cuban or Nicaraguan people. If you lived in Cuba or Nicaragua, would you support filibustering? Why or why not?

In the 1850s, the expansionist drive among white southerners intensified. Among southern imperialists, one way to push for the creation of an American empire of slavery was through the actions of filibusters—men who led unofficial military operations intended to seize land from foreign countries or foment revolution there. Walker clung to the racist, expansionist philosophies of the proslavery South. In 1856, Walker made slavery legal in Nicaragua—it had been illegal there for thirty years—in a move to gain the support of the South. He also reopened the slave trade. In 1856, he was elected president of Nicaragua, but in 1857, he was chased from the country. When he returned to Central America in 1860, he was captured by the British and released to Honduran authorities, who executed him by firing squad. The answer for Cuba is no as well because the only intention to expand to Cuba was to find new slaves, why should people who lived a free, independent life, want to be slaves?

SECTIONAL TENSIONS, 1817-1853 What is significant about the following names and terms? -"Doughface" Northerners

In the years leading up to the American Civil War, "doughface" was used to describe Northerners who favored the Southern position in political disputes. Typically it was applied to a Northern Democrat who was more often allied with the Southern Democrats than with the majority of Northern Democrats.

Bucktail Republican party What was the lasting impact of the Bucktail Republican Party in New York?

Jackson's opponents were angered and took to calling the practice the spoils system, after the policies of Van Buren's Bucktail Republican Party. The rewarding of party loyalists with government jobs resulted in spectacular instances of corruption. Perhaps the most notorious occurred in New York City, where a Jackson appointee made off with over $1 million. Such examples seemed proof positive that the Democrats were disregarding merit, education, and respectability in decisions about the governing of the nation. They changed state election laws from an appointee system to a system of open elections.

CHAPTER 11: A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 1800-1860 Consider the annexation of Texas and the Mexican-American War from a Mexican perspective. What would you find objectionable about American actions, foreign policy, and attitudes in the 1840s?

Many Americans who migrated to Texas at the invitation of the Mexican government did not completely shed their identity or loyalty to the United States. They brought American traditions and expectations with them (including, for many, the right to own slaves). For instance, the majority of these new settlers were Protestant, and though they were not required to attend the Catholic mass, Mexico's prohibition on the public practice of other religions upset them and they routinely ignored it. Accustomed to representative democracy, jury trials, and the defendant's right to appear before a judge, the Anglo-American settlers in Texas also disliked the Mexican legal system, which provided for an initial hearing by an alcalde, an administrator who often combined the duties of mayor, judge, and law enforcement officer. Their greatest source of discontent, though, was the Mexican government's 1829 abolition of slavery. Most American settlers were from southern states, and many had brought slaves with them. Mexico tried to accommodate them by maintaining the fiction that the slaves were indentured servants. But American slaveholders in Texas distrusted the Mexican government and wanted Texas to be a new U.S. slave state. The dislike of most for Roman Catholicism (the prevailing religion of Mexico) and a widely held belief in American racial superiority led them generally to regard Mexicans as dishonest, ignorant, and backward. Belief in their own superiority inspired some Texans to try to undermine the power of the Mexican government. The growing presence of American settlers in Texas, their reluctance to abide by Mexican law, and their desire for independence caused the Mexican government to grow wary. In 1830, it forbade future U.S. immigration and increased its military presence in Texas. Settlers continued to stream illegally across the long border.

Californios

Mexican residents of California

CHAPTER 15: The Civil War, 1860-1865 Why did the North prevail in the Civil War? What might have turned the tide of the war against the North?

Mobilization for war proved to be easier in the North than it was in the South. During the war, the federal government in Washington, DC, like its Southern counterpart, undertook a wide range of efforts to ensure its victory over the Confederacy. To fund the war effort and finance the expansion of Union infrastructure, Republicans in Congress drastically expanded government activism, impacting citizens' everyday lives through measures such as new types of taxation. The government also contracted with major suppliers of food, weapons, and other needed materials. Virtually every sector of the Northern economy became linked to the war effort. The war in the west continued in favor of the North in 1863. At the start of the year, Union forces controlled much of the Mississippi River. In the spring and summer of 1862, they had captured New Orleans—the most important port in the Confederacy, through which cotton harvested from all the Southern states was exported—and Memphis As Grant and his forces pounded Vicksburg, Confederate strategists, at the urging of General Lee, who had defeated a larger Union army at Chancellorsville, Virginia, in May 1863, decided on a bold plan to invade the North. Leaders hoped this invasion would force the Union to send troops engaged in the Vicksburg campaign east, thus weakening their power over the Mississippi With its defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, both on the same day, the Confederacy lost its momentum. The tide had turned in favor of the Union in both the east and the west.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY What methods did the Northern states utilize to abolish slavery? How did Northerners justify the abolition of the slave system?

Most Northern states passed laws abolishing slavery, either immediately or gradually, by 1805. Laws providing for "gradual" emancipation often failed to change the status of adults already enslaved before the law took effect. The abolitionists saw slavery as an abomination and an affliction on the United States, making it their goal to eradicate slave ownership. They sent petitions to Congress, ran for political office and inundated people of the South with anti-slavery literature.

SECTIONAL TENSIONS, 1817-1853 What is significant about the following names and terms? -American Colonization Society

Organization established to end slavery gradually by helping individual slave owners liberate their slaves and then transport the freed slaves to Africa

CHAPTER 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 1820-1840 How did depictions of Native Americans in popular culture help to sway popular opinion? Does modern popular culture continue to wield this kind of power over us? Why or why not?

Popular culture in the first half of the nineteenth century reflected the aversion to Indians that was pervasive during the Age of Jackson. Jackson skillfully played upon this racial hatred to engage the United States in a policy of ethnic cleansing, eradicating the Indian presence from the land to make way for white civilization. In an age of mass democracy, powerful anti-Indian sentiments found expression in mass culture, shaping popular perceptions. Indians also made frequent appearances in art. George Catlin produced many paintings of native peoples, which he offered as true representations despite routinely emphasizing their supposed savage nature. Sure, this kind of steering people trough mass media to create hatress is still present, refugee crisis for example, the negative image of the Middle Eas

CHAPTER 15: The Civil War, 1860-1865 What do you believe to be the enduring qualities of President Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address? Why has his two-minute speech so endured?

Several months after the battle at Gettysburg, Lincoln traveled to Pennsylvania and, speaking to an audience at the dedication of the new Soldiers' National Ceremony near the site of the battle, he delivered his now-famous Gettysburg Address to commemorate the turning point of the war and the soldiers whose sacrifices had made it possible. The two-minute speech was politely received at the time, although press reactions split along party lines. Upon receiving a letter of congratulations from Massachusetts politician and orator William Everett, whose speech at the ceremony had lasted for two hours, Lincoln said he was glad to know that his brief address, now virtually immortal, was not "a total failure." Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. It is for us the living . . . to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. —Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, November 19, 1863

CHAPTER 14: Troubled Times: The Tumultuous 1850s Based on the text of the Lincoln-Douglas debates, what was the position of the Republican Party in 1858? Was the Republican Party an abolitionist party? Why or why not?

Slave Act turned into a major source of conflict. The federal law imposed heavy fines and prison sentences on northerners and midwesterners who aided runaway slaves or refused to join posses to catch fugitives. Many northerners felt the law forced them to act as slave-catchers against their will. 14. If you were a proslavery advocate, how would you feel about the platform of the newly formed Republican Party? Republican Party, a new political party that attracted northern Whigs, Democrats who shunned the Kansas- Nebraska Act, members of the Free-Soil Party, and assorted abolitionists. Indeed, with the formation of the Republican Party, the Free-Soil Party ceased to exist. The new Republican Party pledged itself to preventing the spread of slavery into the territories and railed against the Slave Power, infuriating the South. As a result, the party became a solidly northern political organization. As never before, the U.S. political system was polarized along sectional fault lines. Arguments for slavery: ARTICLE VII.—SLAVERYSECTION 1. The right of property is before and higher than any constitutional sanction, and the right of the owner of a slave to such slave and its increase is the same and as inviolable as the right of the owner of any property whatever.SEC. 2. The Legislature shall have no power to pass laws for the emancipation of slaves without the consent of the owners, or without paying the owners previous to their emancipation a full equivalent in money for the slaves so emancipated. They shall have no power to prevent immigrants to the State from bringing with them such persons as are deemed slaves by the laws of any one of the United States or Territories, so long as any person of the same age or description shall be continued in slavery by the laws of this State: Provided, That such person or slave be the bona fide property of such immigrants. 15. Based on the text of the Lincoln-Douglas debates, what was the position of the Republican Party in 1858? Was the Republican Party an abolitionist party? Why or why not? [A]nything that argues me into his idea of perfect social and political equality with the negro, is but a specious and fantastic arrangement of words, . . . I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. I have no purpose to introduce political and social equality between the white and the black races. There is a physical difference between the two, which, in my judgment, will probably forever forbid their living together upon the footing of perfect equality, . . . I, as well as Judge Douglas, am in favor of the race to which I belong having the superior position. . . . [N]otwithstanding all this, there is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural rights enumerated in the Declaration of Independence, the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. I hold that he is as much entitled to these as the white man. . . . [I]n the right to eat the bread, without the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal and the equal of Judge Douglas, and the equal of every living man. Clerarly not abolitionist anymore.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY How was slavery a bizarre fusion of Christianity, capitalism, and tyranny?

Slavery was a bizarre economic system, as many white plantation owners tried to merge Christian paternalism, type of welfare capitalism, and tyranny. Planters often provided slaves with professional medical care, offered monetary rewards for extra productivity, and granted a week or more of Christmas vacation. Yet, these sameplantations were also ruled by terror, as planters and their overseers used violence and threats of violence to force gangs of field hands to work from dawn to dusk. Frequent public floggings, and other acts of harassment and violence, reminded every slave of the penalty for inefficient labor, disorderly conduct, or refusal to accept authority

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY What were the conditions of the Tallmadge Amendment? What was the fate of the amendment?

Slavery was a bizarre economic system, as many white plantation owners tried to merge Christian paternalism, type of welfare capitalism, and tyranny. Planters often provided slaves with professional medical care, offeredmonetary rewards for extra productivity, and granted a week or more of Christmas vacation. Yet, these same plantations were also ruled by terror, as planters and their overseers used violence and threats of violence to force gangs of field hands to work from dawn to dusk. Frequent public floggings, and other acts of harassment violence, reminded every slave of the penalty for inefficient labor, disorderly conduct, or refusal to accept authority

CHAPTER 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 1800-1860 What strategies did slaves employ to resist, revolt, and sustain their own independent communities and cultures? How did slaves use white southerners' own philosophies—paternalism and Christianity, for example—to their advantage in these efforts?

Slaves often used the notion of paternalism to their advantage, finding opportunities within this system to engage in acts of resistance and win a degree of freedom and autonomy. For example, some slaves played into their masters' racism by hiding their intelligence and feigning childishness and ignorance. The slaves could then slow down the workday and sabotage the system in small ways by "accidentally" breaking tools, for example; the master, seeing his slaves as unsophisticated and childlike, would believe these incidents were accidents rather than rebellions. Some slaves engaged in more dramatic forms of resistance, such as poisoning their masters slowly. Other slaves reported rebellious slaves to their masters, hoping to gain preferential treatment. Slaves who informed their masters about planned slave rebellions could often expect the slaveholder's gratitude and, perhaps, more lenient treatment. Such expectations were always tempered by the individual personality and caprice of the master. Slave parents had to show their children the best way to survive under slavery. This meant teaching them to be discreet, submissive, and guarded around whites. Parents also taught their children through the stories they told. But also large number of free blacks living in slave states were the many instances of manumission—the formal granting of freedom to slaves—that occurred as a result of the Revolution, when many slaveholders put into action the ideal that "all men are created equal" and freed their slaves.

CHAPTER 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 1800-1860 What are the major arguments put forward by proslavery advocates? How would you argue against their statements?

Southern whites frequently relied upon the idea of paternalism—the premise that white slaveholders acted in the best interests of slaves, taking responsibility for their care, feeding, discipline, and even their Christian morality —to justify the existence of slavery. the cultivation of cotton gave new life and importance to slavery, increasing the value of slaves. The selling of slaves was a major business enterprise in the antebellum South, representing a key part of the economy. White men invested substantial sums in slaves, carefully calculating the annual returns they could expect from a slave as well as the possibility of greater profits through natural increase. As cotton production increased, new wealth flowed to the cotton planters. These planters became the staunchest defenders of slavery, and as their wealth grew, they gained considerable political power. Wealthy plantation owners like Lloyd came close to forming an American ruling class in the years before the Civil War. They helped shape foreign and domestic policy with one goal in view: to expand the power and reach of the cotton kingdom of the South. Socially, they cultivated a refined manner and believed whites, especially members of their class, should not perform manual labor. Rather, they created an identity for themselves based on a world of leisure in which horse racing and entertainment mattered greatly, and where the enslavement of others was the bedrock of civilization. Despite this unequal distribution of wealth, non-slaveholding whites shared with white planters a common set of values, most notably a belief in white supremacy. Whites, whether rich or poor, were bound together by racism. Slavery defused class tensions among them, because no matter how poor they were, white southerners had race in common with the mighty plantation owners. Non-slaveholders accepted the rule of the planters as defenders of their shared interest in maintaining a racial hierarchy. Significantly, all whites were also bound together by the constant, prevailing fear of slave uprisings. In fact, owning land and slaves provided one of the only opportunities for upward social and economic mobility. In the South, living the American dream meant possessing slaves, producing cotton, and owning land. A complicated code of honor among privileged white southerners, dictating the beliefs and behavior of "gentlemen" and "ladies," developed in the antebellum years. Maintaining appearances and reputation was supremely important. It can be argued that, as in many societies, the concept of honor in the antebellum South had much to do with control over dependents, whether slaves, wives, or relatives.

CHAPTER 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 1820-1840 If you were defending the Cherokee and other native nations before the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1830s, what arguments would you make? If you were supporting Indian removal, what arguments would you make?

THE INDIAN REMOVAL ACT In his first message to Congress, Jackson had proclaimed that Indian groups living independently within states, as sovereign entities, presented a major problem for state sovereignty. This message referred directly to the situation in Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama, where the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, and Cherokee peoples stood as obstacles to white settlement. These groups were known as the Five Civilized Tribes, because they had largely adopted Anglo-American culture, speaking English and practicing Christianity. Some held slaves like their white counterparts. Whites especially resented the Cherokee in Georgia, coveting the tribe's rich agricultural lands in the northern part of the state. The impulse to remove the Cherokee only increased when gold was discovered on their lands. Ironically, while whites insisted the Cherokee and other native peoples could never be good citizens because of their savage ways, the Cherokee had arguably gone farther than any other indigenous group in adopting white culture. Those who understood that the only option was removal traveled west, but the majority stayed on their land. In order to remove them, the president relied on the U.S. military. In a series of forced marches, some fifteen thousand Cherokee were finally relocated to Oklahoma. This forced migration, known as the Trail of Tears, caused the deaths of as many as four thousand Cheroke

American system

THE PRESIDENCY OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS Secretary of State Clay championed what was known as the American System of high tariffs, a national bank, and federally sponsored internal improvements of canals and roads. Once in office, President Adams embraced Clay's American System and proposed a national university and naval academy to train future leaders of the republic. The president's opponents smelled elitism in these proposals and pounced on what they viewed as the administration's catering to a small privileged class at the expense of ordinary citizens. Clay also envisioned a broad range of internal transportation improvements. Using the proceeds from land sales in the West, Adams endorsed the creation of roads and canals to facilitate commerce and the advance of settlement in the West. Many in Congress vigorously opposed federal funding of internal improvements, citing among other reasons that the Constitution did not give the federal government the power to fund these projects. However, in the end, Adams succeeded in extending the Cumberland Road into Ohio (a federal highway project). He also broke ground for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal on July 4, 1828. Tariffs, which both Clay and Adams promoted, were not a novel idea; since the birth of the republic they had been seen as a way to advance domestic manufacturing by making imports more expensive. Congress had approved a tariff in 1789, for instance, and Alexander Hamilton had proposed a protective tariff in 1790. Congress also passed tariffs in 1816 and 1824. Clay spearheaded the drive for the federal government to impose high tariffs to help bolster domestic manufacturing. If imported goods were more expensive than domestic goods, then people would buy American-made goods.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY Why did the Northern states balk at the admission of Missouri as a slave state?

The Senate, of course, was evenly balanced, since each state had two senators regardless of population. ShouldMissouri be admitted as a slave state, the political balance in the Senate would be tipped in favor of the South.Thus, the North balked at admitting a slaveholding Missouri. Southerners were furious, in part, because theNorth dominated the House of Representatives. Southerners insisted that their control of the Senate wouldachieve polical equity in Congress with Nortehrners. Tallmadge Amendmentproposed the gradual abolition of slavery in Missouri by mandating that no further slaves could enter Missouriand stipulating that the children of slaves in Missouri would be emancipated when they reached the age oftwenty-five. Should Missouri reject these two terms, statehood would be denied. According to the provisionsset in the Tallmadge Amendment, Missouri, for the foreseeable future, would be a slave state, obviouslyfavoring the South. But, in time, Missouri would become a free state, to the pleasure of the North. TheTallmadge Amendment ignited a fierce debate in Congress. In fact, the debate over the TallmadgeAmendment marked the first national debate over slavery in America.The amendment passed in the House of Representatives on North-Southsectional lines, but was defeated in the Senate, as a number of Northernsenators broke ranks with their section and voted against it. Missouri would enter the Union as a slave state (and the Tallmadge Amendment would be abandoned);2, Maine would secede from Massachusetts and join the Union as a free state (thereby maintaining the delicatebalance of power in the Senate between free soil and slave states);3, For the remainder of the Louisiana Territory, the southern boundary of Missouri (the 36˚ 30' parallel) wouldserve as a line of demarcation for slavery: North of line—free; South of line—slave. (Missouri, therefore, forthe foressable future, would jut out as a slave state surrounded by free states.)

CHAPTER 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 1800-1860 Based on your reading of William J. Anderson's and John Brown's accounts, what types of traumas did slaves experience? How were the experiences of black women and men similar and different?

The South's dependence on cotton was matched by its dependence on slaves to harvest the cotton. Despite the rhetoric of the Revolution that "all men are created equal," slavery not only endured in the American republic but formed the very foundation of the country's economic success. Cotton and slavery occupied a central—and intertwined—place in the nineteenth-century economy. In 1807, the U.S. Congress abolished the foreign slave trade, a ban that went into effect on January 1, 1808. After this date, importing slaves from Africa became illegal in the United States. Virginia and Maryland therefore took the lead in the domestic slave trade, the trading of slaves within the borders of the United States. In addition to cotton, the great commodity of the antebellum South was human chattel. Slavery was the cornerstone of the southern economy. By 1850, about 3.2 million slaves labored in the United States, 1.8 million of whom worked in the cotton fields. Slaves faced arbitrary power abuses from whites; they coped by creating family and community networks. Storytelling, song, and Christianity also provided solace and allowed slaves to develop their own interpretations of their condition. Southern whites frequently relied upon the idea of paternalism—the premise that white slaveholders acted in the best interests of slaves, taking responsibility for their care, feeding, discipline, and even their Christian morality —to justify the existence of slavery. Nevertheless, slaves were hardly passive victims of their conditions; they sought and found myriad ways to resist their shackles and develop their own communities and cultures. Under southern law, slaves could not marry. Nonetheless, some slaveholders allowed marriages to promote the birth of children and to foster harmony on plantations. Some masters even forced certain slaves to form unions, anticipating the birth of more children (and consequently greater profits) from them. Masters sometimes allowed slaves to choose their own partners, but they could also veto a match. Slave couples always faced the prospect of being sold away from each other, and, once they had children, the horrifying reality that their children could be sold and sent away at any time.

Union advantages in the Civil War

The Union had many advantages over the Confederacy. The North had a larg- er population than the South. The Union also had an industrial economy, where- as the Confederacy had an economy based on agriculture. The Union had most of the natural resources, like coal, iron, and gold, and also a well-developed rail system.

SECTIONAL TENSIONS, 1817-1853 What is significant about the following names and terms? -Evangelical Christianity and radical abolitionism

The main thrust of Christian abolitionism emerged from the evangelical revival of the 18th century, which spawned dynamic Christians with clear-cut beliefs on morality and sin and approached the issue of slavery from this standpoint. Historians believe ideas set forth during the religious movement known as the Second Great Awakening inspired abolitionists to rise up against slavery. This Protestant revival encouraged the concept of adopting renewed morals, which centered around the idea that all men are created equal in the eyes of God.

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY The mechanization of the cotton gin made cotton harvesting more efficient. Why, then, did Southern plantation owners become heavily dependent on slave labor?

The mechanization of the cotton gin made cotton harvesting more efficient, yet Southern planters remained heavily dependent on slave labor. Southern plantation owners used slaves on a wide variety of labor-intensive tasks for which the cotton gin was of no help. Slaves cleared woodlands to open lands for cotton cultivation. They planted cotton and maintained the vast cotton fields. Slaves reaped cotton and loaded the heavy cottonbales onto riverboats. Slave labor was also used to cultivate hemp, corn, wheat, rice, tobacco, sugarcane, and indigo. Slaves settled the new lands by erecting mansions for white families, and building slave cabins, granaries, and warehouses. They constructed the infrastructure in Southern counties and parishes. They built roads, walls, bridges, and government buildings. Slaves dug canals and constructed railroads. Thus, there wasan enormous demand for slaves in the era of the cotton gin—in the age of mechanization.

CHAPTER 13: Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820-1860 In what ways did the Second Great Awakening and transcendentalism reflect and react to the changes in antebellum American thought and culture?

The reform efforts of the antebellum era sprang from the Protestant revival fervor that found expression in what historians refer to as the Second Great Awakening. (The First Great Awakening of evangelical Protestantism had taken place in the 1730s and 1740s.) The Second Great Awakening emphasized an emotional religious style in which sinners grappled with their unworthy nature before concluding that they were born again, that is, turning away from their sinful past and devoting themselves to living a righteous, Christ-centered life. This emphasis on personal salvation, with its rejection of predestination (the Calvinist concept that God selected only a chosen few for salvation), was the religious embodiment of the Jacksonian celebration of the individual. Itinerant ministers preached the message of the awakening to hundreds of listeners at outdoors revival meetings These years saw swift population growth, broad western expansion, and the rise of participatory democracy. These political and social changes made many people anxious, and the more egalitarian, emotional, and individualistic religious practices of the Second Great Awakening provided relief and comfort for Americans experiencing rapid change. Those drawn to the message of the Second Great Awakening yearned for stability, decency, and goodness in the new and turbulent American republic. The Second Great Awakening also brought significant changes to American culture. Missionaries and circuit riders (ministers without a fixed congregation) brought the message of the awakening across the United States, including into the lives of slaves. The revival spurred many slaveholders to begin encouraging their slaves to become Christians. Previously, many slaveholders feared allowing their slaves to convert, due to a belief that Christians could not be enslaved and because of the fear that slaves might use Christian principles to oppose their enslavement. However, by the 1800s, Americans established a legal foundation for the enslavement of Christians. Also, by this time, slaveholders had come to believe that if slaves learned the "right" (that is, white) form of Christianity, then slaves would be more obedient and hardworking. Beginning in the 1820s, a new intellectual movement known as transcendentalism began to grow in the Northeast. In this context, to transcend means to go beyond the ordinary sensory world to grasp personal insights and gain appreciation of a deeper reality, and transcendentalists believed that all people could attain an understanding of the world that surpassed rational, sensory experience. Transcendentalists were critical of mainstream American cultur

THE AMERICAN NATION DIVIDES, 1854-1865 Why was President Abraham Lincoln in serious political peril as he sought reelection in 1864?

The worst fears of the Southerners had been realized: a Northern party, supporting the exclusion of slavery in the West, had come to power. Southerners believed it was only a matter of time before Lincoln and the Republicans would move to wipe out slavery completely. Southerners viewed Lincoln as a dangerous abolitionist, noting that Lincoln once had said that slavery must be placed "on the course of ultimate extinction." Southerners refused to view Lincoln as he really was: a politician willing to keep slavery in the Southern states—as long as it did not expand into the West.

SECTIONAL TENSIONS, 1817-1853 What is significant about the following names and terms? -Theodore Dwight Weld's American Slavery As It Is

Theodore Dwight Weld led this new, aggressive abolitionism. During the 1820s, Weld was primarilyconcerned with temperance and educational reform. By the end of the decade, he turned his attention to abolitionism, becoming one of the most fearless and powerful lecturers from Ohio to Vermont. Weld's abolitionist tenets summed up three fundamental convictions: He believed that all men and women have the ability to do what is right and, therefore, are morally accountable for their actions. Intolerable social evils are those that degrade the image of God in human beings. The goal of all social reform is to liberate individuals from being manipulated like physical objects. SLAVERY AGAINST THE BIBLE and AMERICAN SLAVERY AS IT IS

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY What compromises with the slave system were included in the Constitution of the United States?

Three compromises protecting slavery were chiseled into the Constitution. First, the slave trade could continue for twenty years. The Constitution mandated that Congress could pass no law abolishing the slave trade before January 1, 1808. (South Carolina and Georgia seized the opportunity and imported 50,000 slavesfrom Africa and the Caribbean.) Second, free states were required to return fugitive slaves to their "rightful owners." Third, the slave states were permitted to count three-fifths (sixty percent) of their slave population to calculate the number of representatives they would seat in the House of Representatives

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY How did the constitutional delegates divide over the issue of slavery?

Three-fifths compromise, compromise agreement between delegates from the Northern and the Southern states at the United States Constitutional Convention (1787) that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives.

CHAPTER 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 1820-1840 Does Alexis de Tocqueville's argument about the tyranny of the majority reflect American democracy today? Provide examples to support your answer.

Tocqueville's experience led him to believe that democracy was an unstoppable force that would one day overthrow monarchy around the world. In analyzing the democratic revolution in the United States, he wrote that the major benefit of democracy came in the form of equality before the law. A great deal of the social revolution of democracy, however, carried negative consequences Indeed, Tocqueville described a new type of tyranny, the tyranny of the majority, which overpowers the will of minorities and individuals and was, in his view, unleashed by democracy in the United States

Alexis de Tocqueville

Tocqueville's experience led him to believe that democracy was an unstoppable force that would one day overthrow monarchy around the world. He wrote and published his findings in 1835 and 1840 in a twopart work entitled Democracy in America. In analyzing the democratic revolution in the United States, he wrote that the major benefit of democracy came in the form of equality before the law. A great deal of the social revolution of democracy, however, carried negative consequences. Indeed, Tocqueville described a new type of tyranny, the tyranny of the majority, which overpowers the will of minorities and individuals and was, in his view, unleashed by democracy in the United States. In this excerpt from Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville warns of the dangers of democracy when the majority will can turn to tyranny: When an individual or a party is wronged in the United States, to whom can he apply for redress? If to public opinion, public opinion constitutes the majority; if to the legislature, it represents the majority, and implicitly obeys its injunctions; if to the executive power, it is appointed by the majority, and remains a passive tool in its hands; the public troops consist of the majority under arms; the jury is the majority invested with the right of hearing judicial cases; and in certain States even the judges are elected by the majority. However iniquitous or absurd the evil of which you complain may be, you must submit to it as well as you can. The authority of a king is purely physical, and it controls the actions of the subject without subduing his private will; but the majority possesses a power which is physical and moral at the same time; it acts upon the will as well as upon the actions of men, and it represses not only all contest, but all controversy. I know no country in which there is so little true independence of mind and freedom of discussion as in America.

The debate on slavery (circa 1820) focused on three fundamental questions. Which of the following was not one of those questions?

Was slavery a morally upright institution?

Compromise of 1850

Which of the following was not a component of the Compromise of 1850? -the admission of Kansas as a free state five laws passed by Congress to resolve issues stemming from the Mexican Cession and the sectional crisis

CHAPTER 13: Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820-1860 In what ways were antebellum feminists radical? In what ways were they traditional?

Women took part in all the antebellum reforms, from transcendentalism to temperance to abolition. In many ways, traditional views of women as nurturers played a role in encouraging their participation. Women who joined the cause of temperance, for example, amplified their accepted role as moral guardians of the home. Some women advocated a much more expansive role for themselves and their peers by educating children and men in solid republican principles. But it was their work in antislavery efforts that served as a springboard for women to take action against gender inequality. Many, especially northern women, came to the conclusion that they, like slaves, were held in shackles in a society dominated by men. Participation in the abolitionist movement led some women to embrace feminism, the advocacy of women's rights. Lydia Maria Child, an abolitionist and feminist, observed, "The comparison between women and the colored race is striking . . . both have been kept in subjection by physical force." Some northern female reformers saw new and vital roles for their sex in the realm of education. They believed in traditional gender roles, viewing women as inherently more moral and nurturing than men. Because of these attributes, the feminists argued, women were uniquely qualified to take up the roles of educators of children

Crittenden Compromise

a compromise, suggested by Kentucky senator John Crittenden, that would restore the 36°30′ line from the Missouri Compromise and extend it to the Pacific Ocean, allowing slavery to expand into the southwestern territories

Fort Sumter

a fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where the Union garrison came under siege by Confederate forces in an attack on April 12, 1861, beginning the Civil War

Whig party

a political party that emerged in the early 1830s to oppose what members saw as President Andrew Jackson's abuses of power

Second Great Awakening

a revival of evangelical Protestantism in the early nineteenth century (The First Great Awakening of evangelical Protestantism had taken place in the 1730s and 1740s.) The Second Great Awakening emphasized an emotional religious style in which sinners grappled with their unworthy nature before concluding that they were born again, that is, turning away from their sinful past and devoting themselves to living a righteous, Christ-centered life. This emphasis on personal salvation, with its rejection of predestination (the Calvinist concept that God selected only a chosen few for salvation), was the religious embodiment of the Jacksonian celebration of the individual. Itinerant ministers preached the message of the awakening to hundreds of listeners at outdoors revival meetings.

President Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address (1863)

a speech by Abraham Lincoln dedicating the military cemetery at Gettysburg on November 19, 1863 Several months after the battle at Gettysburg, Lincoln traveled to Pennsylvania and, speaking to an audience at the dedication of the new Soldiers' National Ceremony near the site of the battle, he delivered his now-famous Gettysburg Address to commemorate the turning point of the war and the soldiers whose sacrifices had made it possible. The two-minute speech was politely received at the time, although press reactions split along party lines. Upon receiving a letter of congratulations from Massachusetts politician and orator William Everett, whose speech at the ceremony had lasted for two hours, Lincoln said he was glad to know that his brief address, now virtually immortal, was not "a total failure." Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. It is for us the living . . . to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. —Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, November 19, 1863

total war

a state of war in which the government makes no distinction between military and civilian targets, and mobilizes all resources, extending its reach into all areas of citizens' lives In the final years of the war, the Union continued its efforts on both the eastern and western fronts while bringing the war into the Deep South. Union forces increasingly engaged in total war, not distinguishing between military and civilian targets. They destroyed everything that lay in their path, committed to breaking the will of the Confederacy and forcing an end to the war. General Grant, mastermind of the Vicksburg campaign, took charge of the war effort. He understood the advantage of having large numbers of soldiers at his disposal and recognized that Union soldiers could be replaced, whereas the Confederates, whose smaller population was feeling the strain of the years of war, could not. Grant thus pushed forward relentlessly, despite huge losses of men. In 1864, Grant committed his forces to destroying Lee's army in Virginia.

President Abraham Lincoln in serious political trouble as he sought re-election in 1864 because:

all of the above The Union military draft was sweeping more and more Northern troops south to their deaths Northern General Ulysses S. Grant's troops were mired in Virginia, while Northern General William Tecumseh Sherman's troops were bogged down on the Georgia front Political leaders in Lincoln's own Republican party were publicly doubting Lincoln's ability to lead the nation through the crisis of civil war

Regarding Thomas Jefferson's role as a democratic optimist and slave owner:

all of the above: Jefferson did not emancipate his slaves or vigorously call for the abolition of slavery, in large measure, because of his economic and political self-interests In Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson gave disparaging observations about African Americans and the slave institution Jefferson was willing to postpone the call for slave emancipation to a future generation

How were the institution of slavery and the cotton trade critical to the prosperity of the Northern states?

all of the above: the cotton trade gave rise to flourishing industries in the North, including shipbuilding, the shipping trade, sail making, ropewalks, barrel making, iron foundries, and saw mills Northern manufacturers sold finished goods to Southern planters and Northern textile factory owners profited from soaring cotton production as they turned raw cotton into cloth and clothing Northern shippers carried southern cotton to European ports

Wilmot Proviso

an amendment to a revenue bill that would have barred slavery from all the territory acquired from Mexico

Why was the ideal of inalienable rights a radical concept in the eighteenth century?

because at that time the common belief was that the rights of man came from the generosity of the state, not from the hand of God

Why did the U.S. Supreme Court declare the Missouri Compromise of 1820 unconstitutional in its Dred Scott decision of 1857?

because it violated the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution and protection of legal property

Why were slavery's economic benefits to the American South extremely doubtful in the 1780s and 1790s-- before the rise of cotton as a cash crop?

because the price of tobacco, rice, indigo, land, and slaves had fallen disastrously

Of the following statements regarding Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, which is not true?

her central character, Uncle Tom, is a one-dimensional, submissive black man

CHAPTER 14: Troubled Times: The Tumultuous 1850s John Brown is often described as a terrorist. Do you agree with this description? Why or why not? What attributes might make him fit this profile?

n October 1859, the radical abolitionist John Brown and eighteen armed men, both blacks and whites, attacked the federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. They hoped to capture the weapons there and distribute them among slaves to begin a massive uprising that would bring an end to slavery. Brown had already demonstrated during the 1856 Pottawatomie attack in Kansas that he had no patience for the nonviolent approach preached by pacifist abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison. To him, slavery appeared an unacceptable evil that must be purged from the land, and like his Puritan forebears, he believed in using the sword to defeat the ungodly. Brown had gone to Kansas in the 1850s in an effort to stop slavery, and there, he had perpetrated the killings at Pottawatomie. He told other abolitionists of his plan to take Harpers Ferry Armory and initiate a massive slave uprising. Some abolitionists provided financial support, while others, including Frederick Douglass, found the plot suicidal and refused to join.They viewed Brown as a terrorist bent on destroying their civilization, and support for secession grew.

Barnburners

northern Democrats loyal to Martin Van Buren who opposed the extension of slavery into the territories and broke away from the main party when it nominated a pro-popular

Log cabin campaign of 1840

the 1840 election, in which the Whigs painted William Henry Harrison as a man of the people

Which of the following statements is false?

the Tallmadge Amendment passed the Senate when a number of Southern senators broke ranks with their section and voted for the amendment

Which of the following statements is false?

the cotton gin made cotton production less cumbersome and time consuming, but it did not significantly reduce the price of cotton

THE ENTRENCHMENT OF SLAVERY How were slavery and the cotton trade crucial to the prosperity of the free Northern states?

the cotton trade gave rise to flourishing industries in the North, including shipbuilding, the shipping trade, sail making, ropewalks, barrel making, iron foundries, and saw mills Northern manufacturers sold finished goods to Southern planters and Northern textile factory owners profited from soaring cotton production as they turned raw cotton into cloth and clothing Northern shippers carried southern cotton to European ports

Southern slave owners' concept of paternalism

the premise that southern white slaveholders acted in the best interests of their slaves

habeas corpus

the right of those arrested to be brought before a judge or court to determine whether there is cause to hold the prisoner The Glorious Revolution led to the establishment of an English nation that limited the power of the king and provided protections for English subjects. In October 1689, the same year that William and Mary took the throne, the 1689 Bill of Rights established a constitutional monarchy. It stipulated Parliament's independence from the monarchy and protected certain of Parliament's rights, such as the right to freedom of speech, the right to regular elections, and the right to petition the king. The 1689 Bill of Rights also guaranteed certain rights to all English subjects, including trial by jury and habeas corpus (the requirement that authorities bring an imprisoned person before a court to demonstrate the cause of the imprisonment).

Trail of Tears

the route of the forced removal of the Cherokee and other tribes from the southeastern United States to the territory that is now Oklahoma

Which of the following was not one of the compromises with slavery embedded into the U.S. Constitution?

the slave institution could not be abolished before 1865

Hinton Rowan Helper attributed the backwardness of the South and the poverty of poor whites to:

the slave system and greed of slave owners

Cotton boom

the upswing in American cotton production during the nineteenth century

DEMOCRATIC OPTIMISM VERSUS SLAVERY What is the significance of the following terms? -Democratic optimism -Jefferson's statements on race in Notes on the State of Virginia

—that individuals andsocieties are morally perfectible. Despite our flaws, foibles, and frailties, we can become virtuous citizens who can work for the improvement of the republic -Thomas Jefferson authored a solitary book,Notes on the State of Virginia (1785). Jefferson carefully examined the natural and human landscapes of his Virginia homeland. Jefferson explained that blacks were different than whites