HIST 4C: MT 1 (long)

ch 17 conclusion

the enlightenment arose from the scientific rev, from the new sense of power and possibility that rational thinking made possible, and from the rush of enthusiasm for new forms of inquiry. enlightenment thinkers scrutinized a remarkably wide range of topics: human nature, reason, understanding, religion, belief, law, the origins of gov, Econ, new forms of technology, and social practices -- such a marriage, child rearing, and education. enlightenment ideas about social improvements and progress could and did occasionally serve the interest of European ruler, who saw in them a means to both rationalize their administrations and to challenge social groups or institutions that resisted the centralization of authority. Maria Theresa in Austria, Frederick the great in Prussia, Catherine the great in Russia all found ways to harness aspects of the enlightenment through their government. at the same time, however, the radical implications of the enlightenment critique of tradition made many ppl uncomfortable. ideas w subversive implications circulated in particular forms from pamphlets and newspapers to plays and operas. the intellectual movement that lay behind the enlightenment thus had broad consequences for the creation of a new kind of elite based not on birth but on the acquisition of knowledge and the encouragement of open expression and debate. a new sphere of public opinion had come into existence, and one which would have profound consequences in the 19th and 20th centuries

ch 19 shit

-1780s- economic transformation began in Europe- development of mechanized industry and the emergence of large-scale manufacturing in the British textile trade led to industrialization spreading to the European Continent and eventually North America -"Industrial Revolution" led to the proliferation of more capital-intensive enterprises, new ways of organizing human labor, and the rapid growth of cities. It was accompanied by population growth and made possible by new sources of energy and power, which led to faster forms of mechanized transportation, higher productivity, and the emergence of large consumer markets for manufactured goods. In turn, these interrelated developments triggered social and cultural changes with revolutionary consequences for Europeans and their relationship to the rest of the world. -Biggest change came from new forms of energy: steam, coal, fossil fuel -Machines= more productivity, but also more human labor for maintenance -"Industrious" rather than "industrial" economy redistributed wealth and power, creating new social classes and producing social tensions -New economy created both opportunity and a new kind of vulnerability for those whose livelihoods were threatened by industrialization -Industrialization began in the north of Britain in the late 1700s In part thanks to the fact that Britain was a secure island nation with a robust empire, profitable overseas trade networks, and established credit institutions. Also, they had ample supplies of coals lying near the surface, and a well-developed transportation network in many rivers/canals -British agriculture was already thoroughly commercialized. Farming transformed by new crops and new techniques and "enclosure" of fields Commercialized farming drove smaller farmers to work in other sectors of the economy + produced higher profits -A key precondition for industrialization, therefore, was Britain's growing supply of available capital, in the forms of private wealth and well-developed banking and credit institutions. -London= leading center of international trade -In Britain, the pursuit of wealth was a worthy goal -Growing domestic and international markets increased demand for goods and made 18th c Britain more prosperous -The Industrial Revolution began with dramatic technological leaps in a few industries, the first of which was cotton textiles. -The explosive growth of textiles also prompted a debate about the benefits and tyranny of the new industries. -Children/ women made up 2/3 of labor force in textiles -Many technological changes in 18th century -Iron products literally became the infrastructure of industrialization -The Continent had fewer raw materials, coal in particular, the than Britain (so changes in other places occurred more slowly- 1830s) -Early British industrialization was underwritten by private wealth; this was ess feasible elsewhere -Different patterns of landholding formed obstacles to the commercialization of agriculture. -In the East, serfdom was a powerful disincentive to labor-saving innovations. -In the West, especially in France, the large number of peasants, or small farmers, stayed put on the land -Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon disrupted economies -18th c- population had grown and mechanization had begun in a few key industries -Revolutionary change most beneficial to industrial advance in Europe = removal of previous restraints on the movement of capital and labor -Industrialization <- population growth, better transportation, government policy, and promotion of new technology -Until 1850, Britain remained the preeminent industrial power -Between 1850 and 1870, however, France, Germany, Belgium, and the United States emerged as challengers to the power of British manufacturers -Guild control over artisanal production was abolished in Austria and most of Germany by the mid- 1860s. Laws against usury, most of which had ceased to be enforced, were officially abandoned in Britain, Holland, Belgium, and in many parts of Germany. Investment banks continued to form, encouraged by an increase in the money supply and an easing of credit after the California gold fields opened in 1849. -The first phase of the Industrial Revolution, one economic historian reminds us, was confined to a narrow set of industries and can be summed up rather simply: "cheaper and better clothes (mainly made of cotton), cheaper and better metals (pig iron, wrought iron, and steel), and faster travel (mainly by rail)." The second half of the century brought changes further afield and in areas where Great Britain's early advantages were no longer decisive. Transatlantic cable (starting in 1865) and the telephone (invented in 1876) laid the ground for a revolution in communications. New chemical processes, dyestuffs, and pharmaceuticals emerged. So did new sources of energy: electricity, in which the United States and Germany led both invention and commercialdevelopment; and oil, which was being refined in the 1850s. -Eastern Europe in the 19th century developed into concentrated, agriculture region that played the specific role of exporting food to the West (because of demand for food and grain) -Many of the large agricultural enterprises were based on serfdom and remained so until the 1850s Peasant protest and liberal demands for reforms (from unpleased people) -Serfdom was abolished in most parts of eastern and Europe by 1850 and in Poland Russia in the 1860s -By 1870, the core industrial nations of Europe included Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland -Agricultural laborers were still the largest occupational category in 1860 -Industrial, moreover, did not mean automation or machine production, which long remained confined to a few sectors of the economy. As machines were introduced in some sectors to do specific tasks, they usually intensified the tempo of handwork in other sectors. Thus even in the industrialized regions, much work was still accomplished in tiny workshops—or at home. -British guarded their international advantages through financial leverage trade agreements transformed regional economies on terms that sent the greatest profits to Europe after a substantial gratuity to the Europeans' local partners. Where agreements could not be made, force prevailed, and Europe took territory and trade by conquest -Industrialization tightened global links between Eu rope and the rest of the world, creating new networks of trade and interdependence. To a certain extent, the world economy divided between the producers of manufactured goods—Europe itself—and suppliers of the necessary raw materials and buyers of finished goods—everyone else. -Effects of industrialization were visible in all aspects of social life -Changes in production and the workplace created new centers of employment, unleashing a cascading sequence of population movements that led to the growth of new cities in regions that a short time before had been largely agricultural. The development of these new cities and the sudden growth of older ones strained the infrastructure of Europe's urban centers, creating a demand for new housing, and forcing many to crowd into neighborhoods where newcomers could find short-term rentals as they looked for employment. -Concentration of new populations in cities that had been built for smaller numbers of people led in turn to environmental degradation, declining air quality, and fears of contagion. -Population growth was due to increase in fertility- couples married and set up households earlier -Even though the West grew industrial, majority of people still lived on the land Conditions in countryside were harsh -Great famine occurred -Changes in the land depended partly on particular governments -Until the emancipation of the serfs in the 1860s, landowners claimed the labor of dependent peasant populations for as much as several days per week. But the system of serfdom gave neither landowners nor serfs much incentive to improve farming techniques. -European serfdom, which bound hundreds of thousands of men, women, and children to particular estates for generations, made it difficult to buy and sell land freely and created an obstacle to the commercialization of agriculture -Although French peasants were poor, they could sustain themselves, on the land. This had important consequences. France suffered less agricultural distress, even in the 1840s, than did other European countries; migration from country to city was slower than in the other nations; far fewer peasants left France for other countries. -Many onlookers considered the nineteenth-century cities dangerous seedbeds of sedition. Yet conditions in the countryside and frequent flareups of rural protest remained the greatest source of trouble for governments. -Peasants were land poor, deep in debt, and precariously dependent on markets. More important, however, a government's inability to contend with rural misery made it look autocratic, indifferent, or inept—all political failings. -Growth of cities= one of the most important facts of the 19th century Growth= social problems Almost all cities were overcrowded and unhealthy (air pollution + toxic water) -> misery and epidemic disease -Governments gradually adopted measures in an attempt to cure the worst of these ills, if only to prevent the spread of catastrophic epidemics. Yet by 1850, these projects had only just begun. -9th c novelist painted a sweeping portrait of that older hierarchies of rank, status, and privilege were gradually giving way to a new set of gradations based on wealth and social class. In this new world, money trumped birth, and social mobility was an accepted fact rather than something to be hidden. -Movement within middle-class ranks was often possible in the course of one or two generations. Very few, however, moved from the working class into the middle class. Most middle-class success stories began in the middle class itself -Upward mobility was almost impossible without education, and education was a rare, though not unattainable, luxury for working class children. Careers open to talents, that goal achieved by the French Revolution, frequently meant opening jobs to middle-class young men who could pass exams. -Nevertheless, the European middle class helped sustain itself with the belief that it was possible to get ahead by means of intelligence, pluck, and serious devotion to work. -Middle class -. Merit and character as opposed to aristocratic privilege and hard work as opposed to living off noble estates -Family and home played a central role in forming middle-class identity -According to advice manuals, poetry, and middle-class journals, wives and mothers were supposed to occupy a "separate sphere" of life, in which they lived in subordination to their spouses. -Belief that men and women lived in different "spheres" but that separate "spheres" complemented each other -Middle articulated their values in opposition to aristocratic customs on the one hand and the lives of the common people on the other. They argued, for instance, that middle-class marriages were not arranged to accumulate power and privilege; instead they were to be based on mutual respect and division of responsibilities. -Middles class women were not just the "angel of the house- they were responsible for the moral education of her children and the management of her household. -central to middle-class Victorian thinking about women. As a housewife, a middle-class woman had the task of keeping the household functioning smoothly and harmoniously. She maintained the accounts and directed the activities of the servants. -Outside the home, women had very few respectable options for earning a living. -In Britain and the United States, women played an important role in the struggle to abolish the slave trade and slavery in the British Empire. -Victorian ideas about sexuality are among the most remarked-on features of nineteenth-century culture. They have become virtually synonymous with anxiety, prudishness, and ignorance.One of the defining aspects of nineteenth-century ideas about men and women is the extent to which they rested on scientific arguments about nature. Men and women had different social roles, and those differences were rooted in their bodies. -As far as sexuality was concerned, the absence of any reliable contraception mattered more in people's experiences and feelings than sociologists' or doctors' opinions. Abstinence and withdrawal were the only common techniques for preventing pregnancy. -As cities grew, they became increasingly segregated. Middle-class people lived far from the unpleasant sights and smells of industrialization -Like the middle class, the working class was divided into various subgroups and categories, determined in this case by skill, wages, gender, and workplace. -Some movement from the ranks of the unskilled to the skilled was possible, if children were provided, or provided themselves, with at least a rudimentary education. Yet education was considered by many parents a luxury -Working-class housing was unhealthy and unregulated. -Few figures raised more public anxiety and outcry in the nineteenth century than the working woman. Contemporaries worried out loud about the "promiscuous mixing of the sexes" in crowded and humid workshops. Nineteenth-century writers, starting in England and France, chronicled what they considered to be the economic and moral horrors of female labor: unattended children running in the streets, small children caught in accidents at the mills or the mines, pregnant women hauling coal, or women laboring alongside men in shops.Both before and after the Industrial Revolution labor was divided by gender, but as employers implemented new manufacturing processes, ideas about which jobs were appropriate for women shifted Most women did not work in factories, however, and continued to labor at home or in small workshops— "sweatshops," -Poverty, the absence of privacy, and the particular vulnerabilities of working-class women made working-class sexuality very different from its middle-class counterpart. -Greater mobility and urbanization meant weaker family ties, more opportunities for young men and women, and more vulnerabilities. fulfill. Economic vulnerability drove many single women into temporary relationships that produced children and a continuing cycle of poverty and abandonment. -Working-class families transmitted expectations about gender roles and sexual behavior: girls should expect to work, daughters were responsible for caring for their younger siblings as well as for earning wages, sexuality was a fact of life, midwives could help desperate pregnant girls, marriage was an avenue to respectability, and so on. The gulf that separated these expectations and codes from those of middle-class women was one of the most important factors in the development of nineteenth-century class identity. -The factory system denied skilled workers the pride in craft they had previously enjoyed. -Factories also imposed new routines and disciplines. Artisans in earlier times worked long hours for little pay, but they set their own schedules and controlled the pace of work, moving from their home workshops to their small garden plots as they wished. In a factory all hands learned the discipline of the clock. To increase production, the factory system encouraged the breaking down of the manufacturing process into specialized steps, each with its own time. Workers began to see machinery itself as the tyrant that changed their lives and bound them to industrial slavery. -Yet the defining feature of working-class life was vulnerability—to unemployment, sickness, accidents in dangerous jobs, family problems, and spikes in the prices of food. Seasonal unemployment, high in almost all trades, made it impossible to collect regular wages. -The early decades of industrialization were also marked by several severe agricultural depressions and economic crises. -The chronic insecurity of working-class life helped fuel the creation of workers' self-help societies, fraternal associations, and early socialist organizations. -make working people conscious of themselves as different from and in opposition to the middle classes. Changes in the workplace—whether the introduction of machines and factory labor, speedups, subcontracting to cheap labor, or the loss of guild protections—were part of the picture. -Class differences seemed embedded in a very wide array of everyday experiences and beliefs: work, private life, expectations for children, the roles of men and women, and definitions of respectability.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

.became a leader after Emancipation and war. Toussaint and his soldiers, now allied with the French army, emerged victorious over the French planters, the British (in 1798), and the Spanish (in 1801). Toussaint also broke the power of his rival generals in both the mulatto and former slave armies, becoming the statesman of the revolution. In 1801, Toussaint set up a constitution, swearing allegiance to France but denying France any right to interfere in Saint-Domingue affairs. The constitution abolished slavery, reorganized the military, established Christianity as the state religion (this entailed a rejection of Vodou, a blend of Christian and various West and Central African traditions), and made Toussaint governor for life. It was an extraordinary moment in the revolutionary period: the formation of an authoritarian society but also an utterly unexpected symbol of the universal potential of revolutionary ideas.

Guillaume Thomas François Raynal

A French writer who published the massive and Political History of European Settlements and Trade in the Two Indies (1770). This work, a coauthored collection like the Encyclopedia, was one of the most widely read works of the Enlightenment, going through twenty printings and at least forty pirated editions. Raynal drew his inspiration from the Encyclopedia and aimed at nothing less than a total history of colonization: customs and civilizations of indigenous peoples, natural history, exploration, and commerce in the Atlantic world and India. Raynal asked whether colonization had made humanity happier, more peaceful, or better. The question was fully in the spirit of the Enlightenment. So was the answer: Raynal believed that industry and trade brought improvement and progress. Like other Enlightenment writers, however, he and his coauthors considered natural simplicity an antidote to the corruptions of civilized culture. They sought out and idealized what they considered examples of "natural" humanity, many of them in the New World.

The Great War of Prussia

After 1713, Western Europe remained largely at peace for a generation. In 1740, however, that peace was shattered when Frederick the Great of Prussia seized the Austrian province of Silesia (to be discussed later). In the resulting War of the Austrian Succession, France and Spain fought on the side of Prussia, hoping to reverse some of the losses they had suffered in the Treaty of Utrecht. As they had done since the 1690s, Britain and the Dutch Republic sided with Austria. Like those earlier wars, this war quickly spread beyond the frontiers of Europe.

Great Fear (revolution

After hearing rumors that the king's armies were on their way, that Prussians were invading, frightened peasants and villager organized militias and others attacked and burned manor houses. The news, when it reached Paris, convinced deputies at Versailles that the administration of rural France had simply collapsed. This uprising compelled the most sweeping changes of the entire revolutionary period.

Battle of the Nations

After the retreat from Russia, the anti-Napoleonic forces took renewed hope. United by a belief that they might finally succeed in defeating the emperor, Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Britain renewed their attack. Citizens of many German states in particular saw this as a war of liberation, and indeed most of the fighting took place in Germany. The climax of the campaign occurred in October 1813 when, at what was thereafter known as the Battle of the Nations, fought near Leipzig, the allies dealt the French a resounding defeat. Meanwhile, allied armies won significant victories in the Low Countries and Spain. By the beginning of 1814, they had crossed the Rhine into France. Left with an army of inexperienced youths, Napoleon re treated to Paris, urging the French people to resist despite constant setbacks at the hands of the larger invading armies. On March 31, Tsar Alexander I of Russia and King Frederick William III of Prussia made their triumphant entry into Paris. Napoleon was forced to abdicate unconditionally and was sent into exile on the island of Elba, off the Italian coast.

"The Social Question"

Against the backdrop of the French Revolution of 1789 and subsequent revolutions in the nineteenth century (as we will see in the following chapters), the new "shock" cities of the nineteenth century and their swelling multitudes posed urgent questions. Political leaders, social scientists, and public health officials across all of Europe issued thousands of reports—many of them several volumes long—on criminality, water supply, sewers, prostitution, tuberculosis and cholera, alcoholism, wet nursing, wages, and unemployment. Radicals and reformers grouped all these issues under a broad heading known as "the social question."

Cesare Beccaria

An influential work by the Italian jurist Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), On Crimes and Punishments (1764), provided Voltaire with most of his arguments in the Calas case. Beccaria criticized the use of arbitrary power and attacked the prevalent view that punishments should represent society's vengeance on the criminal. Instead, he insisted, the only legitimate rationale for punishment was to maintain social order and to prevent other crimes. Beccaria argued that respect for individual dignity dictated that humans should punish other humans no more than is absolutely necessary.

John Locke

Enlightenment thinkers drew heavily on Locke's studies of human knowledge, especially his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). Locke's theories of how humans acquire knowledge gave education and environment a critical role in shaping human character. All knowledge, he argued, originates from sense perception. Locke's theories had potentially radical implications for eighteenth-century society: if all humans were capable of reason, education might also level hierarchies of status, sex, or race.

Candide by Voltaire Voltaire 1759

In Candide, Voltaire satires the then-prevalent philosophical optimism advanced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz by including controversial topics such as religious blasphemy and political sedition. Aside from criticizing nobility, philosophy, the church, and cruelty, it references and sheds a light on then contemporary events like the Seven Years' War and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Candide satires many Enlightenment philosophies and shows that it was far from a monolithic movement, but is still considered a representative text of the Enlightenment <- the ideas that came from it played a role in the French Revolution.

Rousseau's Emile Jean Jacques Rousseau 1762

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's writings provoked very different responses from eighteenth-century readers—women as well as men. Many women found his views about women's character and prescriptions for their education inspiring, while others disagree with his conclusions. In part of his novel Emile (1762), the author sets out his views on a woman's education. He argues that her education should fit with what he considers her intellectual capacity and her social role, and should complement the education and role of a man. Rousseau's conflicting views on female nature provide a good example of the shifting meaning of nature, a central preoccupation of Enlightenment thought.

Montesquieu

Montesquieu's treatise, The Spirit of Laws (1748), may have been the most influential work of the Enlightenment. Montesquieu asked about the structures that shaped law. How had different environments, histories, and religious traditions combined to create the variety of governmental institutions observable in the world? Why were there so many different forms of government: what spirit characterized each, and what were their respective virtues and shortcomings? Like other Enlightenment thinkers, he admired the British system and its separation of the executive, legislative, and judicial functions of government. His idealization of "checks and balances" had a formative influence on Enlightenment political theorists and helped to guide the authors of the U.S. Constitution in 1787.

Andrew Ure

Reactions to the Industrial Revolution and the factory system it produced ranged from celebration to horror. Dr. Andrew Ure (1778-1857), a Scottish professor of chemistry, was fascinated with these nineteenth-century applications of Enlightenment science. He believed that the new machinery and its products would create a new society of wealth, abundance, and, ultimately, stability through the useful regimentation of production.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

The Atlantic slave trade reached its peak in the eighteenth century. European slave traders sent at least 1 million Africans into New World slavery in the late seventeenth century, and at least 6 million in the eighteenth century. Control of the slave trade became fundamental to great-power politics in Europe during this period, as the British used their dominance of the trade to their advantage in their long-running competition with France.

James Cook

The British captain James Cook (1728-1779), who followed Bougainville, made two trips into the South Pacific (1768-1771 and 1772-1775), with impressive results. He charted the coasts of New Zealand and New Holland and added the New Hebrides and Hawaii to European maps. He explored the outer limits of the Antarctic continent, the shores of the Bering Sea, and the Arctic Ocean.

Peninsular Wars

The Peninsular Wars, as the Spanish conflicts were called, were long and bitter. The smaller British force laid siege to French garrison towns, and the Spanish quickly began to wear down the French invaders through guerrilla warfare. Terrible atrocities were committed by both sides; the French military's torture and execution of Spanish guerrillas and civilians was immortalized by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya (1746-1828) with sickening realism in his prints and paintings. The Spanish campaign was the first indication that Napoleon could be beaten, and it encouraged resistance elsewhere.

The Encyclopedia

The most remarkable and ambitious Enlightenment project, The Encyclopedia claimed to summarize all the most advanced contemporary philosophical, scientific, and technical knowledge, making it available to any reader. It demonstrated how scientific analysis could be applied in nearly all realms of thought, and it further aimed to encourage critical reflection of an enormous range of traditions and institutions. Published in installments between 1751 and 1772, the Encyclopedia ran to seventeen large volumes of text and eleven more of illustrations, with over 71,000 articles.

The Great Famine of 1845-49

The most tragic combination of famine, poverty, and population in the nineteenth century came to Ireland in the Great Famine of 1845-49. Potatoes, which had come to Europe from the New World, fundamentally transformed the diets of European peasants, providing much more nutrition for less money than corn and other grains. They also grew more densely, an enormous advantage for peasants scraping a living from small plots of land. Nowhere did they become more important than in Ireland, where the climate and soil made growing grain difficult and where both overpopulation and poverty were rising. When a fungus hit the potato crop—first in 1845 and again, fatally, in 1846 and 1847—no alternate foods were at hand. At least a million Irish died of starvation; of dyse

Declaration of the Rights of Woman by de Gouges (Reader #2) Olympe de Gouges September 1791

This document asserts that women are equal to men in society and, as such, entitled to the same citizenship right; in addition to that, it urges women to recognize the unequal ways they are treated in society and to take action to remedy those injustices. Although the "Declaration of the Rights of Woman" failed to create a lasting impact and resulted in de Gouges' death, it is significant because it was an attempt to expose the failures of the French Revolution in the recognition of sex equality and brings to light the position/roles of women in society during the time.

Parliamentary Report on Child Labour, 1842 Creator: Great Britain Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories Report compiled by Richard Henry Horne 1842

This document gives a condensed but complete description on the "labour and sufferings of the children employed in mines," which includes starting work at a young age, being abused, put to work in a dangerous environment, and being paid less than the average adult even while working the same amount of hours. It is important because the report's findings shocked society and led legislation to secure minimum safety standard in mines and factories, as well as general controls on the employment of children.

The Encyclopedia David Brion Davis 1765

This document states that there is not a single soul, including that of a slave, who does not have the right to be declared free, since he has never lost his freedom. This portion shows how the encyclopedists made an exhaustive and deliberate effort to comment on every institution, trade, and custom in Western culture. The project was conceived as an effort to catalog, analyze, and improve each facet of society.

Waterloo

fought over three bloody days from June 15 to 18, 1815, Napoleon was stopped by the forces of his two most persistent enemies, Britain and Prussia, and suffered his final defeat. This time the allies took no chances and shipped their prisoner off to the bleak island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic. The once-mighty emperor, now the exile Bonaparte, lived out a dreary existence writing self-serving memoirs until his death in 1821.

ch 18 conclusion

the tumultuous (loud) events in France formed part of a broad pattern of late 18th century democratic upheaval. the French rev was the most violent, prolonged and controversial of the revolutions of the era; but the dynamics of the rev were much the same everywhere. one of the most important developments of the French rev was the emergence of a popular movement, which included political clubs representing ppl previously excluded from politics, newspapers read by and to the common ppl, and political leaders who spoke for the sans-culottes (a lower-class Parisian republican in the French Revolution). in the French rev as in other revs, the popular movement challenged the early and moderate revolutionary leadership, pressing for more radical and democratic measures. and as in other revs, the popular movement in France was defeated, and authority was reestablished by a quasi-military figure. likewise, the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity were not specifically French; their roots lay in the social structures of the 18th century and in the ideas of culture in the enlightenment. yet French armies brought them in, literally, to the doorsteps of many europeans. what was the larger impact of the revolution and the napoleonic era? its legacy is partly summed up in 3 key concepts: liberty, equality and nation. liberty meant individual rights and responsibilities, and freedoms of arbitrary authority. by equality, the revolutionaries meant the abolition of legal distinctions of rank among European men. though their concept was limited, it became a powerful mobilizing force in the 19th century. the most important legacy of the rev may have been the new term nation. nationhood was a political concept. a nation was formed of citizens. not a kings subjects; it was ruled by law and treated citizens as equal before the law; sovereignty did no lie in dynasties or historic fiefdoms but in the nation of citizens. the new form of nation gained legitimacy when citizen armies repelled attacks against their newly won freedoms; the victories of "citizen's in arms' on in myth and history and provided the most powerful images of the period. as the war continued, military nationhood began to overshadow its political cousin. by the napoleonic period, this shift became decisive; a new political body of freely associated citizens was most powerfully embodied in a centralized state, its army and a kind of citizenship defined by individual commitment to the needs of the nation at war. this understanding of national identity spread throughout Europe in the coming decades

Horatio Nelson

was a British admiral who led the victory at Trafalgar in 1805. Trafalgar broke French naval power in the Mediterranean and led to a rift with Spain, which had been France's equal partner in the battle and suffered equally in the defeat.

Thomas Paine

was a British radical who participated in both the American and French revolution, and became an American citizen. He debated with Burke and in The Rights of Man (1791-92), he responded with a defense of the revolutionary concept of universal and natural right. In the polarized atmosphere of the revolutionary period in Britain, simply possessing Paine's pamphlet was grounds for imprisonment.

Denis Diderot

was a Frenchman who was the guiding spirit behind The Encyclopedia. Diderot commissioned articles on science and technology, showing how machines worked and illustrating new industrial processes. The point was to demonstrate how science could promote progress and alleviate human misery. Diderot turned the same methods to politics and the social order, including articles on economics, taxes, and the slave trade, and thumbed his nose at religion in oblique ways

Paul Marat

was a popular political leader. Marat, educated as a physician, opposed nearly all of his moderate colleagues' assumptions. Persecuted by powerful factions in the constituent assembly who feared his radicalism, he was forced to take refuge in unsanitary sewers and dungeons. He persevered as the editor of the popular newssheet The Friend of the People. In the summer of 1793, at the height of the crisis of the revolution, he was stabbed in his bath by Charlotte Corday, a young royalist, and thus became a revolutionary martyr.

Napoleon Bonaparte

was a young general who proved his usefulness to the Directory when he put down an uprising and saves the new regime from its opponents. After the coup of 1799, he assumed the title of "First Consul" and eventually "Consul for Life." His regime's most important feature was the centralization of authority. With more integrated administration, a more professional bureaucracy, and more rational and efficient taxation (though the demands of war strained the system), Napoleon's state marked the transition from Bourbon absolutism to the modern state. -> Napoleone eventually crowned himself as the Holy Roman

Edmund Burke

was an Irish-born conservative. He opposed the French revolution from the beginning because he believed that "rights" were not natural, but rather the product of specific historical traditions. In Reflections on the Revolution in France (1970), he argued that the revolutionaries had undermined the fabric of French civilization by attempting to remodel the state without reference to tradition and custom.

The Enlightenment

was an intellectual movement in the late 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason and individualism, rather than traditions. Its main concerns included the dangers of arbitrary and unchecked authority, the value of religious toleration, and the importance of law, reason, and human dignity in all affairs. It was a cultural phenomenon, as well, exposing an increasingly broad part of the population to new forms of consumption, of goods as well as ideas.

October Days of 1789 (Revolution)

was brought on by economic crisis. This time Parisian women from the market district, angered by the soaring price of bread and fired by rumors of the king's continuing unwillingness to cooperate with the assembly, marched to Versailles on October 5 and demanded to be heard. Not satisfied with its reception by the assembly, the crowd broke through the gates to the palace and demanded that the king return to Paris from Versailles. On the afternoon of the following day the king yielded and returned to Paris, accompanied by the crowd and the National Guard. This uprising and the King's return to Paris undercut his ability to resist further changes.

Louis-Antoine de Bouganville

was sent by the French government to the South Pacific in search of a new route to China, new lands suitable for colonization, and new spices for the ever-lucrative trade. Bougainville found none of what he sought, but his travel accounts—above all his fabulously lush descriptions of the earthly paradise of Tahiti—captured the imaginations of many at home.

Frederick II of Prussia

was the most emblematic enlightened absolutist. Although Frederick never gave up his love of music and literature, he applied himself energetically to his royal duties, earning himself the title of Frederick the Great. Frederick raised Prussia to the status of a major power. In 1740, as soon as he became king, he mobilized his army and occupied the Austrian province of Silesia, with French support. He also supervised a series of "enlightened" social reforms, like prohibiting the judicial torture of accused criminals, abolishing the bribing of judges, and establishing a system of elementary schools.

Maximilien Robespierre

was the most famous of the radical leaders. His insistence that leaders respect "the will of the people" eventually won him a following in the Jacobin club. Later, he became president of the National Convetion and a member of the Committee of Public Safety. Though he has little to do with starting the Terror, he was responsible for enlarging its scope and represented ruthlessness justified as virtue.

Queen Victoria

who came to the British throne in 1837, labored to make her solemn public image reflect contemporary feminine virtues of moral probity and dutiful domesticity. She was a successful queen because she embodied the traits important to the middle class, whose triumph she seemed to epitomize and whose habits of mind we have come to call Victorian.

Friedrich Engels

(1820-1895) was one of the many socialists to criticize Dr. Ure as shortsighted and complacent in his outlook. Engels was himself part of a factory-owning family and so was able to examine the new industrial cities at close range. He provides a classic nineteenth-century analysis of industrialization. The Condition of the Working Class in England is compellingly written, angry, and revealing about middle-class concerns of the time, including female labor.

Lessing

An enlightenment figure who wrote the play Nathan the Wise, where a Jewish merchant raises an adopted Christian born daughter with three religions: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. At several points, authorities ask him to choose the single true religion. Nathan shows none exists. The three great monotheistic religions are three versions of the truth. Religion is authentic, or true, only insofar as it makes the believer virtuous.

The Reign of Terror

During the period of the Terror, from September 1793 to July 1794, the most reliable estimates place the number of deaths at close to 40,000—about 16,500 from actual death sentences, with the rest resulting from extra judicial killings and deaths in prison. Few victims of the Terror were aristocrats. Many more were peasants or laborers accused of hoarding, treason, or counterrevolutionary activity. Anyone who appeared to threaten the republic, no matter what his or her social or economic position, was at risk.

Georges Jacques Danton

Danton, like Marat, was a popular political leader, well known in the more plebian clubs of Paris. Elected a member of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793, he had much to do with organizing the Terror. As time went on, however, he wearied of ruthlessness and displayed a tendency to compromise, which gave his opponents in the convention their opportunity. In April 1794, Danton was sent to the guillotine.

ch 19 conclusion

Why did the Industrial Revolution occur at this moment in human history? Why did it begin in Europe? Why did it not occur in other regions in the world with large populations and advanced technologies, such as China or India? These fundamental questions remain subject to serious debate among historians. One school of explanations focuses on the fact that the mechanization of industry occurred first in northern Europe, and seeks to explain the Industrial Revolution's origins in terms of this region's vibrant towns, its well-developed commercial markets, and the presence of a prosperous land-owning elite that had few prejudices against entrepreneurial activity. These historians have suggested that industrialization is best understood as a process rooted in European culture and history. More recently, however, historians with a more global approach have argued that it may be incorrect to assert that industrialization developed as it did because of the advantages enjoyed by a central, European, core. Instead, they have explored the possibility that the world's economies constituted a larger interlocking system that had no definitive center until after the take-off of European industrialization. Before that period, when it came to agricultural practices, ecological constraints population densities, urbanization, and technological development, many global regions were not so different from the western European model. In the end, suggest these historians, Europe was able to move more quickly to industrial production because its economies were better positioned to mobilize new sources of energy and the resources available to them on the periphery of their trading sphere. The access enjoyed by European traders to agricultural products from slave-owning societies in the Americas helped them escape the ecological constraints imposed by their own intensely farmed lands, and made the move to an industrial economy possible. Contingent factors—such as patterns of disease and epidemic or the location of coal fields—may have also played a role. There is less debate about the consequences of the Industrial Revolution within Europe. New forms of industrial production created a new economy and changed the nature of work for both men and women. Industrialization changed the landscape of Europe and changed the structures of families and the private lives of people in both the cities and the countryside. Industrialization created new forms of wealth along with new kinds of poverty. It also fostered an acute awareness of the disparity between social groups. In the eighteenth century, that disparity would have been described in terms of birth, rank, or privilege. In the nineteenth century, it was increasingly seen in terms of class. Both champions and critics of the new industrial order spoke of a "class society." The identities associated with class were formed in the crowded working-class districts of the new cities, in experiences of work, and in the new conditions of respectability that determined life in middle-class homes. These new identities would be sharpened in the political events to which we now turn.

Bastille

an ancient fortress and symbol of royal authority where guns and ammunition were stored. When crowds demanded arms from its governor, he procrastinated and then, fearing a frontal assault, ordered his troops to open fire, killing ninety-eight of the attackers. The crowd took revenge, capturing the fortress and decapitating the governor. Similar groups took control in other cities across France. The fall of the Bastille was the first instance of the people's role in revolutionary change and it persuaded the king and nobles to agree to the creation of the National Assembly.

jean calas

was a Protestant who was accused murdering his son for wanting to convert to Catholicism. He was tortured and executed a day after being convicted, but two years later, the Parliament declared him not guilty and offered his family compensation. Voltaire was very involved in his case, appalled by the cruelty of the authority and the injustice the man faced

Marie Gouze/ Olympe de Gouges

wrote "The Declaration of Rights of Woman and the Citizen," stating that women had the same rights of men and that they are equal according to the laws of nature. Although she was eventually executed and her text failed to make a lasting impact at the time, her proposition helped encourage women to participate in everyday activities of the revolution.

ch 18 shit

-Four Stages of The French Revolution 1: Peaceful, constitutional phase- an increasingly bold elite articulated its grievances to the king. Peacefulness did not last long because international tensions exploded into war, resulting in the end of the Bourbon monarchy and the beginning of the republic 2: A ruthlessly centralized government mobilized all the country's resources to fight the foreign enemy as well as counterrevolutionaries at home, to destroy traitors and the vestiges of the Old Regime 3: Government drifted- France remained a republic. It continued to fight with Europe. Undermined by corruption and division, the state fell prey to the ambitions of a military leader, Napoleon Bonaparte. 4: Napoleon's rule- It began as a republic, became an empire, and ended—after a last hurrah—in the muddy fields outside the Belgian village of Waterloo. After Napoleon's final defeat, the other European monarchs restored the Bourbons to the throne. -What were the long-term causes of the revolution in France? Historians long ago argued that the causes and outcomes should be understood in terms of class conflict. According to this interpretation, a rising bourgeoisie, or middle class, inspired by Enlightenment ideas and by its own self-interest, overthrew what was left of the aristocratic order -Historians have substantially modified this bold thesis. French society was not simply divided between a bourgeois class and the aristocracy. Instead, it was increasingly dominated by a new elite or social group that brought together aristocrats, officeholders, professionals, and—to a lesser degree—merchants and businessmen. -French society was divided in to 3 Estates Clergy Nobility Everyone else, from wealthy businessmen to urban laborers to the poor -Different social groups joined together in attacking a government and an economy that were not serving their interests -When conflicts arose, noble leaders presented themselves as defenders of the nation threatened by the king and his ministers. -Social and economic conditions deteriorated on the even of the Revolution (high unemployment rate + the poor were struggling) -Inefficient tax system further weakened the country's financial position Tax differed based on social standing and varied from region to region Debts incurred under Louis XVI -Problems in economy reflected weaknesses in France's administrative structure -Louis wished to improve the lot of the poor, abolish torture, and shift the burden of taxation onto the richer classes, but he lacked the ability to accomplish these tasks. -a weak monarch, together with a chaotic financial situation and severe social tensions, brought absolutist France to the edge of political disaster -Hoping to persuade the nobility to agree to these reforms, the king summoned an Assembly of Notables from among the aristocracy and clergy. This group insisted that any new tax scheme must be approved by the Estates General, the representative body of the Three Estates of the realm, and that the king had no legal authority to arrest and imprison arbitrarily. -The king, alarmed by this violent language, backed away from his support of the Third Estate when the Estates General convened in May 1789. Angered by the king's attitude, the Third Estate's representatives took the revolutionary step of leaving the body and declaring themselves the National Assembly. The king tried to prevent the National Assembly from meeting, but when the delegates found themselves locked out of their meeting hall on June 20, the representatives moved to a nearby tennis court, along with a handful of sympathetic nobles and clergymen. Here, under the leadership of the volatile, maverick aristocrat Mirabeau and the radical clergyman Sieyès, they swore an oath not to disband until France had a constitution. This Tennis Court Oath, sworn on June 20, 1789, can be seen as the beginning of the French Revolution. By claiming the authority to remake the government in the name of the people, the National Assembly was asserting its right to act as the highest sovereign power in the nation. On June 27 the king virtually conceded this right by ordering all the delegates to join the National Assembly. -The National Assembly abolished serfdom and banned slavery in continental France and brought church under state authority -In the summer of 1792, the revolution's moderate leaders were toppled and replaced by republicans, who repudiated the monarchy and claimed to rule on behalf of a sovereign people. Historians have focused on three factors to explain the revolution's radical turn: changes in popular politics, a crisis of leadership, and international polarization. -Louis XVI was weak- he was forced to support measures distasteful to him and was sympathetic to the plottings of the queen -Britain came into the war for strategic and economic reasons: they feared a French threat to Britain's growing global power. -The second French Revolution affected the everyday life of French men, women, and children in a remarkably direct way Worker's trousers replaced breeches Public life was marked by ceremonies designed to dramatize the break with the Old Regime and celebrate new forms of fraternity (though under the Committee of Public Safety, they became didactic and hollow) -Radical revolution dramatically reversed the trend toward decentralization and democracy Women's political clubs were closed down and the strength of traditional institutions- church, guild, parish- that had for centuries given people a common bond, eroded. <- replaced by patriotic organizations and a culture that insisted on loyalty to one national cause -On the one hand, the revolution divided France, mobilizing counterrevolutionaries as well as revolutionaries. At the same time, the revolution, war, and the culture of sacrifice forged new bonds. The sense that the rest of Europe sought to crush the new nation and its citizens unquestionably strengthened French national identity. -Committee of Public Safety could not save itself -inflation became catastrophic and the long string of military victories convinced people that the committee's demands for continuing self-sacrifice and terror were no longer justified. Robespierre and 21 other associates eventually met their death by guillotine. -Vigilante groups of royalists hunted down Jacobins -In 1975, the National Convention adopted a new and more conservative constitution. It granted suffrage to all adult male citizens who could read and write. It set up indirect elections where citizens voted for electors who chose the legislative body <- wealthy citizens had authority Directory- a board of five men who had executive authority <-created to avoid personal dictatorship -The Directory faced issues from the left (radicals) and right (monarchists) so they asked for help from Napoleon. -Napoleon's most significant contribution to modern state building was the promulgation of a new legal code inn 1804 - the Napoleonic Code The code pivoted on two principles that had remained significant through all the constitutional changes since 1789: uniformity and individualism. It cleared out the thicket of contradictory legal traditions that governed the ancient provinces of France, creating one uniform law. It con- firmed the abolition of feudal privileges of all kinds: not only noble and clerical privileges but the special rights of craft guilds, municipalities, and so on. It set the conditions for exercising property rights: the drafting of contracts, leases, and stock companies. The code's provisions on the family, which Napoleon developed personally, insisted on the importance of paternal authority and the subordination of women and children. -In all, Napoleon developed seven legal codes covering commercial law, civil law and procedures, crime, and punishment. The Napoleonic legal regime was more egalitarian than the law under the Old Regime but no less authoritarian -Napoleon believed that reconciliation would bring harmony to the state -Napoleon created a modern state but did not hesitate to proclaim his links to the past. -The empire brought the French Revolution's practical consequences—a powerful, centralizing state and an end to old systems of privilege—to Europe's doorstep, applying to the empire principles that had already transformed France. -Idea of "careers open to talent" ended the nobility's monopoly on officer corps. -In the realm of liberty and law, Napoleon's rule eliminated feudal and church courts and created a single legal system. -In the government, the regime sought a combination of legal equality (for men) and a stronger state authority. -Napoleon's regime referred to revolutionary principle to anchor its legitimacy, but authority was its guiding light. -Napoleon was passionate about accumulating knowledge and cultivating his relationship to imperial glories of the past. -The Continental System was Napoleon's first serious mistake. The second was his ambition to create a European empire, modeled on Rome and ruled from Paris. Third was his divorce with Josephine to marry Marie Louise. -First dramatic stage of Napoleon's downfall was his invasion of Spain In Spain itself, Napoleon reckoned with two factors that led to the ultimate failure of his mission: the presence of British forces and the determined resistance of the Spanish people, who detested Napoleon's interference in the affairs of the church. -Second Stage of Napoleon's downfall began with the disruption of his alliance with Russia. In 1811, he grew tired of Russia's violations of the Continental System After an inconsequential victory over Russian forces at Borodino, Napoleon reached Moscow only to find that partisans had burned the Russian capital before departing. Unable to force the tsar to surrender, Napoleon was forced to retreat as the Russian winter set in, with devastating effects on his remaining soldiers. On March 31, Tsar Alexander I of Russia and King Frederick William III of Prussia made their triumphant entry into Paris. Napoleon was forced to abdicate unconditionally and was sent into exile on the island of Elba, off the Italian coast. . -When Napoleon came back to French soil in less than a year, the allies had already restores the Bourbon dynasty to the throne, in the person of Louis XVII -Napoleon, with gathered supporters, was able to make Louis XVIII flee, but was defeated by Britain and Prussia in the battle of Waterloo. -In the French colonies across the Atlantic, the revolution took a different course, with wide-ranging ramifications. The Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Saint Domingue occupied a central role in the eighteenth-century French economy because of the sugar trade. Their planter elites had powerful influence in Paris. -In 1790, free people of color from Saint-Domingue sent a delegation to Paris, asking to be seated by the assembly, underscoring that they were men of property and, in many cases, of European ancestry. In August 1791 the largest slave rebellion in history broke out in Saint-Domingue. How much that rebellion owed to revolutionary propaganda is unclear; like many rebellions during the period, it had its own roots. The British and the Spanish invaded, confident they could crush the rebellion and take the island. In the spring of 1792, the French government, on the verge of collapse and war with Europe, scrambled to win allies in Saint-Domingue by making free men of color citizens. A year later, the assembly in Paris extended to slaves in all the colonies a liberty that that had already been accomplished in Saint-Domingue, by the slave rebellion. -Emancipation and war brought new leader to the fore, chief among them a former slave, Toussaint Breda, later Tousant L'Ouverture <- later captured and imprisoned by Napoleon

CHAPTER 19: THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY SOCIETY TIMELINE

1780s INDUSTRIALIZATION BEGINS IN BRITAIN 1825 FIRST RAILROAD IN BRITAIN 1830s INDUSTRIALIZATION BEGINS IN FRANCE AND BELGIUM 1845-1849 IRISH POTATO FAMINE 1850s INDUSTRIALIZATION BEGINS IN PRUSSIA AND THE GERMAN STATES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 1861 RUSSIAN TSAR EMANCIPATES THE SERFS

ch 19 timeline

1780s INDUSTRIALIZATION BEGINS IN BRITAIN 1825 FIRST RAILROAD IN BRITAIN 1830s INDUSTRIALIZATION BEGINS IN FRANCE AND BELGIUM 1845-1849 IRISH POTATO FAMINE 1850s INDUSTRIALIZATION BEGINS IN PRUSSIA AND THE GERMAN STATES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 1861 RUSSIAN TSAR EMANCIPATES THE SERFS

ch 17 shit

-more ppl becoming literate and gaining wealth -rapid economic and demographic growth in northwestern Europe was made possible by cheaper food and declines in mortality from infectious disease -more food produced per acre = new crops, fewer famine and better nutrition -better diet and improved sanitation also reduced infection rates -increased urbanization in Western Europe = rising prosperity from developments in trade and manufacturing -new inventions changed the pattern of work and the nature of the product -workers did not readily accept innovations bc they threw ppl out of work -18th century: exploding consumer economy encouraged provision of services and made European economy more complex, commercialized, and more productive -houses of middling ranks were now stocked w hitherto uncommon luxuries -enlightenment authors believed themselves to be defenders of the new ideals "the party of humanity" -the confidence that enlightenment thinkers sought nothing less than the organization of all knowledge -the scientific method, by which they meant the empirical observation of particular phenomena in order to arrive at general laws, offered a way to pursue research in all areas, -- to study human affairs as well as natural ones -culture of enlightenment was international -france provided the stage for some of the most widely followed enlightenment projects -although the French philosophies sparred w the state and the church, they sought political stability and reform (make changes in (something, typically a social, political, or economic institution or practice) in order to improve it) -by the 1760s, the French critique of despotism provided the language in which many ppl across Europe articulated their opposition to existing regimes (a gov, esp an authoritarian one) -voltaire ~best known of the philosophers ~personified enlightenment ~his single greatest accomplishment may have been popularizing Newton's work in France and more generally championing (support the cause of; defend) the cause of British empiricism and the scientific method against the more cartesian French ~his admiration for British culture and politics became a stringing critique of French and other absolutist countries on the continent. he praised British open minded empiricism, respect for scientists and support for research. the British house of commons represented the middle classes in contrast w French absolutism, brought balance to British gov and checked arbitrary power ~of all forms of intolerance, Voltaire opposed religious bigotry most, and w real passion he denounced religious fraud, faith in miracles and superstition -Montesquieu ~suggested that there were 3 basic forms of gov: republics, monarchies and despotisms ~like other enlightenment thinkers, he admired the British system and its separation of the executive, legislative and judicial functions of gov. such a balance of powers preserved liberty by avoiding a concentration of authority in a single individual or group -enlightenment thinkers across Europe raised similar themes: humanitarianism, or the dignity and worth of all individuals; religious tolerance and liberty. these ideals inspired important debates about three issues in law in particular: law and punishment, the place of religious minorities, and the state's relationship to economy and society -enlightenment beliefs about education and the perfectibility of human society led many thinkers to question the harsh treatment of criminals by European courts -most European countries by around 1800 abolished torture, branding, whipping and mutilation and reserved the death penalty for capital crimes -most enlightenment authors distinguished between religious beliefs, which they accepted, and the church as an institution and as dogma, which they rebelled against -many enlightenment thinkers saws the Americas as an uncorrupted territory where humanity's natural simplicity was expressed in the lives of native peoples. in comparison, Europe appeared decadent or corrupt -enlightenment thinking began w the premise that individuals could reason for and govern themselves -the pacific world figured prominently in the enlightenment thinking = explorations were also scientific missions, sponsored as part of the enlightenment project of expanding scientific knowledge -the enlightenment as a whole left a mixed legacy on gender, one that closely paralleled that on slavery -together, this permissive atmosphere of frequent discussion (regarding enlightenment ideas) among ppl of diff social position led to the development of a new idea: : "public opinion" -18th century cultural changes -- the expanding networks of sociability, the flourishing book trade, the new genres of literature, and the circulation of enlightenment ideas -- widened the circles of reading and discussion, expanding what some historians and political theorists call the "public sphere". that in turn, began to change politics. informal deliberations, debates about how to regenerate the nation, discussions of civic virtues, and efforts to forge a consensus plated a crucial role in moving politics beyond the confines of the court -rise of the middle class reading public (esp women) -literact ran highest in cities and towns -as a political program, enlightened absolutism clearly had its limits. on one hand, Catherine the great, Frederick the great and joseph ii in Austria, were personally inspired by the literacy culture of the philosophies. and their political programs reflected enlightenment ideas about the rational organization of state institutions. on the other hand, they were ready to abandon the humanitarian impulse of enlightenment thought and the ideal of self-government when it came to preserving their own power and social hierarchies that sustained it -american revolution: British parliament imposed a series of new taxes to pay for cost of 7 years war and continuous protection, but colonists were upset about "taxation without representation"

Industrialization

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Jacobins

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Urbanization

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The French Revolution

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Mary Wollstonecraft

Although she admired many of his writings, Rousseau's sharpest critic was the British writer Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797). Wollstonecraft published her best-known work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, in 1792, during the French Revolution. Unlike most of her contemporaries, she applied the radical Enlightenment critique of monarchy and inequality to the family. Her and Rousseau's divergence on gender is characteristic of Enlightenment disagreements about nature and is a good example of the way that Enlightenment thinking could lead to different conclusions.

The Committee of Public Safety

France was in crisis. In 1793, the convention drafted a new democratic constitution based on male suffrage. That constitution never took effect—suspended indefinitely by wartime emergency. Instead, the convention delegated its responsibilities to a group of twelve leaders, the Committee of Public Safety. The committee had two purposes: to seize control of the revolution and to prosecute all the revolution's enemies—"to make terror the order of the day." The Terror proper lasted from September 1793 to July 1794, but this was only the climax of a two-year period between the summer of 1792 and the summer of 1794

Marriage, Sexuality, and the Facts of Life- A French Doctor Denounces Contraceptives/ The Preventive Obstacle, or Conjugal Onanism. 1868 or 1870 (?) A French Doctor/ Louis- Francois-Entienne Bergeret (?)

In the nineteenth century sexuality became the subject of much anxious debate, largely because it raised other issues: the roles of men and women, morality, and social respectability. Doctors threw themselves into the discussion, offering their expert opinions on the health (including the sexual lives) of the population. Yet doctors did not dictate people's private lives. Nineteenth-century men and women responded to what they experienced as the facts of life more than they did to expert advice. This document provides an example of medical knowledge and opinion in 1870.

Marriage, Sexuality, and the Facts of Life- Death in Childbirth/ Victorian Women: A Documentary Account of Women's Lives in Nineteenth-Century England, France, and the United States. Experience in 1830, but documentary cited in book was published in 1981

In the nineteenth century sexuality became the subject of much anxious debate, largely because it raised other issues: the roles of men and women, morality, and social respectability. Doctors threw themselves into the discussion, offering their expert opinions on the health (including the sexual lives) of the population. Yet doctors did not dictate people's private lives. Nineteenth-century men and women responded to what they experienced as the facts of life more than they did to expert advice.This document offers a glimpse of the daily realities of family like in 1830.

The Haitian Revolution

It was the only successful slave revolution in history and by far the most radical of the revolutions that occurred in this age. It suggested that the emancipatory ideas of the revolution and Enlightenment might apply to non-Europeans and enslaved peoples—a suggestion that residents of Europe attempted to ignore but one that struck home with planter elites in North and South America. Combined with later rebellions in the British colonies, it contributed to the British decision to end slavery in 1838. And it cast a long shadow over nineteenth-century slave societies from the southern United States to Brazil.

Rousseau's Social Contract Jean Jacques Rousseau 1762

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was one of the most radical Enlightenment thinkers. In his works, he suggested that humans needed not only a clearer understanding of natural laws but also a much closer relationship with nature itself and a thorough reorganization of society. He believed that a sovereign society, formed by free association of equal citizens without patrons or factions, was the clearest expression of natural law.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (roo-SOH, 1712-1778) was an "outsider" who quarreled with the other philosophes. He shared their search for intellectual and political freedom, yet he introduced other strains into Enlightenment thought, especially what was then called "sensibility," or the cult of feeling. Rousseau's interest in emotions led him to develop a more complicated portrait of human psychology than that of most Enlightenment writers, who emphasized reason as the most important human attribute. He was also considerably more radical than his counterparts, one of the first to talk about popular sovereignty and democracy.

CH 18 FRENCH REV TIMELINE

MAY 1789 THE ESTATES GENERAL MEETS JUNE 1789 THE TENNIS COURT OATH JULY 1789 THE FALL OF THE BASTILLE SEPT. 1792 FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC JAN. 1793 EXECUTION OF KING LOUIS XVI SEPT. 1793 - JULY 1794 THE TERROR 1798-1799 NAPOLEON'S INVASION OF EGYPT JAN. 1804 HAITIAN INDEPENDENCE 1804 NAPOLEON CROWNED EMPEROR 1804 CIVIL CODE 1808 INVASION OF SPAIN 1812 INVASION OF RUSSIA 1814-1815 NAPOLEON'S ABDICATION AND DEFEAT

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The National Assembly

One of the first important pronouncements of the National Assembly after the Tennis Court Oath was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The authors drew inspiration from the American Declaration of Independence, but the language is even more heavily influenced by the ideals of French Enlightenment philosophes, particularly Rousseau.

Alexander von Humboldt

One of the most important scientific explorers of the period was the German scientist Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859). Humboldt spent five years in Spanish America, aiming to do nothing less than assess the civilization and natural resources of the entire continent. He went equipped with the most advanced scientific instruments Europe could provide. Humboldt, in good Enlightenment fashion, attempted to demonstrate that climate and physical environment determined which forms of life would survive in any given region. These investigations inspired nineteenth-century discussions of evolutionary change.

What is the Third Estate? Abbe Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes 1789

Sieyès was a formidable politician as well as a writer. His career during the revolution, which he ended by assisting Napoleon's seizure of power, began with one of the most important radical pamphlets of 1789. In "What Is the Third Estate?" Sieyès posed fundamental questions about the rights of the estate that represented the great majority of the population, thereby helping to provoke its secession from the Estates General.

Adam Smith

Smith thought of himself as the champion of liberty against state-sponsored economic privilege and monopolies. And he became the most influential of the new eighteenth-century economic thinkers. He disagreed with the physiocrats on the value of agriculture, but he shared their opposition to mercantilism. For Smith, the central issues were the productivity of labor and how labor was used in different sectors of the economy. In his opinion, competition made markets efficient.

The American Declaration of Independence Written by Thomas Jefferson with contributions from Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and others 1776

The Declaration of Independence, issued from Philadelphia on July 4, 1776, is perhaps the most famous single document of American history. Its familiarity does not lessen its interest as a piece of political philosophy and its debt to the ideas of John Lock, who drew many of his ideas about the contractual and conditional nature of human government from the conciliarist thinkers of the 15th and early 16th centuries. The appeal of absolutism notwithstanding, the Declaration shows how vigorous the medieval tradition of contractual, limited government remained at the end of the eighteenth century.

Immanuel Kant

a German philosopher that challenged his contemporaries in his classic 1784 essay "What Is Enlightenment?" For Kant, the Enlightenment represented a declaration of intellectual independence. Kant compared the intellectual history of humanity to the growth of a child. Enlightenment, in this view, was an escape from humanity's "self-imposed immaturity" and a long overdue break with humanity's self-imposed parental figure, the Catholic Church. Coming of age meant the "determination and courage to think without the guidance of someone else"—as an individual.

The National Convention

elected by free white men, became the effective governing body of the country for the next three years. It was elected in September 1792, at a time when enemy troops were advancing, spreading panic. Rumors flew that prisoners in Paris were plotting to aid the enemy. The newly elected convention was far more radical than its predecessor, and its leadership was determined to end the monarchy.

Cotton Gin/ Eli Whitney

invested in 1793, mechanized the process of separating cotton seeds from the fiber, thereby speeding up the production of cotton and reducing its price. The supply of cotton fibers expanded to keep pace with rising demand from cotton cloth manufacturers. The cotton gin had many effects, including, paradoxically, making slavery more profitable in the United States. The cotton-producing slave plantations in the American South became enmeshed in the lucrative trade with manufacturers who produced cotton textiles in the northern United States and England.

Laissez-fair

is a French expression meaning, "let nature take its course." This term, in the economic sense, meant that wealth and goods she be allowed to circulate without government interference

The National Assembly

made a series of economic and governmental changes with lasting effects. To raise money, it sold off church lands, although few of the genuinely needy could afford to buy them. To encourage the growth of economic enterprise, it abolished guilds. To rid the country of local aristocratic power, it reorganized local governments, dividing France into eighty-three equal departments. These measures aimed to defend individual liberty and freedom from customary privilege.

Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet)

was a controversial writer and the most famous personality in the European intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment. His works satire the movement, but also illustrates its classic concerns: the dangers of arbitrary and unchecked authority, the value of religious toleration, and the importance of law, reason, and human dignity in all affairs. He wasn't the most original philosopher, but he was an effective writer and advocate, especially since he had the ability to reach a wide audience in print.