HIST289V Final Test

Naturalized Citizen

Definition: A person not born in the US but who becomes a citizen Significance:

Erie Canal

Definition: Canal constructed between lake Erie and the Hudson river -Lowered cost of shipping form NE to MW which opened up NE to MW agricultural products Significance -Caused increased wealth for Buffalo and NYC

Civic virtue

Definition: Dedication of citizens to the common welfare of their community, sacrificing individual interests for the benefit of the community Significance: It was believed that for republicanism to flourish, it would be necessary for people to develop civic virtue so that they could maintain republican institutions.

Consumer culture

Definition: New media platforms, increases in disposable income, and innovations in advertising led to a new culture surrounding the need to buy products and own things Significance: Still a major part of Americanism today, defining choices, spurring further capitalistic urges and pushing us toward other impulses like materialism and the need to compete via material goods.

"rugged individualism"

Definition: Refers to the idea that individuals should be independent and capable of helping themselves Significance: Prevailing notion of American man, tied up particularly with the west. Their sense of pride and independence are both critical aspects of their identity.

Anti-Federalists

Definition: refers to the party of Jefferson which believed in a weak central government and a strong degree of political localism and states rights. Significance:Significant faction prior to the constitution and after it, believing in a small, decentralized government that maximized liberty for its citizens. They were headed by Jefferson and later Madison

Civil Rights

Definition: rights of individual citizens within a society Significance -Slow extension of civil rights to more and more citizens has been one of the primary internal tensions of American history

Social Darwinism

a. Definition: Refers to the notions developed and adopted in the second half of the 19th century which attempted to apply natural selection to human society. In practice, It justified an unequal society by stating that the superior within a society rise to the top. Thus, because the wealthy are at the top, they must deserve to be there. b. Significance: The idea of social Darwinism was extremely popular in the early 20th century, as in the late 19th, and substantially justified the social order of the time. This system of moralizing justification continued to push back against reformist notions of society that stated change was possible, and intervention ought to uplift the poor. Social darwinists would likely respond that the poor deserve to be there, and uplifting them would mean nothing since they themselves are not capable.

The Enlightenment

Definition -Philosophical movement of 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized individuality and human rights, and believed humanity could use reason to solve its problems. -While it increased demand for liberty and democracy, it also necessitated civic virtue Significance -Had immense influence over the way founding fathers viewed government and its role. -For example, enshrined in the Declaration of Independence are a variety of enlightenment concepts such as that the government receives its sovereignty from the people, rights to life liberty and the pursuit of happiness, etc -Increased demand for liberty and democracy

G. K. Chesterton

Definition: -English, poet, philosopher, journalist, art theorist, orator, and biographer -Wrote on America -Understood dangers of totalitarianism and therefore believed in small government -Believed in states rights Significance: -Said America was the only nation founded on a creed -Political commentator -Was impressed by the notion of America (I.e. that anyone could come to America and be an American) as opposed to European idea of national identity tied to being a part of that nation inherently (i.e. he was just an Englishman, as opposed to being an American from Hungary)

Alexis de Tocqueville

Definition: -French aristocrat who came to the United States, theoretically, to study prisons with Gustave de Beaumont but instead studied the United States and its institutions, specifically surrounding the notion of democracy -Published Democracy in America in 1835 Significance -Made numerous extremely impactful observations about the United States and its democratic institutions -Believed in the near historical inevitability of increasing freedom, equality, and democracy across the world, wanted to check out America as an early example of this -He named a variety of significant problems -Too much power in legislative branch, allowed for potential tyranny of the majority -Excessive drive for equality -Abuse or lack of love for freedom as compared to equality -Individualism -Materialism -However he also named a variety of solutions: -Strong independent judiciary with judicial review -Local self-government -Decentralization -Freedom of religion -Freedom of press -Education of women

Democracy

Definition: -A system of government in which sovereign power ultimately rests with the people as a whole with equal rights, free from hereditary rank or privilege. Founders considered it too dangerous a concept Significance: -Super defining aspect of what Americanism means. -Simultaneously, founding fathers were very worried about it -Too much Democracy risks mob rule, like with Tocqueville's critique of the early American legislature

Manifest Destiny

Definition: -Belief it was the United States destiny, made manifest, to spread our values and ideals across the continent, and that this was divine will. Significance -Emphasized early notions of American exceptionalism made policy -Impacted expansion of the United States West

American Exceptionalism

Definition: -Fairly definitive notion of Americanism that goes as far back as 1630 to John Winthrop's speech regarding a "city on a hill" and follows through to this day. -The idea being that the United States is categorically different and superior to other nations in a variety of respects, and should be seen as such Significance: -As an aspect of American identity, its been kind of a mainstay of what it means to be an American. -For example the belief that being based on the American Creed makes us different from other nations

Liberty

Definition: -Freedom of the individual within society; within the bounds of laws set for the commonwealth Significance: -This was a critical enlightenment concept which was then applied within the American framework, as evidenced by "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." -Within the United States it remains a perpetually relevant idea, as the bounds of that individual freedom are still pressed, developed, and questioned. -During the revolutionary period, though, it represented an expansion of citizen's capacity under a government. Instead of a monarch and its government defining the bounds of its people's freedom, the people's freedom defines the bounds of their government.

Benjamin Rush

Definition: -He was a founding Father from Pennsylvania and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. -Additionally, he was a well-known doctor despite his fairly primitive medical opinions. -He served as surgeon-general of the Continental Army and was a staunch (if strange) abolitionist Significance: -Rush was a strange civic leader and founding father. -His political philosophy relied on self-control and adherence to virtue in order to transform the citizenry into "republican machines" which would then have the capacity to govern themselves. -He was also a significant abolitionist despite, strangely, owning a slave, and believing blackness ot be a form of lepracy. He also supported a uniform system of education as well as further (if not equal) education for women.

"iron cages"

Definition: -Republican "iron cages" refer to control people had to have over themselves in order to prevent the period's licentiousness from infecting the political system and tearing America apart form the inside Significance: -The idea of Republican "iron cages" was central during the revolution due to the fear among the founding fathers of "mobocracy" and the inevitable dissolution of the United States that would follow therefrom. The founding fathers' were afraid that the craziness of the period (violence,

"Deferential Politics"

Definition: -The notion that common people should defer power to others in order to conduct politics Significance -Revolution was beginning of the end of this concept -However many founding fathers still maintained this idea (Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, for example), but it would fall more and more over time -Institutions in the US were created which adhere to this notion, i.e. a distance between common people and direct political decision-making such as the electoral college.

Republic

Definition: -representative government, usually with representatives elected or selected by the people Significance: -The United States is a republic, which, at the time of its founding, seemed an enormously risky proposition. American republicanism (I don't mean to confuse that with Republicanism) seemed almost destined to fail, as previous republics had before. -It was assumed that a republic could not survive over a large landmass, or with a heterogenous population. Well, we haven't failed quite yet, but we still have a ways to go.

"a city upon a Hill"

Definition: Said originally in 1630 by John Winthrop on the Arbelle, a ship destined for New England. Communicated that the people on board were meant to be a model of Christian charity, unity, and affection for all the world to see. Significance: An early statement of American exceptionalism. Even before the notion of The United States existed, in its founding there was an idea that something would be deliberate and different about the United States

The "Gag Rule"

Definition: 1836-1844 - prevention of discussion of abolition or slave trade in Congress for this period Significance: Represented how dangerous and significant the issue of slavery was that it had to be banned from discussion for almost 10 years in order to govern.

Dred Scott Decision

Definition: 1860 decision to return slave Dredd Scott to his master, stating unequivocally that black people are not citizens in the United States and therefore cannot sue or use the legal system. Significance: massively significant, holy sh*t. one of the most famously inhumane pieces of American jurisprudence by far. Was meant to prevent the civil war, shocker, didn't work. Wasn't overturned for FECKING EVER, says a lot about the period that this is what the courts believed

Butler Act

Definition: 1925 law which banned the teaching of evolution, or any theory which denies or contradicts the divine creation of man as taught in the bible. Significance: Served as a definitive stance on the religion vs secularism debate of the time, and represented a massive battle occurring between those two poles. On the one hand there was new and influential scientific thought, such as the increasingly significant beliefs in evolution, and on the other there were established and ardent visions of religiosity. This battle is still being fought today, though this period represents a particularly extreme and important portion of it.

Flappers

Definition: A generation of young women in the 1920s who wore shorter skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz, and flaunted their disdain for previously acceptable behavior. Significance: Flappers are one of the most iconic aspects of the 1920's, representing in their dress, attitudes, and independence the development of the New Woman and its importance for the progress of women, and society generally, at that time.

Native born

Definition: A person born of in the US, who does not need to be naturalized Significance: Some people, dumb people, consider these to be the only real Americans. They are, however, the only Americans that can run for President.

"Natural Born Citizen"

Definition: A person that is a citizen by birth from place of birth, does not require naturalization Significance: Significant in the role it's played in nativist ideology. The idea being that natural born citizens were somehow more legitimate than naturalized citizens who immigrated

The Great Revival/The Second Great Awakening

Definition: A protestant movement from the early to mid 1800s which rejected enlightenment ideals, rationalism, and deism and embraced zealous religious and evangelical identity. Reaction to liberalism in religion. Significance: The portrayal of god as a benevolent being rather than angry and vengeful one brought many to the faith. Created new mechanisms of religious conversion, particularly camp meetings. Started amny new denominations. The movement thrived on the frontier specificailly because of these new methods. Cause massive increases in religious observance among many sects of Christinaity, and spurred the creation of several others

Plessy vs. Ferguson

Definition: An 1896 court case which enshrined into law racial segregation under the "Separate but equal" doctrine. The case involved the segregation of rail cars, and is regarded as one of the worst Supreme Court decisions in American history. Significance: The enshrining of segregation into law provided a backdrop for maintained discrimination over the next 60 years, until cases beginning with Brown V. Board began tore it down. Differences in funding between black and white schools were an obvious consequence f this law

Frederick Jackson Turner

Definition: An American Historian who blew the hats off of many other Americna historians by positing that Americas Americanness comes from our consistent interaction with the frontier. Significance: This widely influential theory gained a lot of traction, and played directly into the idea of the Western Man

Social Bandits

Definition: An individual in Western Europe and America whose crimes are viewed and approved by, usually lower-class, society. They are seen as heroic criminals pushing back against damaging forces, protecting traditional values while attacking symbols of the new order Significance: Social bandits have played a major part in American folk lore and history, and are an indication both of the moral indignation the poor had towards the evils the social bandits fought, and our national willingness to excuse violence for the sake of something we see as good enough. Jesse James, famed Western bank robber, is a quintessential example, as he is seen as someone who fought back against corporate giants and stole profits made from criminal exploitation of the defenseless masses.

The Gentlemans Agreement

Definition: An informal agreement between the US under Roosevelt and the Empire of Japan whereby the US would not impose restrictions on Japaneseimmigration, and Japan would not allow further emigration ot the US. This was done in order to reduce tensions between the two. Spurred by the 1906 segregation of San Francisco schools Significance: Reacting to anti-Japanese nativism, Japan demanded greater equality and respect from the United States. Japan negotiated for the removal of the segregated schools in San Francisco, and a broader law like the Chinese Exclusion act was prevented.

"The Gospel of Wealth"

Definition: Article written by Andrew Carnegie which describes the responsibility of the rich to be philanthropic, and provide for the less fortunate Significance: The gospel of wealth maintained the notion that hard work and perseverance lead to wealth. Maintains influence over the ultra-wealthy, as seen by the philanthropy of Bill Gates, who started his own foundation, and Warren Buffet as well. Its manifesto for philanthropy

Natural Rights

Definition: Basic rights tow hich all people are entitled Significance: The notion of natural rights was enshrined centrally in the Declaration of Independence, and, Jefferson argued, government's purpose is to protect and ensure these rights for all citizens. In that way, natural rights were a fundamental aspect of American democracy

The Scopes "Monkey" Trial

Definition: Battle between Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan over the Butler Act, after a science teacher in Tennessee had the ~audacity~ to teach scientific truth, i.e. evolution, in his classroom. Significance: It was an extremely popular event, and represented, as stated above, the battle between religious furor and belief, and scientific understanding, and the right to teach it in schools. While Darrow asked the jury to claim Scopes was guilty in order to appeal it, by forcing a severe and contradictory testimony from William Jennings Bryan, he mostly won. Still, even after a hearing from the Tennessee Supreme Court, the question was not resolved, at least not until a similar Arkansas Law was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1968 on the grounds that it violated the first amendment

Immigration Reform Act of 1965

Definition: Bill signed by President Johnson, doing away with the quota system which used race and national origin as primary determining factors for immigration. This heavily favored Europeans, and placed restrictions on Asian and African immigrants. The new rules opened the United States to family members of American citizens, skilled laborers and professionals, and political refugees Significance: Middle Eastern, Asian, and African immigrants were now able to come to the United States, causing a quadrupling of Asian people into the united states between 1965-1970. Latin American countries also entered the United States. In this way, the particular groups, and the subgroups of each population that came into the United States drastically changed following this act.

The 1920 and 1924 Immigration Laws

Definition: Both the Johnson Emergency Quota Act and the immigration act of 1924 played off of nativist sympathies to establish quotas for the entrance of immigrants to the United States. The 1921 Johnson Emergency Quota Act and imm act of 1924 both stated the the number of immigrants from a certain group would be tied to a certain percentage of the total number of people who already lived here, based on census data from first the 1910 census, and then the 1890 census, moving from 3 to 2% respectively Significance: Massively significant restriction in Immigration to the United States, representing the nativist attitudes of the time and enshrining those views into law. Prevented the mass migration that had been seen prior, and ensured that only 'desirable' immigrants, in the right numbers, would enter the United States.

Cotton Gin

Definition: Developed by Eli Whitney in 1796, it efficiently separated the seeds from short-staple cotton, making it a viable and profitable agricultural commodity. Significance: Allowed for a massive expansion in the Southern cotton industry, in turn revitalizing the institution of slavery which the cotton industry was based on.

Andrew Carnegie

Definition: Extremely wealthy and influential Robber Barron who dominated the Steel and railroad industry, and became one of the wealthiest men ever to live. He donated hundreds of millions of dollars to charities, as well, and was the writer of the Gospel of Wealth. Significance: While he was independently influential through his enormous impact over the American economy and politics. His money funded numerous libraries, schools, cultural centers, and other public benefits. His philosophy, the gospel of wealth, enshrined the notion that wealthy people were better suited to give money to the rest of the nation than the government into the American psyche

New Woman

Definition: Feminist ideal that emerged in the early 20th century, referring to the growth in the number of deimist, educated, independent career women during that period. Women began dressing and acting differently, pushing the limits of a male-dominated society Significance: During this period, women challenged their social roles, receiving educations, going to work, breaking the moors of Victorian morality by wearing what they wanted and dancing when they wanted. Women had more sex, and broke expectations of what it meant to act like a proper lady. This was a massive change in the role and expectation of women during this period, and set the stage for further shifts in how women were expected to behave and live which took place after world war 2 and through the second half of the 20th century during the next wave of feminism.

The Chinese Exclusion Act

Definition: First significant law restricting immigration into the United States, passed in 1882. It prevented the immigration of Chinese laborers into the United States. Created class of 100,000 aliens who could not return to Significance: Following this, Chinese Americans were, obviously, disallowed form entering the United States, but nativistic expressions of hate continued, including several massacres, such as the Rock Springs Massacre of 1885. Chinese people were also forced to move from various locations, such as Seattle. This is renewed first 1892, and then again in 1902, and does not really change drastically until the Magnussen act in 1943, a goodwill gesture to China, and then in 1965 under LBJ.

Alexander Hamilton definition

Definition: Founding Father, bastard, orphan, and extremely clever and prominent politician based out of New York. He was also a social climber who married into wealth, writer of the Federalist papers (and thus major proponent of a strong central government), Secretary to George Washington during the war, Secretary of Treasury to George Washington after it, and generally one of the most influential of our founding fathers.

Thomas Jefferson definition

Definition: Founding father and author of the Declaration of Independence. He was a critical player in the revolutionary period and third president of the United States. He was born on a plantation in Virginia and owned hundreds of slaves over thousands of acres. He was wealthy, extremely well educated.

Continental Congress

Definition: From 1774 to 1789, the Continental Congress served as the organizing and legislating body of the pre and post-revolutionary periods. Significance: Drafted and voted on the Declaration of Independence and served as the primary legislative body throughout the Articles of Confederation

Harriet Martineau

Definition: Harriet Martineau was a British social theorist and political writer. She wrote on an enormously wide variety of topics including politics, religion, and sociology. She also hit on various topics that were generaly shunted to the side during that period, such as women and domestic life. Significance: Her significance to the United States comes from her visit to New England, the South, and the Midwest. She wrote about American's "respect for men as individuals" and was deeply impressed by the application of natural rights within government and society. She was also an ardent abolitionist, for both political and moral reasons. Her work was influential at the time.

Republican virtue

Definition: Ideas designed to help citizens shape and maintain a successful government that works for the common people and for the common good of people -Idea that all citizens should participate politically -Republican virtues call for citizens to perform civic duties to their full potential through voting or creating public policy Significance

Laissez-faire economics

Definition: Laissez-faire economics refers to the economic theory that minimal government intervention will produce the best outcomes, as the market itself will produce a beneficial equilibrium for everyone involved. Significance: Laissez faire economics has been an integral part of the American economic system since the founding of the United States, justifying minimal government interventions in workers and their conditions. It is still an incredibly popular economic model to this day, and has had major proponents like Milton Friedman and Adam Smith for hundreds of years. Currently the Republican party is associated more so with laissez faire economics

Albert Lasker

Definition: Major figure in the shaping of modern advertising, used new techniques in emotional manipulation to bring people to buy products. He was excellent at print advertisements, and developed some shockingly effective advertising campaigns, including orange juice, listerine, and lucky strike. In each case, he was able to masterfully manipulate our associations and emotions for generations. Significance: As a father of modern advertising, he drastically shifted the way people interact with products, and significantly influenced the developing consumer culture of that period.

John Maynard Keynes

Definition: Massively influential British economist during the 20th century whose eponymous system of economics changed macroeconomic theory forever, and was critically important in developing responses to the Great Depression visible in the policies of the new Deal. Significance: While his economic importance is harder to quantify given my lack of expertise in that area, his challenge to neoclassical, free market oriented economic theory pushed back hard against the predominant system of laissez faire economics and brought in a new wave of government interventionism. This government interventionism was extremely visible during the New Deal, and pre-world war 2 policies.

Compromise of 1850

Definition: Masterminded by Henry Clay and then handed over to Stephen Douglas, the Compromise of 1850 maintained several provisions to prevent civil war by providing concessions to the South while expansion continued. Provisions included addition of California sa a new non-slave state. Ended territory dispute between Mexico and new Mexico in Mexico's favor, put into place new fugitive slave law that made return of slaves necessary for Northerners and created a federal force of slave catchers, OKOK I'm forgetting other provisions Significance: The compromise of 1850 provided enough concessions to the South and created enough political leeway that the tenuous relationship between north and south was maintained, and civil war was prevented for the next 10 years.

Edward Bernays

Definition: Nephew of Sigmund Freud and expert in social manipulation, he successfully ran the US's media campaign during WW1, and then turned his skills to advertising and public relations. He masterminded the mass application of psychological principles to advertising Significance: An excellent example of the way he influenced the psychological use of advertising via association, along with his significance culturally, came from the lucky strike campaign in which he new women by hiring models to smoke cigarettes at the Easter Day Parade, receiving massive publicity and, through his branding of cigarettes as 'torches of liberty' bringing about an association that would follow through from there into women's pocketbooks.

The Frontier Thesis

Definition: Notion proposed by Frederick Jackson Turner that Americanism was shaped by the frontier experience. He believed that it was what caused social equality, growth of political democracy, nationalism, faith in the future, economic independence, invention and individualism Significance: Became incredibly influential in explaining how Americanism and Americna democracy developed. Perpetuated myth of the west of a group of people who were honest, humble, courageous, loyal, and hardworking.

First wave feminism

Definition: Period of feminist activity and thought that occurred during the 19th and early 20th century. The movement focused on a variety of issues, and successfully won women the right to vote. Despite major feminist figures like Ida B Wells, who also fought lynching, the first wave is often known for the upper-class white women who comprised important parts of it. Significance: The first wave's major legislative victory, providing white women the right to vote, was an absolutely essential feat in creating a more democratic state. Still, despite the work of first wave feminists, the lack of consistent, thorough consideration for the rights of black women, and other intersectionally identified groups remains an important criticism of that period. Other reforms were successful in furthering women's access to higher education.

Nativism

Definition: Policy (usually) or ideology of protecting native inhabitants, indigenous culture, etc., against immigrants and foreign influence; traditionalist, pejorative Significance: Nativist sentiments were prominent dynamics within any period of American history marked by consistent immigration, particularly the early 20th and late 19th centuries, though arguably nativist sympathies are extremely active today as well. Nativism has had significant and thorough implications for policy, including Trump's wall, internment camps, Chinese Exclusion Acts, and many others.

John Brown

Definition: Radical abolitionist who participated in Bleeding Kansas, being attacked by slave owners and attacking them as well. He was a proponent of violent overthrow of the institution of slavery, and lead an assault on the armory at Harper's Ferry in order to provide weapons to slaves in order to overthrow their masters and gain their freedom. Significance: He absolutely terrified the South, and represented to them a Northern plan to enter the South and free slaves, which would in turn cause the dissolution of slavery, the Southern way of life, and, perhaps, many slave-owners lives.

13th Amendment

Definition: Ratified in 1865, the 13th amendment officially abolished slavery, and was the first of the 3 Reconstruction Amendments to pass following the Civil War. Significance: With its passage, the classic division of states into those that allowed slavery and those that did not became entirely moot, and even those Northern states that had maintained slaves while they fought for the Union were now forced to abolish the institution. In order to maintain the labor supply and the social order that had existed previously, sharecropping, black codes, and other means of economic and social control were put in place.

Jim Crow Laws

Definition: Referenced the laws created after the civil war to promote and enforce racial segregation in the south. They were enforced both through police action and brutal acts of violence, including lynchings and beatings. Significance: The jim crow laws represented an incredibly cruel system of unequal governance which ensured a brutal lifestyle and existence for black people across the south. While they differed from state to state, they universally prevented black people from living anywhere to close to on parity with white people. They were overturned through several court cases after world war 2, and through various laws passed in the mid 60's by the Johnson administration

The Great Awakening

Definition: Refers to a series of Christian revivals that swept Brian and the American colonies between 1730s and 1740s. It was a response to what was seen as increasing secularism and licentiousness among the population, and spread quickly. Significance: Brought about a new degree of piety internationally, and created a new mechanism of bringing people to the church - via fire and brimstone preaching unlike what had been used previously. This began the process of giving listeners a deep, personal conviction towards salvation by Christ, fostering introspection and commitment to a new standard of personal morality

"No duty to retreat"

Definition: Refers to reverse of the notion in England that one should avoid physical conflict between individuals at almost any cost, with the intention of producing civility and preventing fatal outcomes. This is enshrined in British common law, that you ought to flee or retreat unless necessary. Significance: The United States adopted this notion as a part of its view that a person should stand his ground and fight if an assailant attacks. There is significance both for our notion of Americanism, looking at the popular view of the West and the toxic masculinity inherent in violence as a means of solving problems, and in statistics regarding violent homicides (up until recently) that differ between the US and England. Also visible in stand your ground laws. This was further enshrined into law by the Supreme Court in 1921.

Missouri Compromise

Definition: Refers to the 1820 compromise over the new Missouri territory. The compromise revolved around the inclusion of Missouri as a slave state, the inclusion of Maine as a free state, and the prevention of new slave states above the 36 30 parallel. Significance: This compromise helped push off the civil war, but also foreshadowed the deep political divisions slavery was causing as the United States expanded westward. If Missouri had entered as a free state, it would have tipped the balance of power in favor of the North in the Senate, in turn allowing Notherners to enact a Northern agenda without much impediment from the South.

Fugitive Slave Clause

Definition: Refers to the Constitutional necessity of returning a slave who has escaped back to the owner. Significance: This provision served as another concession to slave-states.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Definition: Refers to the compromise made over representation of slaves in the United States. Despite being unable to vote, they would be counted as 3/5 of a peron for the sake of representation within the House of Representatives, thus giving the South more control than it would have otherwise. Significance: This compromise allowed the Constitution to be signed, but is one of multiple examples of the Constitution specifically naming and maintaining slavery. Despite providing for a larger number of representatives in the South, the Nroth would still eventually overtake the south in the House.

"Necessary evil" vs. "positive good"

Definition: Refers to the conception of slavery as a damaging institution that was necessary, as in a Jeffersonian view, either because of its impact on slaveowners or its damage to slaves, versus the position that slavery is a paternal institution that is far superior to the manufacturing workers of northern factories. Significance: Represented a shift in defense, and a cultural justification for the institution of slavery.

Traditionalism

Definition: Refers to the cultural movement pushing towards tradition, usually characterized by reaction to changing circumstances, upholding the way things have been done in the past, sticking to concrete, long-existing standards, veneration for previously established institutions and the past Significance: The battle between Modernism and traditionalism has been a perpetual conflict throughout US history, and is critical to understanding a variety of movements and counter movements. In class we used it in reference to traditionalist religious believers in the early 20th century, but it could just as easily have referred to those who are pushing back against social activists currently, and would like to go back to the way America has been in the past.

The Progressive Era

Definition: Refers to the era from 1890-1920 and particularly the presidencies of Teddy Roosevelt, Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson, who championed (to different degrees) a variety of reforms meant to push back on the domination of corporations, bringing about a variety of reforms, including labor laws, work environment laws, sanitation laws, conservation efforts, commerce regulation, federal trade commission, direct election of US Senators, right to vote for women, a federal income tax, and other benefits Significance: The significance of each of the changes made still resonates today in our national parks, in the FDA's inspections of food and drugs, and in the FTC and the fact that we don't hire children anymore, nad have an 8 hour work day. Outside of this, the progressive era also laid the groundwork for future reforms that would drastically shift the relationship between government, corporation, and individual in the coming years.

Xenophobia

Definition: Refers to the fear or dislike of foreigners based on often irrational logic. Significance: Xenophobia mixed with nativist sentiments were extremely prevalent during amny of the major migration periods in the US, such as in the 1850's when the Irish came over, or in the early 20th century as Jews, Italians, and Germans came through. It was used to justify acts of violence, and provided a backdrop for much of the discrimination and anti-immigrant fervor present in America at that time.

Localism

Definition: Refers to the idea that political control should be localized within or near to the communities it impacts. An example might be a political system that gives a great deal of power to neighborhoods or city's, as opposed to one that centralizes it significantly within a central federal government Significance: This idea was extremely important to the revolution itself and the arguments that erupted after the revolution had finished. Prior to the revolution, it's argued that localism among the colonies had allowed them to gain control of themselves, and, in turn, reduced the influence of the crown. This reduction then allowed colonists to begin expecting a degree of impact and control over their political system that various British acts (Stamp Act, Townsend Acts, Sugar Acts) impeded. -After the revolution the argument over the degree of localism was epitomized by Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. The former believed in significant localization, particularly within states, whereas the latter believed in a very strong central government that had primary impact over practically all political affairs (economy, foreign polcy, military, etc)

Market Revolution

Definition: Refers to the industrial period which saw a massive increase in growth of industry, necessitating improved roadwork and massively increasing production to allow for first local, the regional, then national, then international trade. Significance: During this period profits and production both exploded.

The Great Migration

Definition: Refers to the movement of 6 million African-Americans out of the rural Southern US to Urabn Northeast, Midwest, and West between 1916 and 1970 Significance: Drastically altered the racial dynamics of the period, allowed for the Harlem Renaissance (which happened all over the country) and shifted the placement of African Americans in the United States to this day. Over 40% of African-Americans at that time had moved from the South to live in the North, and another 7% moved West. This was also an urbanizing movement, allowing black people to access jobs in cities that previously they could not.

8. Lynching

Definition: Refers to the murder, often in groups, and often using rope, of minority groups, particularly black people. It was used as an act of terror, meant to inspire fear. Significance: It was used as a weapon against black people and others (such as Jews with the lynching of Leo Frank) to force them to maintain their place in the social hierarchy.

New Morality

Definition: Refers to the new set of social norms established in the 1920s, impacted by the rise of the New Woman. It brought about the notion of greater freedom in what women should wear, what they should do, and where they should go. Also brought women to work as well. Significance: Had an impact on law and economics, as well as the social role of women generally. The backlash brought in public indecency laws to police the clothing and actions of women. Contraceptives were also a significant product of this period, indicating women wanted to have sex, which was a pretty powerful shift from Victorian era morality. Women also started receiving more of an education than prior to this period

The Positive State

Definition: Refers to the notion that the government has a positive responsibility to assist its people through intervention, investment, and other means. Significance: While this notion was not popularized in the United States, really, until the Progressive Movement, from there and on through the 20th century it became a massively influential concept that transformed the relationship between citizen and government. Whereas previously citizens did not expect government to respond to major recessions, or provide disaster relief, after the New Deal and Great society, everyone then believed the state had a positive responsibility to its people.

"Keeping up with the Joneses"

Definition: Refers to the notion that we must try and maintain the same standards as our neighbors or other people in order to be worthwhile and valuable Significance: Grew out of consumerism and the cult of celebrity, the idea that we have to compare in order to understand our value. Also an aspect of consumer culture that specifically pits other people's experience against our own in order to make us feel wanting and need to buy their products. Arguably an extremely damaging notion, as it removes a degree of individualism and causes us to be miserable with perfectly reasonable things because we are busy comparing ourselves to the joneses

Bleeding Kansas

Definition: Refers to the period directly after the Kansas-Nebraska act when, after popular sovereignty had been decided as the method from which slavery would be decided in the state, pro and anti slavery factions flooded in so as to cause the state to flip to their side. Two governments were established, one pro-slavery and one anti-slavery. Significance: The ensuing violence foreshadowed the incoming civil war, and displayed the brutality and underlying tension between the various factions. Kansas would eventually enter as a free state in 1861.

Democratic licentiousness

Definition: Refers to the rambunctiousness and violence of the general populous in a democratic system Significance: The fear that unchecked democratic licentiousness would eventually destroy democracy caused many commentators to invest in the idea of Democratic "iron cages" in which people would need to develop and maintain republican self control and civic virtue unnecessary in a monarchy in order for a Republic to exist.

The Great Society

Definition: Refers to the slate of policies and ideas championed by the Lyndon Banes Johnson administration during his tenure from 1965-1968. These policies included critical civil rights legislation, massive funding increases to schools, and 'the war on poverty,' which brought about programs like medicare and Medicaid meant to protect the elderly and poor from untenable medical costs. He also established the highway safety act, and department of housing and urban development to help coordinate various regulatory and investment changes. Significance: The economic and social significance of the great society is immense. On the civil rights side of things, the great society represented an important movement forward, though it was at least in part stifled by later leaders like Nixon and Reagan. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 officially outlawed public segregation and put an official and conspicuous end to 'separate but equal,' while the Voting Rights Act of 1965 brought far more significant voting rights to African Americans in the South, who would no longer be forced to take discriminatory literacy tests and other such methods of preventing them from voting. Similarly, the Fair Housing Act would push back hard (though not hard enough) against racial discrimination in housing. The immigration act was also super significant, etc etc.

The New Deal

Definition: Refers to the slate of programs and policies implemented by the FDR administration in response to the damage of the Great Depression. Many, many new programs were developed, mostly for short periods, with the purpose of responding to various specific challenges, like joblessness, depressed farm prices, homelessness, and many others Significance: This was a drastic shift in the way government acted, and the role it took on. Instead of maintaining a mostly laissez faire dynamic, instead the government stepped directly in, both through significant and thorough regulation, such as with the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, but also with various work programs like the Works Progress Administration, which hired over 9 million individuals over the course of its existence

Materialism

Definition: Refers to the tendency to value, and perhaps overvalue material goods as compared to other goods, such as familial or spiritual ones Significance: A major part of contemporary American culture, driven by advertising and the need to have. Also, arguably, extremely damaging in that it causes us to value things that are not legitimately valuable as more valuable than they are, and brings us to compare ourselves with other people and so on.

Republican machines

Definition: Rush's image of American citizens with a uniform education, beliefs stemming from childhood, and prevented from being contaminated by outside forces (Native americans, etc. Significance: Important to Rush's vision for American society, and representative of the fear people have of what licentiousness and lack of self control can lead to.

Samuel Adams definition

Definition: Sam Adams was a colonist, politician, and founding father during the revolutionary era. He was one of the first advocates of colonial sovereignty, going far beyond what others of the time felt comfortable with. Adams was also a prominent essayist, significantly influenced by John Locke. Further, Adams became a major proponent of the idea of "taxation without representation," visible in his protests over the Sugar and Stamp acts of the mid 1760's.

"Peculiar institution"

Definition: Southern term for slavery that was less charged and negative than calling it what it was. Term was first used by Calhoun. Significance: Calling it "peculiar" instead of "horrifically cruel" allows for some ambiguity as to its place and impact in Southern society, and makes reference to the strange place it had in southern culture, economics, and life.

New Negro

Definition: Term coined by alaine Locke to refer to black people who were now able to define their own lives, despite still living in a white supremacist system. Term was popularized during the harlem renaissance. Significance: New role, independence, and impact of black people in the US. They were able to have some degree of autonomy, and create their own lives, despite still living under a system of racism.

Election of Abraham Lincoln

Definition: The 1860 election of anti-slavery Abraham Lincoln was a major turning point in the history of Slavery, North-South relations, and the United States as a whole. His position on slavery, though he would have maintained the institution if it were to keep the union together, was too much for the South to take, causing secession to ensue. Significance: Well, it's hard ot understate the significance of this moment. They literally seceded from the union, causing the civil war. Abraham Lincoln then had to unify the nation once again through the Civil War. Pretty ****ing major shit, if I do say so myself.

14th Amendment

Definition: The second of the Reconstruction Amendments, ratified in 1868 in order to address citizenship rights and enshrine equal protection under the laws into the constitution. Included are four clauses: the Citizenship clause, which ensures citizenship for all persons born or naturalized in the US. The second is the Privileges and Immunities Clause preventing any state from enforcing a law or abridging privileges or immunities of a citizen of the US. The due process clause ensures all citizens must receive due process, and the equal protection clause ensures all Americans must receive equal protection under the law. Significance: The 14th amendment has been spectacularly significant as a means of furthering civil rights. Its use in Brown V Board, Roe V Wade, and, more recently, Obergefell V. Hodges all indicate its massive significance in creating a more equal, just republic for all groups in the nation.

15th Amendment

Definition: The third and final Reconstruction Amendment prohibits federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on their race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The purpose was to protect the voting capacity of black males Significance: Initially, the narrow interpretation of the law allowed consistent and thorough disenfranchisement of African-Americans in the South. States used obstacles like poll taxes and literacy tests. Violence and intimidation further suppressed the black vote in the south. Many court cases, and eventually the 24th amendment forbade poll taxes. These efforts were further bolstered by the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which provided federal oversight of elecitons in discriminatory jurisdictions, and banned literacy tests and similar discriminatory devices.

Hector St. John Crèvecoeur

Definition: Wealthy Frenchman who emigrated to the United States, became a farmer, and Wrote Letter of an American Farmer Significance: He defined what an American was in a detailed and culturally impactful way, that grew extremely popular both in Europe and the United States itself. He held that Americans believed strongly in individual rights, that it was a kind of un-European refuge for Europeans, that it allowed hardworking people the opportunity to succeed, that it broke down national and religious divions and created a strong degree of communalism and connection among neighbors and peers. However these positive statements were made based on Nantucket, and as he moved West, he was decidedly less positive about the selfish and uncivilized hunters he found, and when he moved South to find the lazy and immoral slaveowners of Charleston.

Yeoman farmers

Definition: Yeoman farmers refer to individual, independent farmers of early American period (i.e. pre and post revolution). Today we might call the small farmers instead. They were self-sufficient and hard-working Significance: The Yeoman farmer were, according to Jefferson the basis of the United States, and he believed the central government should be limited to a point that allows yeoman farmers to engage in their affairs unimpeded. His belief in yeoman farmers contradicted Hamilton's more diversified economic plans that also made room, and subsidies, for traders, merchants, manufacturers, and businessmen.

Boston Tea Party

Definition: a 1773 political protest by the Sons of Liberty over the recent Tea Tax which prevented buying of tea from anyone but the East India Trading Company. Protestors boarded ships carrying English tea and threw an enormous amount of it into the sea. Significance: The tea act, for protestors, represented infringement of the colonists rights as Englishmen. Further, colonial tea importers who were financially impacted by the competitive advantages granted to the East India Company were major proponents of the protest. England responded harshly to the Boston Tea Party, passing the Intolerable Acts in 1774 which dissolved local self-government in Massachusetts and closed Boston's commerce, in turn pushing colonists closer to war than ever before. Colonists responded with additional protests, followed by the First Continental Congress.

"mobocracy"

Definition: derogatory term for democracy, reference to the belief that the public would act as a mob and enforce a "tyranny of the majority," trampling on individuals and damaging society as a whole. Significance: This notion caused founding fathers to distrust direct democracy and instead create a variety of safeguards, including the electoral college, to prevent direct impact of the people over the political system. It was instead believed, by people like Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, that power should be placed in the hand of the most knowledgable, capable, and often, rich individuals.

Federalist

Definition: refers to the party of Hamilton which believed in a strong central government Significance: Between federalists and anti-federalists, the federalists, in many ways, won out during the debate over the Constition after the Articles of Confederation had proved too weak. Many significiant powers (such as foreign affairs, taxation, and control fo military) were given to the national government in the end. The Federalists were also one of the major parties following the signing of the constitution

Thomas Jefferson significance

Significance: During the revolution TJ secured crucial help from France. He was Secretary of State under George Washington and a major rival of Alexander Hamilton. His political ideology still maintains, in many ways, to this day, along with aspects of his economic policy. Thankfully his views on slavery are no longer relevant. Still, he believed politics ought to be localized, and therefore believed in a small government with very limited powers. This small government would be aligned exactly with the constitution, without expansion based on later interpretation (i.e. strict constructionism). Economically he believed the Untied States should be agrarian and provide opportunities for Yeoman farmers to prosper, while primarily staying out of economic affairs. He rejected Hamiltons' Bank of the United States and believed America should maintain a balanced budget with no debt. In regards to slavery, he defined the necessary evil view, believing the United States "had the wolf by its ears," meaning that the nation could neither maintain slavery, or abolish it for fear of slave revolts. Still, he maintained hundreds of slaves, and had several children with one of them. He also believed strongly in the common people (as represented by the yeoman farmer). He was a big fan of France

Alexander Hamilton significance

Significance: Politically he defined the Federalist perspective, having written a majority of the Federalist papers, believing in a strong central government with significant influence over major policy areas (economy, foreign affairs, etc), and a loose interpretation of the Constitution that would provide power for the government. His economic vision for the United States involved a national debt that would allow the US to maintain credit and participate in international credit markets, a diversified economy based not only in agriculture but also in trade, finance, and manufacturing, and government subsidies to assist them, a Bank of the United States that could control the money supply and the interest rates. He believed in high tariffs to support internal economic growth. He was pro-British as well. He was a staunch abolitionist, though he took care of various slave-related affairs for his father in law, and during the revolution. Still, he was good friends with another major abolitionist, John Jay, and a founding member of the first abolitionist organization in the United States.

Samuel Adams Significance

Significance: Samuel Adams is a good representation of the revolutionary period. Born to a somewhat wealthy family whose patriarch was involved in politics, he was drawn to it as well. He wrote about politics and gained influence through the same body, the Boston Caucs, that his father had. He was significantly influencedby enlightenment thinking, particularly John Locke, whose partial quote would end up in the constitution. He was an early proponent of natural rights, and an early believer in colonial sovereignty. He also wrote, along with James Otis, the Massachusetts Circular Letter which called on other colonies to resist the Townsend acts with Massachusetts. After an unsuccessful attempt to convince the legislature to repeal the letter, the Governor of Massachusetts dissolved the legislature altogether. He also took a major role in the Boston Tea Party following the 1773 Tea Act. His arguments regarding the extent of Parliamentary authority over the colonies was also incredibly influential, prior to and during the revolutionary war.