Historical Perspectives Midterm Study Guide

Spread of Christianity

(1)spread to northern Europe through the work of missionaries and monks (2) The Franks led by Charlemagne, created and brought together scholars from around Europe (3) invaders threatened much of Europe in the 700's and 800's

Marcus Aurelius

(161-180 AD) Last of the "Good Emperors", Wrote "Meditations" personal reflections of his beliefs, End of the Pax Romana

Arius

(250-336) - A Greek priest in Alexandria - Christ was more than man, but less than God - no permanent union between God and Christ - the Father alone was eternal and truly God

Council of Nicaea

(325 CE) A council called by Constantine to agree upon correct Christian doctrine and settle some disputes of the time.

Aristotle

(384-322 BC) Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. Disagreed with Plato's idea of a separate supernatural reality and believed that genuine knowledge is found through examination of the natural world.

Plato

(427-347 BCE) Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection.

Ovid

(43 BC-AD 17) Roman poet and author, he was one of the greatest authors of the ancient world and wrote poems on Roman mythology.

Peloponnesian War

(431-404 BCE) The war between Athens and Sparta that in which Sparta won, but left Greece as a whole weak and ready to fall to its neighbors to the north.

Pericles

(Ca. 494-429 BC) Athenian leader noted for advancing democracy in Athens and for ordering the construction of the Parthenon. Died from the great plague at Athens during the Peloponnesian War

Odysseus

(main character) Son of Laertes and Anticleia, husband of Penelope and father of Telemachus. A cunning, shrewd and eloquent hero. Came up with the idea of the Trojan horse which led the Greeks to victory against Troy. "Man of many wiles".

Caligula

(r. 37-41 AD) Roman Emperor who succeeded Tiberius and whose uncontrolled passions resulted in manifest insanity

Describe one of the stories of the founding of Rome

-Livy's account of the rape of Lucretia -Written 27-25 BC -Sextus Tarquinius, the Etruscan prince, cornered Lucretia, a noble Roman lady -Forced himself upon her and made multiple threats, eventually raped her -Lucretia tells the Roman men what happened and made them pledge honor for revenge -Lucretia then stabbed herself -The men sought revenge, grew an army, and marched to Rome -Overcame the Etruscans and took Rome -Honor and revenge were Roman virtues

What was the theological significance for Christianity of the fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the temple in 70 AD?

-The Jewish Revolt began in 66 AD after frustration with Roman's insensitive rule, the last straw was when Roman citizens launched an attack on Jews in Caesarea while the Roman army stood by -Bloody battles went on for 7 years. The Romans trapped Jerusalem in a siege starting in April of 70 AD. -The Jews made their last stand in the temple -Titus, leader of the army at Jerusalem. -Titus and his army Burned the city and destroyed the temple -The fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the temple moved Christianity to it's independence, before it seemed to just be an appendage of Judaism. -The awful Revolt did not destroy christianity but actually liberated it. -No longer tied to Jerusalem and Judaism, Christianity was able to become a universal religion. -Christianity spread and advanced to the Mediterranean world and beyond. -Rome replaced Jerusalem as the center of Christian communications and authority -Theological discussion turned away from problems posed by Judaism and turned to Hellenic Philosophy

What was the political significance of the Council of Nicaea?

-The council of Nicaea took place in 325 AD -Constantine held a council of church leaders that produced the Nicene creed, defining the orthodox position that Christ is divine -It asserted that Christ was true God from true GOd, he was one with the father, he was begotten, not made, and he became human for human's salvation -This decision impacted politics as well as religion -the question - now that emperors would support the church, where did they fit in relationship to it? -Arians wished for emperor's word to be seen as equivalent to God's word -However, orthodox/catholic churches thought it was essential for churches to have independence and control over their own affairs -The Nicene Creed somewhat solidified the separation of church and state, preserving a certain degree of autonomy -So, the council not only affirmed Jesus as divine, but also maintained the independence of the church.

Describe the authority structure of the early church and how unity was achieved

-Three main sources of unity in the early church: canon, creed, and episcopacy -Canon, "rod" in greek, is the books that are part of the Bible and considered holy and God-breathed. -This unified the Christian church because it broke from Hebrew tradition by saying the Bible was incomplete without the New Testament -Episcopacy was the government of the church -Organized and brought order to the church. -The church was organized under bishops, deacons, presiding officers, and elders. -Hierarchical administration centered on bishops -Creed in latin is "I believe". -Creeds are short statements summarizing the Christian faith -They were originally for teaching, but also became useful in marking boundaries between genuine belief and heretical imitations of it

Describe Plato's Theory of the Forms as shown in the "Cave Analogy"

-Visual metaphor -Prisoners in a cave that only see shadows and no light -only see what they know and if exposed to light are in pain -Represents two realms: the physical realm and the spiritual realm -The physical realm is the material stuff we see and interact with on a daily basis; this physical realm is changing and imperfect. -The spiritual realm exists beyond the physical realm. Plato calls this spiritual realm the Realm of Forms. Plato's Theory of Forms asserts that the physical realm is only a shadow, or image, of the true reality of the Realm of Forms.

Describe the Greek concept of "polis"

-city-state in greek -community of citizens who administered political, religious, and economic affairs -The "badge of Greekness" -asty: city; chora: countryside -The high point, or acropolis, held temples, altars, public monuments, and various dedications to the gods -The market place, or agora, was the political center with public buildings and shops. -Several different types of government: monarchy, tyranny, democracy, and oligarchy -Democracy and oligarchy played lasting roles in Greek political life -Democracy: all citizens administered the working of the government, but only free adult men were citizens. -Oligarchy: rule o the few, a small group of wealthy citizens ruled. Evolved into federalism, which is the union of poleis to create one general government.

Cyrus the Great

-king of Persia and founder of the Persian empire (r. 559-530 BC) -He had military might and benevolence; conquered many cultures

Julius Caesar

100-44 B.C. Roman general who became the republic's dictator in 45 B.C. Assassinated in 44 BC by a group of conspirators led by his best friend Brutus.

Babylonian Empire

625-539 BC, known for its splendor

Corinth

A Greek city-state ruled by an oligarchy and later, a tyranny.

Crete

A Greek island in the Mediterranean Sea, southeast of Greece. Minoans originated here.

Jesus

A Jew from Galilee in northern Israel who sought to reform Jewish beliefs and practices. He was executed as a revolutionary by the Romans. He is the basis of the world's largest religion.

Jerusalem

A city in the Holy Land, regarded as sacred by Christians, Muslims, and Jews.

Polis

A city-state in ancient Greece.

Athens

A democratic Greek polis who accomplished many cultural achievements, and who were constantly at war with Sparta.

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates

Gilgamesh

A legendary Sumerian king who was the hero of an epic collection of mythic stories

Aeneas

A mythical Greek warrior who was a leader on the Trojan side of the Trojan War.

Sparta

A powerful Greek military polis that was often at war with Athens. Used slaves known as helots to provide agricultural labor.

Rubicon River

A river in Italy. On the night of January 10, 49 BC, Caesar took his army across it. He marched his army swiftly toward Rome, and Pompey fled.

secondary source

A secondhand account of an event or a retelling of another person's observations written by someone who did not witness or actually participate in the events. Includes sources that combine, synthesize, and or interpret information from primary sources. Examples include encyclopedias, textbooks, and reviews.

Punic Wars

A series of three wars between Rome and Carthage (264-146 B.C.); resulted in the destruction of Carthage and Rome's dominance over the western Mediterranean.

Hammurabi

Amorite ruler of Babylon (r. 1792-1750 B.C.E.). He conquered many city-states in southern and northern Mesopotamia and is best known for a code of laws, inscribed on a black stone pillar, illustrating the principles to be used in legal cases.

Hittite Empire

An empire in Asia minor that had been in conflict with Egypt until a treaty was established, demonstrated an interesting ability to assimilated other cultures into their own, empire ended because of internal problems and attacked by the sea people in Gaza. Smaller states mainly prevailed in the area following it and Egypts downfall.

primary source

An original document containing the observations, ideas, and conclusions of an individual. It is a firsthand account presented by someone present or actively participating in the event. Examples include manuscripts, photographs, oral histories, and personal journals.

Alexander the Great

Between 336 and 323 B.C.E. he conquered the Persian Empire, reached the Indus Valley, founded many Greek-style cities, and spread Greek culture across the Middle East.

Rome

Capital of Italy

Constantinople

City founded as the second capital of the Roman Empire; later became the capital of the Byzantine Empire

Carthage

City located in present-day Tunisia, founded by Phoenicians ca. 800 B.C.E. It became a major commercial center and naval power in the western Mediterranean until defeated by the expanding Roman Republic in the third century B.C.E.

Alexandria

City on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt founded by Alexander. It became the capital of the Hellenistic kingdom of Ptolemy. It contained the famous Library and the Museum and was a center for leading scientific and literary figures in the classical and postclassical eras.

Constantine the Great

Emperor of Rome who adopted the Christian faith and stopped the persecution of Christians (R. 306-337)

Roman Empire

Existed from 27 BCE to about 400 CE. Conquered entire Mediterranean coast and most of Europe. Ruled by an emperor. Eventually oversaw the rise and spread of Christianity.

Paul

Follower of Jesus who helped spread Christianity throughout the Roman world.

Achilles

Greatest Greek warrior, husband of Briseis whom Agamemnon steals, only vulnerable place is his heel, prophecy that he would die in the Trojan war, which he does at the hand of Paris

Persian Empire

Greatest empire in the world up to 500 BCE. Spoke an Indo-European language. A multi-ethnic and multi-religious empire. Fell to Alexander the Great.

Hadrian's Wall

In present day Scotland, built to keep barbarian invaders from Roman Britain. Punctuated with forts, customs stops, signal posts and on either side, a 30 foot moat for added protection. Soldiers were posted on its top which functioned as a road.

The Great Persecution

Last official persecution of Christians, begun by Diocletian in 303 and ended by Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313

Ptolemy

Mathematician/Astronomer who believed the Earth was the center of the universe

Temple Destruction

Monumental event in 70AD in Jerusalem

Creation Stories

Myths or symbolic religious stories concerning the origins of the world.

Five Good Emperors

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius

bishop, priest, deacon

Ordained positions in the church hierarchy

Compare and contrast the Ancient Mesopotamian creation story with the creation account found in Genesis

Parallels: 1. Time of Chaos 2. Watery Darkness 3. Somewhat Similar Order of Events- a. Light before luminaries b. Man created near end of account c. Rest involved as a major theme Contrast: 1. Views of God/gods: poly/monotheism 2. Nature & "Likeness" of God/gods (Who represents who?) 3. Nature of Accounts- a. Bible - order; poetic structure b. Enuma Elish - fragmentary; confused structure 4. Views of Spirit & Matter - a. Tiamat's Corpse vs. Ex Nihilo (Out of Nothing)I. Matter: considered eternal vs. not considered eternal b. Deities Representing Natural Forces vs. The Divine Over the Natural888

Plato's Theory of Forms

Philosophical construct developed by the fifth century Greek philosopher Plato that held that all things that exist emanate from the primal unity of the unseen idea, at the very core of which is the Form of the Good.

regular clergy and secular clergy

Regular- Clergy who live under the rule of a monastic house; monks and nuns. Secular- Live and work among everyday people; priest, bishop, and archbishop

Diocletian

Roman emperor of 284-305 C.E. Attempted to deal with fall of Roman Empire by splitting the empire into two regions run by co-emperors. Also brought armies back under imperial control, and attempted to deal with the economic problems by strengthening the imperial currency, forcing a budget on the government, and capping prices to deal with inflation. Civil war erupted upon his retirement.

Pompey

Roman general and statesman who quarreled with Caesar and fled to Egypt where he was murdered

Scipio Africanus

Roman general who commanded the invasion of Carthage in the second Punic War and defeated Hannibal at Zama

Cicero

Rome's greatest public speaker; he argued against dictators and called for a representative government with limited powers

SPQR

Senatus Populusque Romanus (The Senate and the People of Rome)

Lucretia

She represented Roman honor, virtue and everything good about Roman women. She was raped by Tarquin's son, and he threatened to kill her if she told anyone. She killed herself as a result, causing the Romans to rebel against the Etruscans, freeing themselves from their Etruscan overlords.

Hesiod

The Greek poet who wrote the "Theogony", an epic poem that talks about the Greek gods. Along with Homer, his works provided a lot of the Greek mythology of their gods and heroes.

Patricians

The aristocracy; wealthy landowners who held political power

Plebians

The common people of Rome, who had few of the patricians' advantages.

Augustus (Octavian)

The first emperor of Rome, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, helped Rome come into Pax Romana, or the Age of Roman Peace

David

The second king of Israel, a "man after God's own heart." God made a new covenant with all the nations through him

Nile River

The world's longest river, which flows northward through East Africa into the Mediterranean Sea

Romulus and Remus

Traditional story of how Rome began. Twins abandoned and rescued by a wolf, raised by a shepherd . Grew to build Rome. Romulus later killed Remus

Kinds of Historical Questions

Who, what, when, where, why?

Jupiter

Zeus (king of the gods)

Greek Empire

a great civilization in Athens; grew out of Mycenean and Minoan cultures; influenced entire Mediterranean world; used myths to try to explain and understand their world; many gods that were anthropomorphic; moved away from magic, religion, and superstition; made a great stride in math by employing a new way of thinking; built the Parthenon; set a new standard for human excellence that inspire us even today

Chi-Rho

a monogram of chi (Χ) and rho (Ρ) as the first two letters of Greek Khristos Christ, used as a Christian symbol.

Tiber River

a river flowing southward from north-central Italy across the Latium plain, and into the Tyrrhenian Sea

Trojan War

a war, fought around 1200 B.C., in which an army led by Mycenaean kings attacked the independent trading city of Troy in Anatolia

Amon-Ra

an Egyptian god, consisting of Amon, a primeval sky-god, and Ra, the sun-god.

Delian League

an alliance headed by Athens that says that all Greek city-states will come together and help fight the Persians

Homer

ancient Greek epic poet who is believed to have written the Iliad and the Odyssey

Milvian Bridge

battle in which Constantine attributed his victory over Maxentius, outside Rome in 312, to the support of the Christian God

Ahurmazda

is the good in the cosmic battle between the forces of good and evil, part of Zoroastarianism

Edict of Milan

issued by Constantine in 313, ended the "great persecution" and legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire

Phoenician Empire

located along the Mediterranean coast (Lebanon), good sailors, created an alphabet

spread of koine Greek

most significant development of the Hellenistic Age

Marduk

patron god of Babylon

Crassus

richest man in Rome, and was part of the first Triumvirate. Died in battle

Sumerian Empire

the first documented civilization. Mesopotamian civilization that developed mathematics, medicine, polytheistic religion, and cuneiform writing. 3000-2000s BCE

Assyrian Empire

this empire covered much of what is now mesopotamia, syria, palestine, egypt, and anatolia; its height was during the seventh and eigth centuries BCE

Phillip II

was an ancient Greek king of Macedon from 359 BC until his assassination in 336. He was the father of Alexander the Great.