HISTORY 1700

Under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, a territory could become a state after its population reached

60,000

What are the key components of the American System?

A national bank, protective tariffs, internal improvements, and a national currency

The Underground Railroad was

A network of people who maintained safe houses and hid out runaway slaves and helped them escape to freedom

The Democratic-Republicans in Congress believed that a war with Britain would be

A second "war for independence" that would be necessary to get Britain to really accept American independence

All of these were key components of the American System except

A self-sustaining agricultural system

Declaratory Act

A trade recession in late 1765 ended the bitter dispute. With a downturn in the economy, the king withdrew his tacit support of the Stamp Act for fear that opposition to it would damage revenues too much. His withdrawal of support doomed the Stamp Act, and Parliament eventually repealed it. In repealing the act, however, Parliament stated it was yielding not to the colonists' demands, but to the king's. To make this clear, on the same day it repealed the Stamp Act, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, which affirmed its authority to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." Although it was largely symbolic, the Declaratory Act became one of the nonnegotiable claims that Parliament was unwilling to relinquish throughout the struggle. Parliament's leaders would rather go to war than have Parliament lose authority. News of the Declaratory Act perplexed American leaders, leaving them to wonder whether Parliament had accepted the distinction between internal and external taxation. If the distinction was not accepted, the Declaratory Act asserted Parliament's raw power over the colonies because it gave no concessions on the issue of representation. Most colonists, however, overlooked such abstruse concerns and simply celebrated the Stamp Act's repeal. When Parliament passed few new taxes in 1766, many colonists believed that the crisis was over. They were wrong.

Which of the following is true of the Black Death?

About one-third of Europe's population perished, the other name for the Black Death was the Bubonic Plague, it contributed to the decline of feudalism, and it made the farmers more valuable because there were fewer of them

The first demonstration by the colonists that they were becoming increasingly unified in their sense of independent-minded colonialism was the

Albany Congress

Trail of Tears

Amazingly, Jackson simply ignored the decision. One newspaper reported the president as saying, "[Chief Justice] John Marshall has made his decision: now let him enforce it." With the prospect of violence looming and the federal government not willing to stand by a decision from its highest court, a tiny faction of Cherokee (500 out of 17,000) attempted to end hostilities by signing a treaty with Jackson. The treaty traded Cherokee land for land west of the Mississippi, and when Congress ratified the treaty (by a single vote, over the strenuous objections of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, who knew it to be illegitimate), the Cherokee lost title to their land. (The nation later murdered the Cherokee treaty makers, who were viewed by the majority as traitors.) After one American general resigned in protest, in 1838 General Winfield Scott invaded the Cherokee nation and forced the Cherokee to travel a thousand miles, from Georgia to Oklahoma, enduring hardship and death on what was called the Trail of Tears. About 4,000 Cherokee died along the way, and, when they arrived in Oklahoma, they faced conflict with the Indians that had already settled there. For more on why the Cherokee were pushed off their lands in Georgia White Land Lust.First, soil exhaustion in the Southeast sent farmers further west in search of land where they could grow staple crops such as cotton, which had been made considerably easier to do after the invention of the cotton gin in 179 Racism.Second, since the early colonial days, European colonists in North America (and later, white Americans) had rarely treated Indians with any decency, largely thinking of them as un-Christian, uncivilized dark-skinned heathens. By the 1820s and 1830s, many Americans, such as Andrew Jackson, simply felt the Indians were dying out, which would, of course, open land in the West for settlement by white Americans Federal Policy.In light of these two long-standing propositions, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 made it established U.S. policy to move Indians west of the Mississippi River, pushing them further away from the settled parts of the United States. Andrew Jackson's Ire.In 1832, the Cherokee nation sued the state of Georgia for allowing white Georgians onto their land while searching for gold, with the Cherokee claiming they were a sovereign nation beyond the bounds of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Cherokee claims, but, citing a controversial treaty with a tiny faction of Cherokee, Andrew Jackson ordered the U.S. military to march the Cherokee from Georgia to Oklahoma, on what has come to be called the "Trail of Tears." One general resigned in protest of Jackson's order.

Manifest Destiny

Amid the frenzy stirred by the Oregon and Texas statehood issues, a new expression of the spirit of an American empire was born. The term manifest destiny—meaning that the United States was fated to possess North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific—was coined by New York journalist John O'Sullivan. In July 1845, O'Sullivan wrote an editorial in his United States Magazine and Democratic Review urging Whigs and Democrats to join together in support of "the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent, which Providence has given us." Manifest destiny was popularized in political debates over Oregon, where it was used as an argument for why Britain should not block U.S. expansion. Soon the rhetoric made its way into American popular culture. Though the term manifest destiny was newly coined, it reflected the much older American belief that divine providence was directing the nation. Many Americans felt that their country—by virtue of its strong Christian faith, its commitment to "civilization" and democracy, and the supposed "emptiness" of the West—would dominate North America as a great Empire for Liberty, thriving under God's benevolent guiding hand. The phrase was explicitly chauvinistic, implying the need to "subdue" and "fertilize" the "virgin land" of the West. It was also explicitly racist, referring to the God-given rights of the white man to conquer the "red man's lands." Manifest destiny interpreted the conquest of the West as a story of triumph in the cause of freedom rather than a saga of conflict, death, and destruction. The concept grew in popularity throughout the 1840s, justifying westward expansion.

The leader of the forces that defeated the British at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend was

Andrew Jackson

Mountain Men

Before the development of these territories, the American presence west of the Mississippi River was marked mostly by a rugged group of explorers, the so-called mountain men. These mountain men roamed the Rocky Mountains and the various trails carved out by Indians through the years. They were frequently employed as trappers, working for one of the fur companies that bought and sold beaver pelts. But their main occupation was exploration. Men like Jim Bridger, James Beckwourth, and Christopher "Kit" Carson are some of the best-known mountain men. Their names are largely remembered in either the names of mountain passes and Rocky Mountain locales or in the folklore of the West that blossomed during these years, coloring the image of the West as a dangerous and exciting place. All of these mountain men married Native American women, and they also worked as scouts for the U.S. Army, which over time participated in the ongoing encroachment of Indian lands. And Beckwourth is today celebrated as one of the key African American mountain men of the Old West.

The first real battle of the Revolutionary War took place at

Bunker Hill

Common Sense

But the best-known expression of republican ideas in revolutionary America was corset maker Thomas Paine's political pamphlet Common Sense, published in January 1776. Its simple wording of republican ideals nudged the colonists further toward independence. Paine asserted that the king never had the welfare of his subjects in mind and that he was entirely concerned with his own exercise of power. Paine also argued that independence was the only answer to this problem, using language so powerful that it made any other course of action seem absurd. He set forth a vision of America as a dynamic, independent nation, growing in population and prosperity, with a kindly government doing a substantial amount of economic and political leveling to ensure equality. Pointing to the tremendous growth of the American colonies in the eighteenth century, Paine argued that America was more than just capable of maintaining independence from Britain; America was so strong, he claimed, that independence was inevitable. "Until an independence is declared," Paine wrote, "the continent will feel itself like a man who continues putting off some unpleasant business from day to day, yet knows it must be done, hates to set about it, wishes it over, and is continually haunted with the thoughts of its necessity."

The British hoped to demoralize the patriots and spread disaffection among them by

Buying off Benedict Arnold and other American leaders

The Trail of Tears was the name given to the forced march of the ___________ nation to land in Oklahoma

Cherokee

Legislative Branch

Collect taxes, regulate commerce, declare war, maintain an army The Convention allocated several specific powers to Congress. The Convention's intention was to make Congress the most powerful branch, allowing it to do five vital things: (1)collect taxes and raise revenue; (2)regulate commerce, both foreign and domestic (except on the issue of slavery, where compromise meant that it could not touch the issue until 1808); (3)declare war; (4)maintain an army; and (5)make any changes "necessary and proper" to pursue these powers, and, it added, "all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States." By controlling the government's purse strings and by demanding that all laws originate in Congress, the Constitutional Convention wanted to ensure no single authority would possess too much power. This was a testament to the republican ideology of the war, although somewhat tempered by the compromises made at the Convention.

Tariff of 1828

Congress had begun increasing America's tariffs in 1816 to protect American industries, especially the newly mechanized textile industry taking root in New England, which used southern cotton as its raw material. This was a key component of the American System. The western states also benefited from the tax on imported goods because taxes on European wheat, hemp, and other agricultural products made them more expensive; with the tariff, Americans would buy American goods. The South, however, felt left out. American tariffs did not affect southern staple crops because Europeans did not grow competing crops. As southerners saw it, they were forced to pay higher prices for goods to subsidize the economic development of the North and West. When Congress raised these tariffs in 1824, South Carolina and other southern states vigorously objected. Despite these complaints, Congress narrowly approved the tariff. Then in 1828, in a stunning move that backfired, Jackson, running for president against Adams, advocated a ridiculously high tariff, assuming it would not pass. Jackson's promotion of the tariff would have gained him the support of the West and the North (which might otherwise have supported Adams), while the South would be content that no tariff had been passed. Jackson's support was intended to be a political ploy. To Jackson's shock, the Tariff of 1828, which came to be known as the "Tariff of Abominations," passed in Congress. Adams, the outgoing president, did not veto the measure, leaving Jackson with a tariff that made many of his supporters unhappy. The South was furious and, in response, the South Carolina legislature issued a document called the South Carolina Exposition. The anonymous author of this document was John C. Calhoun, Jackson's incoming vice president.

The largest and most vehement of the reform groups was the one concerned about

Consumption of alcohol

The significance of the Battle of Saratoga was that it

Convinced several European countries, most importantly the French, to join the patriots in their fight against Britain

Most Native Americans believed that property

Could not be privately owned, but could be used by everyone when needed

The Olmec people of Mexico were the earliest of several societies based on

Cultivation of maize

"Bills of Credits" were

Currency printed by the Continental Congress

The purpose of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was to explore

From the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823

Declared the Western Hemisphere off-limits to further European colonization

Stono Rebellion

Despite the horrific nature of slave life, slave rebellions were infrequent, principally because slave owners had taken such drastic measures to maintain control over their slaves. The few slave rebellions that did arise met with violent resistance and led to even tighter controls. One planned insurrection in New York City in 1740 ended with the burning of thirteen slaves and the hanging of eighteen others (along with four white allies). The most notable slave revolt of the 1700s—the Stono Rebellion—occurred in Stono, South Carolina, in 1739, when, on a quiet Sunday morning, a group of mostly newly arrived slaves marched into a firearms shop, killed the colonists manning the shop, stole several firearms, and marched south, probably in an effort to get to Florida, where the Spanish government promised England's slaves freedom. After traveling only a few miles, the number of slaves had grown to more than one hundred. They marched from house to house, murdering slave owners and their families as they went. After 10 miles, the band was met by an armed militia, which killed at least thirty of the rebelling slaves and captured almost all of the rest. Nearly all who were captured were eventually killed. In response to the rebellion, South Carolina passed the Negro Act, which consolidated all of the separate slave codes into one code that forbade slaves from growing their own food, assembling in groups, or learning to read. This sharp response to the Stono Rebellion continued a pattern of harsh legal retributions for slave insurrections.

Underground Railroad

Despite the odds, many slaves did flee, and a few, perhaps a couple of hundred every year, found permanent freedom. Some runaways found help from the Underground Railroad, defined as a network of men and women (white and black) who opposed slavery, sheltered runaway slaves, and expedited their journey to freedom

The colonists were most angry about the Tea Act because they

Did not like Parliament trying to further assert its authority over them

The main purpose of the Committees of Correspondence outside Boston was to

Disseminate information quickly from one region to another

Kansas Nebraska Act

Douglas, a shrewd statesman, devised a compromise to ensure that southerners would support the development of the new territories. Douglas created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and left the status of slavery in each territory open, to be decided by the popular sovereignty of those who settled there. In the end, this meant that the Missouri Compromise of 1820 did not apply because slavery might have been allowed above 36 ° 30 ′ , had the residents of Kansas or Nebraska so chosen. Many northerners were outraged at the prospect, but a coalition of northern Democrats (who wanted the transcontinental railroad) and southerners (who wanted a maintenance of slavery) passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act by a narrow margin.

The "revitalization movement" involved

Encouraging Indians to return to traditional lifestyles

As the English colonists moved deeper into the Ohio Valley, they

Encroached on the lands where the French were involved in fur trading

Atlantic Slave Trade

Europe's slave trade with Africa began in the 1400s and increased in the 1500s and 1600s as a means of relieving a labor shortage in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean. Labor needs arose in the New World during the late 1500s and 1600s after Europeans realized that sugar could be grown easily in the West Indies and South America. (Europeans had discovered sugar in their travels during the Crusades, and it became so popular and expensive in Europe that it was among the first items Columbus transported from the New World, in his second voyage of 1493.) Cultivating sugar is incredibly labor intensive, though, and once Europeans had exhausted and exterminated native populations in the West Indies and South America, their search for labor led them to African slaves. This was made easier by the fact that the established trade routes between Europe and Africa had made Africans eager for European goods, especially guns. Thus, in a mutually beneficial trade system, beginning in the early 1600s West African kingdoms competed with one another to supply slaves to the Europeans in return for European goods. But what began so easily was not so easily stopped. As the Atlantic slave trade grew, West African kingdoms grew leery of supplying Europeans with more slaves because they were fearful of the overwhelming demand. Some Europeans resorted to kidnapping slaves from West African villages. Alongside the American Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, an intricate and harsh slave system developed. Although slavery existed everywhere in colonial North America, it was especially brutal in the Southern Colonies. Numerically speaking, the colonies that would become the United States were a tiny part of a much larger Atlantic slave trade, a huge system of trade and migration that brought millions of slaves to the New World and Europe and that served as a pillar in the economy of one of the earliest forms of globalization. Europeans and colonials forced perhaps as many as 12 million Africans to cross the Atlantic (many died during the arduous passage, masking the true number of forced migrants). A vast majority of the Africans went to colonies controlled by Spain or Portugal: about 2 million to Brazil and 3 million to the West Indies, usually to work on sugar plantations. Of these many millions, just 350,000 Africans, less than 5 percent of the total, came to the future United States. Of this 350,000, Europeans forced 10,000 Africans to come during the 1600s and the remainder during the 1700s. Although some would become free after earning enough money to purchase their freedom, more than 95 percent of colonial Africans remained slaves for life.

At the center of slave culture was

Family and religion

The witchcraft that gripped Salem, Massachusetts in 1692 seems to have had some basis in

Fear and anxiety triggered by the Indian wars

John Brown's Raid

Following the Dred Scott decision, John Brown, the radical abolitionist who had provoked some of the violence in "Bleeding Kansas," intensified the sectional crisis again. In October 1859, with eighteen of his followers, he raided the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry in northwestern Virginia. Brown envisioned that, after seizing the armory, he would rally slaves in the surrounding area to join him in revolt against their oppressors. To Brown's surprise, however, no slaves joined his side after he daringly seized control of the arsenal. Most were afraid Brown would be unsuccessful and did not want to risk their lives for the actions of a crazy man. Within three days, federal troops under the command of Colonel Robert E. Lee captured Brown and six of his cohorts. They were summarily tried for treason. Brown refused to give up the fight; throughout his trial, he spoke passionately against slavery and accepted his conviction and death sentence with the calm resignation of a martyr. On December 2, 1859, the state of Virginia hanged him. John Brown's raid was a dismal failure that horrified even some northerners. A few high-profile northerners praised Brown in no uncertain terms, though. Ralph Waldo Emerson, the prominent philosopher and abolitionist, publicly proclaimed Brown a "saint." Although views like Emerson's were probably in the minority, southerners fixated on such remarks as evidence that the North was out to destroy slavery and crush the "southern way of life." Brown failed to arouse the revolt he had planned, but he did succeed in inspiring a keen sense of fear and loathing among the southern public. What the Dred Scott decision was to northerners, John Brown's raid was to southerners: an unfathomable, appalling episode that highlighted the gulf between the regions

When the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in September 1774, all of the colonies were represented except

Georgia

The Hessian Mercenaries hired by the British to fight the colonial rebels were from

Germany

The peace treaty ending the War of 1812 was negotiated at

Ghent

Washington took his men and crossed the Delaware on Christmas night 1776 in order to

Give his men a much needed morale boost with a victory at Trenton

Louisiana Purchase

Given the republican belief that farming provided the moral basis for good citizenship, Jefferson felt it essential that the United States continue to open new territory to settlement. Without access to new land, Jefferson reasoned, crowding would pressure people into working for others as urban wage laborers. In contrast, territorial expansion allowed every American the chance to be a self-sufficient farmer. Jefferson believed the new nation was likely to expand and should continue to do so, dislodging Spanish claims to territory in Florida and northern Mexico, and French claims in the Mississippi. The first step Jefferson took to realize this vision was to purchase the city of New Orleans from France. New Orleans was a vital port city at the mouth of the Mississippi River, and the Mississippi was the country's main north-south inland waterway, providing a means of transportation from the Gulf of Mexico to present-day St. Paul, Minnesota. The United States could never guarantee control of the Mississippi unless it controlled New Orleans as well. In 1803, Jefferson sent emissaries to France to negotiate the purchase. Much to Jefferson's surprise, the French emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, wanted to sell not only New Orleans, but also the rights to all of Louisiana, which was at the time a huge tract of land stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, land that was of course occupied and claimed by a variety of Native American nations but that was nevertheless laid claim to by the French. The French treasury was nearly empty, and another war loomed between France and Britain. In addition, after the Haitian Revolution, France had learned how costly it was to maintain colonial possessions. Napoleon asked only $15 million for the claim to 830,000 square miles of Louisiana. The Constitution did not give the president power to buy new territory, but Jefferson nonetheless pushed ahead with the Louisiana Purchase. Although he claimed to believe that federal power was dangerous and that the Constitution had to be followed strictly, Jefferson was willing to bend his own rules to expand America's western boundary. The purchase nearly doubled the geographic size of the nation.

Which of these treaties rounded out the current forty-eight United States boundaries?

Guadalupe Hidalgo

In general, the Federalists

Had little faith in the average citizens ability to understand the workings of government

It could be said of William Penn that

He advertised for colonizers who wanted religious freedom and easy access to land

The significance of Kennewick Man was that

His discovery called into question several assumptions that scientists had held, up to that time

Chaco Canyon is noted for being

Home to more than a dozen Anasazi Great Houses

Salem Witch Trials

In 1692, two girls were playing with an older female slave who taught the girls African voodoo tales. The girls later became seized with fits, and soon, other girls in Salem also began to behave strangely. Trying to find an explanation, the town's leaders accused the slave and two other women of practicing witchcraft. Soon, the village elders accused several others of being witches, and these accusations began to spread. Divisions in social class, gender, commercial profession, and religiosity determined who was and was not accused. Those who were poor, had fallen away from the church, and unmarried women were accused more often. At least twenty people had been executed. The SWT reveal the anxiety of the time and reflect the widespread belief in witches, spirits, ghosts. These things being called the colonial "worlds of wonder". Historians attribute the SWT to fears triggered by the Indian Wars. The trials were prosecuted in 1692-93, during King William's War, suggesting how the European Wars for Empire were felt in even the smallest New World hamlets.

Whiskey Rebellion

In 1794, many westerners attacked the tax men who tried to collect the whiskey tax. When Washington and Hamilton attempted to bring some of the rebels to justice, they chose whiskey producers in western Pennsylvania as their test case. The rural Pennsylvanians fought back, eventually rioting and overrunning the city of Pittsburgh, where they were to be tried for tax evasion. This was the Whiskey Rebellion. Alarmed by the direct refusal to adhere to the dictates of the federal government, George Washington issued a proclamation declaring the farmers in rebellion and sent a newly organized army of nearly 13,000 to quell the revolt. Washington himself at times led the troops. But by the time the army reached western Pennsylvania, the rebels had gone home. Washington ultimately pardoned the two men who were captured in the dispute. There were two main results of the Whiskey Rebellion. First, from this time forward, the western provinces were firmly Anti-Federalist, favoring the small-government approach of the Democratic-Republicans. Hamilton's economic plans had indeed exacerbated sectional differences between those who most obviously benefited from them (East Coast elites, bankers, and educated businessmen) and those who did not (southern and western farmers). But second, Washington's message was clear: the national government would not allow extralegal protests to effect change. In a nation of laws, change would come only through peaceful means.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

In 1804, Lewis and Clark, along with forty-eight other men, left St. Louis and ventured north and west through the Rocky Mountains in order to explore new American land recently purchased by President Thomas Jefferson. Called the Louisiana Purchase, the land extended from Louisiana all the way to the Pacific Ocean, excluding lands in the southwest owned by Spain. The land was bought from the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, who sold it because he didn't want to pay for military control over far-flung lands. Lewis and Clark's two-and-a-half year exploration of the land, depending on the guidance of many Native Americans, including most famously Sacajawea, inspired generations of Americans to move westward, expanding the United States, but also increasing conflict with Native Americans.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

In February 1848, an American envoy named Nicholas Trist negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which officially ended the Mexican-American War. The treaty gave the United States control of Utah, Nevada, California, western Colorado, and parts of Arizona and New Mexico, and it set the Mexican-American border at the Rio Grande River. This was everything the U.S. government wanted, all in exchange for $15 million. It also safely ignored several arguments that the United States should swallow the entire nation of Mexico.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

In the South, the Indian nations were larger and better organized. Constant battles raged, and complete Indian removal became established U.S. policy. After some harsh political debate, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which allowed the federal government to trade land west of the Mississippi River for land east of the river. Citing the act, Jackson forced several Indian nations, including the Creek and the Lower Creek, to move west throughout the 1830s. This, however, would not happen so easily.

Articles of Confederation

In the absence of a federal government, the Continental Congress had assumed a number of rights and responsibilities, such as creating the Continental Army, printing money, managing trade, and dealing with debt. But it had done these things without having been granted authority by the people or some other sovereign power. Feeling the need to legitimate their actions and define the colonies' collective sovereignty, the revolutionaries realized they had to form a governing body. So between 1776 and 1777 the Continental Congress drafted the Articles of Confederation. The following year, it presented the document to the states for ratification, and, by July 1778 eight states had ratified the document. But full unanimity of the thirteen states, which was required before it could go into effect, would not be reached until 1781

John Brown carried out a raid on Harpers Ferry Virginia in order to

Instigate a slave revolt among the local slaves

The colonists referred to the Coercive Acts and the Quebec Act as

Intolerable

The Erie Canal was important for what reasons?

It aided in the growth of New York City, moved goods faster, more cheaply, and more efficiently, encouraged other states to invest in transportation networks, and encouraged the nation's farmers to specialize

Which of the following was not true of the Black Death?

It finally brought an end to feudalism

Which was not true of the middle passage?

It is estimated that three out of four of the slaves died on the journey

The most significant outcome of Shays Rebellion was that

It warned the federal government that the government was incapable of settling the debt situation under the Articles of Confederation

What is the Columbian Exchange?

It was an "exchange" of agricultural products, domesticated animals, and microbial diseases between two civilizations - the Spaniards and the Indians. It happened to be a result of the Spanish Conquest (beg. around 1519 with the arrival of Cortez). The Spaniards brought microbes on their persons that the Indians in North and South America had never been exposed to before. The spreading of these microbes was very destructive - the most being Smallpox - and caused more than a 95% decrease in the Indian population. It took less than a hundred years for the Indian population of Central Mexico to go from 25 million to 700,000. Fifteen years after Cortes arrived in Central Mexico, 8 million people perished from disease.

In April 1775, General Gage sent British troops to Concord to seize military supplies of the colonists and to arrest

John Hancock and Samuel Adams

Who told his Puritan followers that they must all be as a city upon a hill because the eyes of all people are upon us?

John Winthrop

The religious group most persecuted during the 19th century was the

Latter Day Saints

The American Colonization Society was founded for the purpose of helping all African Americans move to Africa, specifically to the colony of

Liberia

The Erie Canal was important for all of the following reasons except

Linking the eastern states with those in the Midwest

The first major law concerning slavery that was passed in the colonies

Made slavery hereditary in Virginia (In 1662 a law was passed stipulating that the condition of the mother would be the condition of the child)

Executive Branch

Make treaties, oversee the armed forces, and name diplomats The Convention also created an executive branch, consisting of a president and his cabinet. Because of their experience with King George III, most Americans initially favored keeping power in the hands of elected legislators. Yet, after the failure of the Articles of Confederation, those at the Constitutional Convention realized that this system did not work. As an alternative, the Virginia Plan proposed having Congress elect the president. Another plan would have the president serve a life term. A third plan would have three presidents serving simultaneously. Finally, Gouverneur Morris, an influential delegate from Pennsylvania, insisted that the executive should not depend on Congress for his office. Instead, Morris proposed having him elected directly by the people to two terms of substantial length. Although this plan had its merits, the framers of the Constitution remained fearful of true democracy. They remembered Shays' Rebellion. So in the Constitution they created an Electoral College that was composed of delegates from each state equal in number to its total apportionment in Congress (number of senators plus number of representatives). The college was to ensure that only qualified candidates, not populist hooligans, got elected. Each delegate in the Electoral College was to vote for two people. The person who received the most votes would be president; the one with the second most votes would be vice president. Anticipating that several people would run for president (and not anticipating the two-party system), the House of Representatives would decide the president if no one received a majority of the votes. The Constitution also gave the president the power to do five important things (although perhaps not as important as the powers granted to the legislature): make treaties, but only if two-thirds of the Senate approved them; (2)oversee the army and navy as commander-in-chief; (3)name diplomats with the consent of the Senate; and, most important, (4)execute the laws passed in Congress and (5)veto acts of Congress that he did not feel were constitutional (or, as it was understood after Andrew Jackson, in the country's best interests).

During King Philip's War, which of the following colonies were attacked?

Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and Connecticut

As the settlers of Kansas prepared to hold an election to set up their territorial government

Missouri moved slave-holding families into Kansas so they could vote for slavery

Boston Tea Party

Most of the tea-bearing ships that encountered resistance simply returned to England. But in Boston, the tea issue was especially sensitive because Governor Thomas Hutchinson's son was one of the major consignees, and Hutchinson was determined to support his son's enterprise. In addition, Hutchinson viewed the Tea Act as a chance to demonstrate his fidelity to the Crown in the face of the most rebellious colony in North America. Thus, when Bostonians pressed to have the tea returned to England, Hutchinson said that was fine, so long as they paid the tax on the tea first. The rebelling colonists refused, and in this impasse, the ship simply sat in Boston Harbor. The deadlock could not last: by law, the tax had to be paid within twenty days, which, in this case, meant December 17, 1773. Governor Hutchinson vowed to have the tea unloaded and the tax paid on the day of the deadline. To prevent this, on the night of December 16, an organized squad of roughly sixty colonists dressed as Mohawk Indians boarded the ship and dumped the entire cargo—342 chests of tea—into Boston Harbor. Historians are unsure why they chose that particular disguise to commit their act of protest. Perhaps it was to distinguish themselves from others? Perhaps costumes promoted unity? Perhaps Native Americans symbolized both savagery and radical democracy, freed from the constraints of British "civilization"? For Boston radicals like the Sons of Liberty, the Boston Tea Party was momentous. Bostonians were proud they had made a powerful strike against the Crown, and they noted that discipline among their ranks was maintained. Beyond the tea, the squad did not commit vandalism or destroy any other property. But they also recognized they had pushed the conflict to a new level. After the destruction of British property, colonists could only speculate on how the British government would react to this new provocation. Refraining from buying tea was essentially a passive protest; destroying an entire ship's worth was something altogether different.

The first capitol building of the United States was at

New York

Ft. Laramie Treaty

No matter where Americans went, they moved onto lands claimed by other parties, and sometimes by multiple other parties. While Mexicans in Texas and British settlers in Oregon suffered from American expansion, no group was more dislocated than Native Americans. Most dramatically, the hunters of the Western Plains—the Arapahoe, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Sioux Indians—depended on the migratory hunting of buffalo for food. White settlers moving through buffalo ranges disrupted the natural hunting process, threatening the livelihood of these tribes. The interference eventually prompted the Plains Indians (as these tribes are collectively called) to attack white pioneers on the emigrant trails, sparking many bloody battles. Indeed, throughout the 1830s and 1840s, nearly every pioneer would confront the powerful Comanche Empire. It dominated the American Southwest with weaponry and horses, and served as one of the key provocations for Mexico first allowing Americans to settle there (to help buffer Comanche raids). The Comanche Empire was by far the most powerful force confronting American westward migration. As for white settlers during the colonial era in New England and Virginia, conflict with the tribes of Native America was part of daily life for the westward bound. The U.S. government's response to this increased Indian conflict was typical: as the number of white settlers increased, the U.S. government continued to cajole or force Native Americans into giving up their land. In the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty with Plains Indian tribes, the U.S. government agreed to make cash restitution for disruptions to the buffalo grounds, while tribal leaders in turn agreed not to attack the large number of settlers moving through the area. But in 1854 yet another transportation corridor for white pioneers was carved out of land that was once set aside as Indian territory. Following the development of this new route, Indian tribes were relocated once again. As they were being shuffled from one area to another, the creation of a defined system of reservations for Native Americans was not far off.

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions were the first instance of individual states attempting to

Nullify a federal law

TO A NEW LIFE (AST)

Once in the New World, slave traders auctioned off their cargo in public squares, chiefly in New York and Charleston, but in several other cities as well. Potential buyers inspected the captured men and women's teeth, underarms, and genitals. Strong young men were the most valuable, but women of childbearing age were also prized because they could have children who, by law in the 1700s, were also the slaveholder's property. Then the buyer transported the slaves to what lay ahead: a life of ceaseless labor. In total, the journey from African village to New World plantation routinely took as long as six months. This process began in the 1600s and continued into the 1800s, although the 1780s were the years of the Atlantic slave trade's peak. Before the American Revolution, there were only a few scattered movements to protest the slave trade and the practice of slavery (primarily by the Quakers, the Mennonites, and a few other religious groups). Much of European society simply accepted the horrors of slavery as a necessary cost of colonial expansion.

Andrew Jackson

One of the most controversial presidents, it's nonetheless clear that Andrew Jackson was a central figure in the first half of the nineteenth century. A hero from the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, Jackson rose in political stature throughout the 1820s to eventually become president in 1828. His raucous presidency was marked by the expansion in the west, where he provoked the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the subsequent "Trail of Tears"; the destruction of the federal banking system in favor of local banks (frequently run by his friends); the rise of political patronage, as he rewarded his political friends with lucrative jobs; and the contest over state's rights, as states eager to opt out of the nation's economic developments sought to reformulate their relationship to the federal government. His controversial stature continues today, as evidenced by a growing movement to take him off the twenty dollar bill. Born 1767, somewhere near the border of North and South Carolina Served as courier during Revolutionary War, until, at age 13, was captured by the British who thought him a spy Acquired Hermitage planation in Tennessee, while owning hundreds of slaves In 1806 killed a man in a duel over the honor of Jackson's wife Nominated president in 1824 but lost in a dubious manner to John Quincy Adams; later claimed there was a "corrupt bargain," and eventually won in 1828 Put on twenty dollar bill in 1928

Boston Massacre

Opposition to the Townshend Acts triggered rioting as well. Radicals in the Massachusetts legislature drafted a circular letter rejecting the Townshend Acts that was sent to all the colonies. Written primarily by Samuel Adams, the letter urged all merchants to enforce the boycott. In one case, colonist John Hancock's sloop Liberty arrived in port in Boston with a cargo of wine. Colonists held the customs official hostage as the wine was unloaded without payment of the required duties. Similar protests followed in other towns. In response, the British sent troops to restore order, and by 1770 British troops were quartered in New York, Boston, and other major towns. The conflict was growing increasingly tense. Now there was a seemingly permanent British military presence in the colonies. On March 5, 1770, a crowd of Boston rebels began throwing snowballs, oyster shells, and other debris at a British sentry in front of the Customs House, prompting the British captain to order more guards outside. When a stick hit one of the soldiers, he fell, and someone shouted, "Fire!" prompting a British guard to shoot into the crowd. Hearing the report, other soldiers shot into the crowd, and in the end, five colonists lay dead and six were wounded. The colonists called this the Boston Massacre. Nine British soldiers were tried for the act, and two were convicted of manslaughter (they were all defended by future president John Adams). The "Massacre" served as important propaganda for the colonial agitators, despite the fact the English had followed the rule of law and that most of the soldiers were found innocent in a colonial court of law. Furthermore, responses to the "Boston Massacre" sparked a vigorous debate within the colonies about how far rebellion should go. Many colonists remained on the side of the soldiers.

The best known experience of republican ideas in revolutionary America was the

Pamphlet Common Sense

The direct appointment to a government job in exchange for helping a politician in campaigning for office is called the spoils system, or

Patronage

The Stamp Act was designed to tax the colonists for the purpose of

Paying the salaries of royal officials in the colonies, and the quartering of British troops

The major conflict between the colonists and a local Indian tribe that previewed future conflicts was known as the

Pequot War

The main goal of the new Republican Party was

Preventing slavery from expanding further into the West

By the 1850s, the cornerstone of America's transportation system was

Railroads

The notion that government should be based on consent of the governed and that the people were bound to make the government do right by them is known as

Republicanism

Through his animosity toward the National Bank, Andrew Jackson

Ruined the national currency that was in place at the time, and that there was no recovery until the Civil War

Texas won its independence from Mexico at the Battle of

San Jacinto

Bill of Rights

Seven of the eleven new state constitutions had a bill of rights that protected the "natural rights" that many Americans felt were threatened by England's prerevolutionary laws. The other four had these rights scattered within them, but no separate list. Most of the bills of rights guaranteed the freedom of the press, the right of popular consent before being taxed, and protections against general search warrants. Most states guaranteed the freedom of religion, although many limited political participation to Christians only.

During the Second Great Awakening, religious services in slave quarters included:

Singing, dancing, and clapping

Which statement was true of the Columbian Exchange?

Smallpox brought by the Europeans caused the most deaths by far among the native tribes

The Stono Rebellion took place in

South Carolina

All of the following contributed to Cortes victory over the Aztecs except

Spanish colonists

Of all Britain's taxes on the colonies during the 1760s, the most intrusive act, in that it involved more ordinary people, was the

Stamp Act

The first use of African slaves in the Americas (West Indies and South America) was for the production of

Sugar

The Kansas-Nebraska Act upheld all of the following except

The Missouri Compromise

Anti-Federalists

The Anti-Federalists, who came from a variety of factions and included many prominent patriots, including Patrick Henry, John Hancock, and Samuel Adams, preferred a weaker confederation of states and a more direct democracy. They sought to protect the "spirit of '76," the language they used to make sure democracy was preserved despite the obvious need to govern. In fact, Anti-Federalists did not really oppose federalism, but they did object to the concentration of power in a centralized government regardless of how it divided power. They believed that centralized governments threatened the sovereignty of the states and the liberties of individuals. At the very least, the Anti-Federalists wanted an explicit bill of rights to safeguard those liberties. Because of their steadfast defense of individual rights, historians often view the Anti-Federalists as idealistic patriots concerned about how much liberty they would have to sacrifice to earn federal security.

Judicial Branch

The Constitution also provided for a federal system of courts, headed by a Supreme Court and several regional courts. The president was to name the judges to the courts to serve lifetime appointments. The judges had jurisdiction over constitutional questions, cases in which the United States itself was a party, and cases between two or more states or between the citizens of two or more states. The framers also included a "supreme law of the land clause" (or Supremacy Clause), which made the Constitution supreme over state laws in all legal matters. Resolve constitutional questions and preside over cases involving the federal and state governments

The centralized authority for the colonies during the war was

The Continental Congress

Federalists

The Federalists, on the other hand, are seen as those more comfortable with a stronger national government, with more to gain by having a stronger, overarching government and more to lose by the occasional violent flourishings of true democracy. Factions speedily formed. It was never a foregone conclusion that the Constitution would be passed, especially after reflecting that the Revolution had been fought to get rid of an overarching government. In an effort to undercut opposition, supporters of the Constitution took the name Federalists and began openly campaigning for the Constitution's ratification. The Federalists, mostly composed of young men whose career had been made by the Revolution and who generally favored a larger commercial platform, emphasized that the new government would not end state autonomy. They also contemplated a bill of rights that would prevent the new centralized government from infringing on what were considered natural rights.

The phrase "no taxation without representation" has been attributed to

The Radical Whigs

This was supposed to limit consumption of foreign goods and encourage the development of American enterprise:

The Tariff of 1816

The Tariff of 1828 was so ridiculously high that the South called it

The Tariff of Abominations

Manifest destiny was used to describe the belief that

The United States was fated to possess all the land between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans

Brigham Young believed that the Mormons could find peace near the Great Salt Lake because

The area was technically Mexican property and the U.S. government had no jurisdiction there

The domestic slave trade was revived by

The cultivation of short-staple cotton, development of the cotton gin, movement of farming westward, and the southerners' refusal to cut back on cotton production

Sugar Act

The first of these acts was the Sugar Act of 1764, which was technically a cut in taxes on molasses and sugar brought into the colonies from non-British colonies in the West Indies. But it was troublesome to the colonists because, even though it reduced the assessment on sugar, it increased enforcement of tax collection. Furthermore, the act taxed items besides sugar, including indigo, pimento (allspice), some wines, and coffee. Britain was now evidently looking to the colonies as a source of direct revenue.

Stamp Act

The final piece of reform was George Grenville's plan for paying off Britain's debt. The British had tried to prevent the colonists' evasion of royal taxes earlier in the 1700s, most notably with the 1751 Writs of Assistance, which gave British officials the right to inspect not only places of work, but also private homes. The colonists fought this infringement on their liberties, although they did not persuade the Crown to reverse the decision. Grenville, who became England's prime minister in 1763, contributed to these woes. He convinced Parliament to pass several specific acts in the 1760s that significantly increased the Crown's interference in the economy of its colonies. It was these revenue acts as much as anything else that signaled the end of salutary neglect. Most disruptive of all, however, was the Stamp Act. Passed by Parliament in 1765, the Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped paper for all official papers, including diplomas, marriage licenses, wills, newspapers, and playing cards. The stamp, embedded in the paper (not a topical stamp), indicated that a tax had been paid on the document. Grenville insisted that revenues from the tax go directly to soldiers protecting the North American colonies. He also mandated that those who avoided using taxed paper would be tried in a Crown-operated vice admiralty court, rather than by a trial of one's peers. Not only had the Crown declared its intention to raise revenues from the colonists, but also indicated it was ready to enforce its actions—in courts of its own control.

Shay's Rebellion

The financial burden seemed unbearable to those who had just fought for independence. In Massachusetts, a tax increase compounded these problems. In 1786, rural towns in Massachusetts petitioned its state assembly for a moratorium on taxes and on lawsuits against debtors. In doing so, they relied on the republican revolutionary language that had fueled the revolution in 1776. When the assembly rejected their petitions, angry crowds gathered at several county courthouses to stop the courts by force. Daniel Shays, a former Continental Army officer, emerged as one of the leaders of the rebellion, and was later vilified as a crazy anarchist by the press, which named the rebellion after him. Fed up with the Massachusetts government's failure to address the problem of inflation and with its apparent favoritism toward coastal merchants who did not require the large and costly infrastructure that farmers did, on January 26, 1787, Shays and several others led 1,200 men to seize control of the federal arsenal in Springfield, Massachusetts. This potential coup was formally called Shays' Rebellion. The Massachusetts government, however, had prepared for such a move (after protesters had stormed the debtors' courts), and a force of 4,400 soldiers from New England was ready to defend the arsenal. Tellingly, these troops were funded and led into battle by East Coast merchants, not country farmers. The troops opened fire on Shays' army. Six died. This seemed to be the beginning of a civil war between the commercial class and the farming class, the wealthy and the poor. But, unprepared for formal combat, the rebels quickly abandoned their siege, and during the next few weeks Shays' Rebellion waned. Despite the rebellion's quick but violent dissolution, unrest continued to haunt leaders in Massachusetts and other states. Shays' Rebellion was a warning that the federal government would have to address the problem of debt to prevent a lower-class uprising. Under the Articles it was impossible to do so. Shays' Rebellion was also a warning about the dangers of true democracy, dangers that made many leading intellectuals incredibly nervous. How could order be preserved in a country that lionized liberty?

King Philip's War

The first large-scale conflict was Metacom's War (sometimes called "King Philip's War"), which broke out in Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1675. "King Philip" was the name the English gave to Metacom, the son of the Wampanoag chief, Massasoit. Massasoit had befriended the Plymouth settlers in the 1620s (his generosity thus giving Americans the model for today's Thanksgiving), but by the 1670s the English settlement in Massachusetts had grown to 50,000. The New Englanders had expanded onto Indian territories and forcibly subjected the Wampanoag and other Indians to English law. The settlers' cattle trampled native cornfields, demonstrating the differences in concepts of land use between the two peoples and the arrogance of some New Englanders, who felt God had granted them the land to cultivate. The younger generation of Indians had had enough. The result was war. Many Indian nations joined Metacom in battling the settlers, although several Indians that had converted to Christianity sided with the English. Over a period of fourteen months in 1675 and 1676, Metacom and his followers attacked fifty-two of the ninety Puritan towns, destroying thirteen of them completely. They attacked towns in four colonies: Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and Connecticut Before the tide of battle had turned, Metacom's forces had pushed the area of English colonization almost back to the coast. The story of Mary Rowlandson, a young New England settler, dates from King Philip's War. Metacom's forces kidnapped her and held her hostage for three months before ransoming her back to her family; she wrote a wildly popular account of her tribulations, giving many colonists a firsthand look at Indian life.

Bacon's Rebellion

The impact of Metacom's War was felt beyond New England. Metacom's message of pan-Indian resistance to English settlement spread (aided by the fact that all Indians faced the same frustrations as Metacom). By 1676, the warriors from the Potomack and Susquehannock nations of the Chesapeake began to raid English outposts in Virginia. The English governor of the colony, Sir William Berkeley, showed a reluctance to retaliate, favoring instead a policy of keeping a strict boundary between Indian and colonial land (and of keeping his bountiful trade relations with several Indian nations going). His disinclination to fight, and his unwillingness to compromise with (or even listen to) the demands of the laboring people, or "middling sorts," who aspired to own land, sparked a revolt among the colonists, called Bacon's Rebellion.athaniel Bacon was a young, well-educated, and charismatic member of the Virginia colony council. He was also related to Berkeley through marriage. Bacon advocated immediate retaliation against the Potomack and Susquehannock. But Berkeley denied Bacon's bid for a commission to attack the Indians, recognizing that arming hundreds of young colonial men—mostly former indentured servants—would pose a threat to the colony. Bounding ahead anyway, Bacon raised his own militia to fight the Native Americans. Bacon's militia quickly vanquished the Indians in the area. Fearful of where Bacon might go next, Governor Berkeley dispatched three hundred militiamen to stop him. Bacon was captured and released, and then continued to seek a commission to attack the Indians. Berkeley resisted. A series of standoffs ensued, with Bacon variously being imprisoned or on the run. In the process, Berkeley became acutely aware of Bacon's wild popularity among the settlers and, to quell the potential uprising, passed a series of laws that democratized the politics of Virginia. Commonly called Bacon's Laws, the new rules granted the franchise to all freemen, (not just landowners), inaugurated elections of the members of the legislature (rather than offering legislators lifetime appointments), and granted greater representation in taxation. In sum, Bacon's Laws reduced the influence of the ruling elite in Virginia, setting a precedent for free white man's democracy. This was a meaningful step in the expansion of colonial liberty, although it was of course brought about by the desired subjugation of Indians. Berkeley's new laws were also an attempt to win back some of the popularity Bacon had attracted. After the passage of Bacon's Laws, Berkeley persisted in his attempts to quell any rebellion, but it seemed that would be impossible without granting the militia a commission to kill local Indians and cultivate their lands—something he would not allow. The continued standoff prompted Bacon and his army to attack Jamestown in the summer of 1676, forcing Berkeley to flee. Bacon invited his troops to plunder the plantations around Jamestown, especially those of Berkeley's supporters, and throughout the summer, Bacon's ragtag army fought with Indians and Englishmen alike. During the late summer of 1676, Berkeley organized a counterattack against Bacon's anti-Indian, anti-upper-class forces. Berkeley's men, with superior arms, chased Bacon around eastern Virginia, capturing several of his supporters but not the rebel himself. When 1,100 English troops arrived to help Berkeley, Bacon went on the run, contracted an infectious fever, and died. Other rebels tried to maintain control of the colony, but Bacon's death brought the rebellion to a rapid close. Berkeley remained in power and later tried to repeal several of Bacon's Laws, but these efforts were overruled by more moderate members of the Burgesses. Bacon's Rebellion succeeded in pushing the Potomack and Susquehannock Indians farther west, opening up more land for Euro-American settlement

Declaration of Independence

The increase in local conflicts, Britain's inflexibility, and the spreading of republican ideals made a break with Britain inevitable by 1776. But independence was expedited further by events on the ground. In March 1776, the Continental Army forced the British to evacuate Boston, ending the eleven-month siege of the city that had begun after Lexington and Concord and the Battle of Bunker Hill. Rather than sail for home, however, the British Army headed to New York, where more Loyalists resided than in any other colony. Choosing not to establish their base where colonists were united in opposition (Boston), the British hoped to divide the colonies by setting their base of operations in an area less committed to independence (New York). With this crisis at hand, Richard Henry Lee, a Virginia delegate to the Continental Congress, proposed, on June 7, 1776, that the colonies officially declare their independence. With regional balance in mind, the Congress created a committee to draft a declaration. The committee consisted of John Adams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert R. Livingston of New York, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who was selected as the principal draftsman. After the committee made minor revisions to Jefferson's first draft, it presented the Declaration of Independence to the Congress on June 28, 1776.

One compromise stated that in 1808

The issue of slavery would be addressed directly

Coercive Acts

The laws that came to be called the Coercive Acts actually comprised four separate acts, most of which attempted to punish Massachusetts for the Tea Party. Parliament thought it could attack Massachusetts and thus divide the colonists in order to reconquer them. The four acts were: The Boston Port Act, which closed Boston's harbor until the town paid for the destroyed tea; The Massachusetts Government Act, which terminated most self-government in the colony; The Administration of Justice Act, which dictated that any British official charged with a capital offense in the colonies could be tried in Great Britain (this issue had arisen after the trials that resulted from the Boston Massacre); and the Quartering Act, which applied to all the colonies and allowed the British Army to house troops wherever necessary, including private buildings

Monroe Doctrine

The new dominance was expressed most clearly in the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. This doctrine, which emerged as many Latin American countries were clamoring for independence from their European colonizers, declared that any European nation attempting to re-colonize Latin America would be treated as a party hostile to the United States. President James Monroe announced that the Western Hemisphere was the domain of the United States and was to remain separate from the affairs of Europe. At the same time, Monroe agreed to refrain from any interference with existing European colonies or with the internal affairs or wars of the European powers. Although the Monroe Doctrine was little noted at the time, it later became a foundation for American foreign policy, used to justify American expansion into and involvement with the countries of Latin America.

Quartering Act

The next intrusive act, the Quartering Act of 1765, required the colonies to feed and house British troops stationed in their territory. Colonists bristled at the idea of British soldiers living in their houses, and the colonial assemblies often refused to provide the money required to feed and house these soldiers.

The Market Revolution refers to the period in America when

The period when a growing number of farmers began to focus on single crops that they could sell, rather than trying to be self-sufficient

Popular Sovereignty

The presidential election of 1848 deepened these tensions. At first, the campaigners tried to ignore slavery altogether. When this proved impossible, Democratic nominee Lewis Cass hoped to sidestep the issue by proposing the idea of popular sovereignty, which meant letting the settlers in the territories decide whether or not they wanted slavery. The Whigs, meanwhile, who had nominated Mexican-American War hero and slave owner Zachary Taylor (who had never voted before, much less held political office), made no mention of slavery in their platform.

Bleeding Kansas

The problem was that there weren't many people in Kansas in 1854, so both parties (and their subsequent supporting groups) sent people to Kansas, just in time to vote in the election. Slaveholders in neighboring Missouri were fearful of having a free state just across their border. Being especially eager to see Kansas become a slave state, they encouraged slaveholding families to migrate immediately to Kansas. At the same time, abolitionists sent northern settlers to Kansas. One effort, led by New Englander Ely Thayer, sent nearly 1,250 colonists to Kansas, where they established Lawrence as a strong antislavery town. The tension between the two settling groups was palpable and violence flared up with increasing frequency, each side trying to frighten the other away. With both sides actively working to promote their own interests, Kansas became a bitterly divided territory. When the first territorial legislature was elected in 1855, throngs of men from Missouri, who came to be known as "border ruffians," crossed the border for the day and stuffed the ballot boxes, electing a proslavery government. Only 2,900 registered voters lived in Kansas, but more than 6,000 ballots were cast. The advocates of slavery had stolen the election. Kansas' new proslavery government immediately set out to crush its opposition and make Kansas a slave territory. It expelled antislavery representatives from the legislature and made it a crime to publicly advocate Free Soil principles or help a fugitive slave. Opponents appealed to the White House, but President Franklin Pierce supported southern interests. His opponents called him a "dough face," that derisive name for a northerner who openly supported the South. Forced to fend for themselves, antislavery Kansans formed a rival government in the city of Topeka. For a time, there were two functioning state governments in Kansas Inevitably, this bitterly contested conflict erupted into violence. In 1856, a mob of proslavery men sacked the Free Soil town of Lawrence. The town was put to the torch, but no one was killed. The violence enraged John Brown, a zealous abolitionist who considered himself God's executioner of justice. To avenge the attack on Lawrence, Brown and his sons entered the town of Pottawatomie Creek, Kansas, rounded up five proslavery advocates, none of whom was a slaveholder, and butchered them. Brown's acts inspired more vigilantism, and atrocities were met with counter-atrocities. As the newspapers reported, Kansas was bleeding

Capture (AST)

The process by which captured slaves came to North, South, and Central America was rationalized by the profits to be made. Acquired either through barter between a European slave trader and an African kingdom or through kidnapping, the enslaved Africans were bound at the neck in a leather brace. The slave trader connected a gang of slaves together by chains attached to these neck braces. Then the chained gang was marched to the coast, a journey sometimes as long as 550 miles, which could take up to two months. Once on the African coast, the traders herded their captives into stucco pens to be inspected and sorted by desirability. Some traders branded the slaves with hot irons to mark their property. Then the slaves waited in captivity for cargo ships to arrive.

In the 1820s, nullification was defined as

The right of a state to declare a federal law void and of no effect within its own borders

Which of these is not a part of the Bill of Rights?

The right of males to vote if they paid taxes

Under popular sovereignty, who would decide whether a territory accepted slavery?

The settlers in that territory

Wilmot Proviso

The splintering intensified in 1846 when one of the alienated northern Democrats, Pennsylvania congressman David Wilmot, proposed that slavery be prohibited from any new territories that the United States might acquire from Mexico. Wilmot was no abolitionist. He wanted slavery kept out of the West so the land would be available to average white farmers (who could not afford slaves) rather than to wealthy slave owners who would establish massive plantations. The Wilmot Proviso passed in the House of Representatives several times but was repeatedly rejected by the Senate, where southerners had the edge because of the support of several "dough face" senators, defined as senators from the North who supported southern slavery. Meanwhile, each round of voting on the Wilmot Proviso exacerbated regional tensions. Many northern Whigs, such as Abraham Lincoln, joined northern Democrats in voting for the measure. At the same time, southern Democrats, such as John Calhoun (now a senator from South Carolina), argued that the Constitution guaranteed the option of slavery in federal territories. Thus he joined southern Whigs in voting against it. Now the Whigs were beginning to divide along regional lines too. Southerners from both parties advocated introducing slavery in the new territories, while northerners from both parties opposed such an effort. Legislation proposed in 1846 to prohibit slavery from any new territories that the United States might acquire from Mexico

Which of the following contributed to Cortes victory over the Aztecs?

The use of horses, help from other tribes, disease, and firearms

Farmers in western Pennsylvania protested the tax on whiskey because

Their only way of making a profit on their grain was to turn it into whiskey

What is the Mayflower Compact?

There was a group of people called Separatists, that wanted to worship according to their own understanding of Christianity. In order to do so, they escaped from the Church of England, and fled to Holland. Here, they received a land grant from the Virginia Company of London. They departed on the Mayflower in 1620, setting their sails for Virginia. Winter winds blew them off course, and they landed in modern day Massachusetts, on a site they called Plymouth. The Plymouth Colony was established. The Separatists could not claim this land, because they lacked proper patents. The Mayflower Compact was a signed agreement that bound each member to obey this majority rule: promise to defend one another from potential eviction. It set a precedent for democratic rules, established ground rules for governing if any settlers arrived who did carry proper patents, and was grounded in Christian unity. It lended to the idea that they were right where God wanted them to be. A year later, they secured a patent to the land from the Crown.

Triangular Trade Route

These commercial adventurers also participated in a pattern of trade that came to be called the Triangular Trade, although it was much more complicated than a simple triangle. The New England colonies traded fish and grains to England and to southern Europe in return for wine, spices, and gold. They also sold their goods to the West Indies in return for sugar and molasses. The New Englanders then distilled the molasses to make rum and traded it, along with other manufactured goods, to Africa in return for slaves and gold. The gold from this trade allowed New Englanders to purchase manufactured goods, tools, and linens from England, which in turn bought New England's manufactured ships. The Atlantic World was a dynamic and boisterous place throughout the eighteenth century. By 1763, New England was a thriving arena of commerce that gave the colonies a good deal of economic independence, which later supported their insistent demands for increased political independence. New Englanders had also established a diversified economy that possessed but was not dependent upon slave labor.

Separatists who landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts, drafted and signed the Mayflower Compact because

They did not land in Virginia, for which they had a patent, and so saw the need to establish new rules to maintain order

First Continental Congress

This colonial unity is best seen in the meeting of the First Continental Congress. In May 1774, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia called for an intercolony congress to address the growing crisis (doing so without consent from the Crown was still illegal). In September, delegates from twelve colonies met in the First Continental Congress at Philadelphia to consider the American response to the Coercive Acts. Only Georgia was absent, principally because Creek Indians were actively fighting Georgians over western expansion, and the colonists there felt they needed British support to keep the Creeks at bay. The delegates considered several plans of action. Ultimately, the Congress created the Continental Association, which supervised a boycott of British trade. The Association was prefaced with a "Declaration of Rights" that asserted the natural-rights foundation of the colonists' resistance, affirming the trio of natural rights put forward by John Locke—"life, liberty, and property." This was not yet independence, though. The delegates at the First Continental Congress tried to maintain a balance between supporting colonists' rights and affirming the role of the Crown. In 1774 they were pursuing autonomy, not independence. They agreed to meet again the next year.

The person who did most of the writing on the Declaration of Independence was

Thomas Jefferson

Which of these men did not participate in the writing of the Federalist Papers?

Thomas Jefferson

Compromise of 1850

To allay these fears, Henry Clay, author of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and now a powerful senator, stepped forward with yet another compromise. In January 1850, Clay proposed a five-part bill, which came to be called the Compromise of 1850 The Compromise of 1850 included five key components: California would be admitted to the Union as a free state. The remaining land won during the Mexican-American War would be divided into two new territories, New Mexico and Utah, and would remain open to slavery until they became states, at which time the state legislatures could vote on the issue. To mollify antislavery northerners, the slave trade (but not slavery itself) would be banned in the nation's capital, Washington, D.C. Texas would relinquish its claim to land that extended all the way to Santa Fe, which would become part of New Mexico (these parts of New Mexico would be called "little Texas"), and in return receive $10 million in compensation. For southerners, the federal government would create and enforce a new and tougher Fugitive Slave Law. By punishing white northerners who helped slaves escape from the South, the measure sought to ensure that the North and the South would cooperate in protecting the slave system.

Most of the colonists who remained supportive of Britain during the Revolution were

Wealthy merchants, landholders and slave owners

NAVIGATION ACTS (ENUMERATED ARTICLES)

To reinforce control over the colonies (which, in general, had been sympathetic to Cromwell and which had engaged in more trade with the Dutch because of the decline in English trading), Charles II first enacted strict trade regulations. Passed by Parliament in 1651, the first of these regulations, known collectively as the Navigation Acts, dictated where colonial producers could ship their goods, stipulated that colonists must transport their goods in English ships, and listed a group of enumerated articles (tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo) that colonists were permitted to sell only to England. The goal of these measures was to prevent the transfer of resources from England to its rivals, France and the Dutch Republic. They were also intended to curb the industrial growth of colonial North America, which the Crown saw as a potential threat to English producers. Because the Navigation Acts ensured an English monopoly on the first sale of all colonial goods, anyone who controlled a colony would gain financially. To pay off his debts, Charles II offered his supporters land in the New World so that they could establish proprietary colonies—colonies owned and ruled by an individual or a private corporation rather than by the Crown. If the proprietors ruled them successfully, they had a guaranteed buyer in England. Proprietors could become extremely wealthy.

Erie Canal

To solve this problem, human ingenuity provided the country with something nature had not—a series of east-to-west canals—and the 1820s were the canal era. New York led the way in 1817. New York governor DeWitt Clinton helped nurture a partnership between the state government and private entrepreneurs in order to undertake the monumental task of constructing the Erie Canal, an artificial river connecting Buffalo—on the shore of Lake Erie—to Albany. Because Albany was linked to New York City by the Hudson River, the Erie Canal provided a continuous water route from the shores of the Atlantic to the Great Lakes. This was an immensely complex project. At the time, the longest canal in the world was 28 miles long. The Erie was 364 miles long and 40 feet wide. New Yorkers completed construction in eight years. When it was done, mules on paths along the shore could tow with a rope a barge filled with more than a ton of goods. The barge moved as fast as the mules. The Erie Canal opening was a landmark development for four reasons Financial.First, the project was a tremendous economic success. The cost of moving one ton of goods from Buffalo to New York City dropped from nineteen cents per mile to a little more than one cent. The canal cut the time it took to move goods between Buffalo and New York City from twenty days to six. The state of New York charged tolls on the canal, which yielded a huge profit Copycats.Second, these profits pushed other states to invest in transportation. Many states chartered private corporations to build those internal improvements, which greatly politicized the role of corporations in American life. This process became political because it was profitable to run a canal, so winning a charter to build one was comparable to winning the lottery. Significantly, all but three of the largest canals were built in the North, signifying a northern commitment to the Market Revolution. Southern leaders, who were usually wealthy landowners, remained content to rely on the rivers that transported cotton and other staple crops Creating a Major Metropolis.Third, it spurred the growth of New York City. As the major trading link between the interior of the United States and the Atlantic Ocean, New York City became the nation's major economic center A Change in Farming.Fourth, the creation of a cheap way to move goods to market made it more enticing to farmers in the interior to produce only the few items that would be the most profitable.

Townshend Acts of 1767

Townshend confirmed colonists' worst fears in the summer of 1767, when he steered new taxes through Parliament. Although he considered the colonists' distinction between internal and external taxes invalid, he saw how he could use it to his advantage. He intended to raise revenue with new, external duties on the goods that the colonists imported from Britain. The resulting Townshend Acts laid duties on glass, lead for paint, tea, paper, and a handful of other items. The Townshend Acts also demanded the collection of duties and bolstered the importance of colonial governors who were friendly to the Crown. Once again, they threatened the previous status quo of salutary neglect and signified that England would not give up control easily.

Mountain men were frequently employed as ______________, but their main occupation was ____________

Trappers; exploration

In his farewell address, Washington urged Americans to

Try to get along without partisan politics

The best-selling book of the 1800s was

Uncle Toms Cabin

The Stamp Act Congress showed that the colonists were becoming more

Unified in their resentment of Parliament

During King Philip's War, all of the following colonies were attacked except for

Virginia

Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia was initiated by Nathaniel Bacon because he

Was upset over Governor Berkeley's failure to quell Indian raids in the county

Missouri Compromise

Westward migration provoked a significant question: What to do about slavery? In 1819, Missouri sought entry into the union as a slave state. Its request provoked a debate in Congress that Congress wished desperately to avoid. Even the aging Thomas Jefferson wrote that the issue of slavery frightened him like a "fire bell in the night." The issue of whether slavery would be allowed in Missouri was pivotal for two reasons: (1)Missouri lay along the same latitude as several free states, and its entry into the Union as a slave state would move slavery northward; and (2)the admission of Missouri as a slave state would upset the congressional balance of eleven slave states and eleven free states. Northerners, mindful of the ideals of the Revolution and intent on avoiding a large black population in the North, sought to keep slavery in the South. Southerners sought to expand the development of cotton, which, they felt, required the labor of slaves. When Representative James Tallmadge, Jr., proposed the Tallmadge Amendment, which would have enforced gradual emancipation in Missouri, a vicious debate broke out on the floor of Congress. Henry Clay brokered a compromise: Missouri could enter as a slave state if Maine could enter as a free state. In addition, Clay drew a line at the latitude of 36 ° 30 ′ . Territories north of the line would remain free, while territories south of it could maintain slavery. This was the Missouri Compromise, passed in 1820, which would dictate the spread of slavery in the West for the next thirty years

Middle Passage (AST)

When the ships arrived, slave traders forced the slaves from their pens onto canoes and then paddled them out to the larger ships. At this point, some slaves jumped overboard, keeping themselves under water long enough to drown. Once aboard the transport ship, slaves faced the "middle passage," their horrible journey across the Atlantic. Traders packed the ships until they were overfilled. They cuffed the slaves and kept them below decks, away from fresh air. The captives were denied access to latrines, and the stench in the holds became unbearable. Many captives vomited in response, making the stench even worse. The Europeans also fed the slaves paltry food and threw sick slaves overboard to try to prevent the spread of diseases. They force-fed with a mouth wrench those who sought to commit suicide by starvation. Because the slaves came from varied tribes, it was likely they did not speak one another's language, cutting them off completely from the life they once knew. The middle passage took between four and eight weeks, and more than one in four captives died along the way. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, any trans-Atlantic journey was perilous and potentially fatal, but especially so for the captured Africans.

Northwest Ordinance 1787

With continued westward migration and calls for the federal government to oversee that expansion, Congress devised several plans to organize the western territories. The Land Ordinance of 1785, which surveyed the immense western territory, divided it into townships 6 miles square and set prices for its sale to individuals. This plan favored wealthy speculators because small farmers could not afford an entire "township," thus requiring speculators to act as intermediaries, which drove prices up. These speculators, not small farmers, were the real beneficiaries of this system. Furthermore, two years later Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which established territorial governments in the Great Lakes region and set a pattern for future western development. The Ordinance crafted boundaries for territories and developed laws by which a territory could be included in the nation. When the male population of a territory reached 5,000, it could elect a legislature and send a delegate to Congress. When the population reached 60,000, the territory could enter the Union as a state, on equal status with all other states, including the original thirteen. The Northwest Ordinance also contained something absent from the Articles: a bill of rights. In addition, the Ordinance prohibited slavery in the territories, a point that would become increasingly contentious as westward expansion continued throughout the first half of the 1800s. It did, however, act with blatant disregard for the native inhabitants of the land, creating a system for white expansion that would be defended by the federal government.

Battle of Bunker Hill

Within weeks, the hesitancy shown at the Second Continental Congress vanished. Local battles inspired this eagerness, especially the biggest battle, which occurred in Boston. After Lexington and Concord, thousands of men from throughout the colonies joined the Minutemen around Boston to besiege the British military. On June 17, 1775, the British Army sent troops across the Charles River to capture the colonists' cannons located on Breed's Hill, which overlooked Boston and was connected to nearby Bunker Hill by a saddle of land. The colonists had fortified Breed's Hill because they could fire their cannons at British ships in Boston Harbor from there. The ensuing battle was fought primarily on Breed's Hill but came to be known as the Battle of Bunker Hill. It was the first all-out battle of the Revolutionary War. Although British troops forced the patriots to abandon their hilltop position, the colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the British. In one particularly brutal episode, the British lost 1,000 men in an hour. The British killed around 400 Minutemen.

Which of these groups in the South supported slavery?

Yeoman farmers, planters, landless white people, most white southerners

Lowell Textile Mills

here was also a dramatic change in the composition of the labor force. Setting a pattern followed by other factory owners, Francis Lowell hired single women from New England farms to work in his clothmaking factory. He needed cheap labor, and young women would work for lower wages than men. To present a wholesome image to the farm families who might send their daughters to work there, Lowell built boarding houses for his "mill girls," where they were taught Christian ethics and monitored by chaperones. This was called the Lowell System. Factory life was harsh for these workers, however, and most sought to return home to start families after a short tenure in a Lowell mill. Most stayed just five years. They worked without insurance, wage guarantees, or legal protections of any kind, and when times were hard, these factory workers were the first to suffer. For the most part, working in a factory was arduous, and wages were low. People often worked fifteen-hour days, six days a week, and usually an entire family had to work in order to get by. Men, women, and young children spent long hours in the hot, noisy factories. But mill owners were not obligated to listen to complaints; they could always find eager replacements. After 1840, the number of immigrants arriving in the United States suddenly soared, causing the nation's population to increase a whopping 36 percent in the 1840s. Roughly two-thirds of these new arrivals were Irish, fleeing years of miserable poverty and hunger that peaked during the Great Irish Famine of 1845-1851. The majority of Irish immigrants settled in northeastern cities and worked at industrial jobs, replacing New England women and children. By the 1860s, half of the employees in most American factories were immigrants, most of them Irish. The Irish became a distinct underclass in the nineteenth-century United States.