History 3505 Review
Zionism
Zionism is a nationalist ideology stressing solidarity of the Jewish people and is also often associated with the founding movement to create and maintain a Jewish state, particularly in Palestine, based on the return of the Jewish people to their Biblical homeland in Palestine. The origins of nationalism are found in the beliefs of Theodor Herzl, a Jewish journalist who covered the Dreyfus Affair which was one of the early testaments to the anti-Semitism festering in Europe as a French military officer was wrongly convicted of treason, presumably due to his religious orientation as a Jew. Following this, Herzl wrote Der Judenstaadt, a proclamation for the necessity of a Jewish state. Early Zionism in the 1930s and 40s was manifested in the beliefs of Herzl, migration to Palestine, and the creation of the Yishuv, a Jewish community in Palestine. Key leaders of the Zionist movement who emerged later were Chaim Weizmann, a British Zionist leader who later served as Israel's first president, and David Ben-Gurion, the leader of the MAPAI party in Palestine and the future defense and prime minister of Israel.
British White Paper 1939
Arab revolts and organized labor strikes lead Britain to limit Jewish immigration to 15,000 per year from 1939-1944, before banning it entirely. Jewish land purchases were also restricted, along with gradual administrative control given to Palestinians and the promise of Palestinian statehood within 10 years. The British White Paper of 1939 anticipated WII and sought to bring Arabs on the side of the allies, gain control of the Suez Canal, and "pacify" Palestine.
Amin al-Husayni
Chief Mufti, Muslim nationalist leader, of Jerusalem and early Palestinian nationalist leader during 1920s in British mandate Palestine.
War of Attrition
Deadlock in the aftermath of the 1967 war (UN Resolution 242, Palestinian organized for violence), rearmament of Egypt and Israel, Egypt-Israel diplomacy stymied, US leaders distracted (war in Vietnam, détente (Nixon)). Egyptian-Israeli limited war (INS Eliak Sank, Israeli airstrikes at Port Said); escalation - increase in violence by both sides, Soviet involvement on Egyptian side US diplomacy - Rogers plan (UN 242, local powers should reaffirm, compromise and address of refugee problem) - failed; Rogers Plan B, immediate ceasefire, affirmation of 242, UN peace mission (Gunner Jarring), 1970 - acceptance of Plan B, end of war of attrition Assessments - Roger's plans somewhat successful, desire for peace or tired of war?; no sign plan changed attitudes of either side.
United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
Following WWII, the international community, particularly Britain, made a "sober assessment" of the situation in Palestine. Considering the significant number of Jews who had immigrated to the region since the early 1900s, their demands for partition, and the mounting costs and depleted resources after the war (financial and military power), Britain made the decision to withdraw from Palestine in February 1947, with the final deadline for departure of May 15, 1948. With this, Britain gradually transferred control of Palestine to the United Nations. Subsequently, the UN enacted the Special Committee which surveyed the local population and ultimately proposed partition. In November 1947, the United Nations held a vote on the partition plan, which passed and was accepted by the Jews in Palestine but rejected by the Arabs.
Muhammad Mossadegh
Iranian nationalist leader elected prime minister during 1953-55 revolution. Nationalized Iranian oil refinery at Abadan against the Anlgo-Iranian Oil Corporation, demanded that there be greater revenue than 20% for oil sales for Iran, increased Iranian management, workers' rights, limits to power of shah and Britain. Targeted by British/American intelligence operatives during Operation AJAX, a covert operation to impede revolution in Iran, depose Mossadegh, reinstate shah after his exile. Reasons for AJAX/opposition to Mossadegh: 1) Mossadegh viewed as a pathway to communism (Tudeh Party), 2) nationalization as threat to other assets 3) support for British stature 4) Iran's role in "northern tier" concept (Baghdad Pact), 4) averting destabilizing Anglo-Iranian war 5) cultural and gender factors
Eisenhower Doctrine
Origins: British decline, what is the threat coming from the Middle East and how should it be addressed? Doctrine: dual US economic and military aid; employment of the armed forces of the US to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid, against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by International Communism, authorized by Congress 1957, Ambassador James Richards mission to dispense $200m in aid; US interventions in Jordan, no intervention in Syria, intervention in Lebanon, no intervention in Iraq
Pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism is the notion of the unification of all Arabs into one state. Pan-Arabism became prominent during the mid-1900s, particularly in revolutionary Egypt under the control of Gamal Abdel Nasser. Key characteristics to the Pan-Arab movement were nationalistic, anti-imperialist/western, anti-Zionism/Israel, and neutralism in the Cold War. Many of the leaders associated with the Pan-Arab movement were also secular, separating them from other Islamic-oriented revolutions. Pan-Arabism physically manifested itself in 1958 when Egypt and Syria joined together to become the United Arab Republic, a unified state joining the two countries with Nasser serving as president.
UN Resolution 242
What: UN Resolution passed on Nov. 22, 1967 that sought to create peace between Israel and its Arab neighbors after the 1967 war. Key feature was the idea of "land for peace," in which the Israelis would withdraw from the territories of the Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, and West Bank in exchange for recognition and peace. The resolution had multiple ambiguities, however, which were that it provided that Israel would withdraw from "territories" and not "the territories," did not clarify any timing of the withdrawal, nor did it specify whether Israeli withdrawal would precede or follow Arab recognition. UN Res 242 and the "land for peace" clause has served as a basis for nearly all future negotiations between Israel and the Arabs, in regard to US diplomacy, it served as a basis for the President Carter and the Camp David Accords which set out to create a framework for peace.
Abdul Karem Qassim
Who: Abdul Karim Qassim What: President of Iraq, 1958-1963, ousted by a coup Ba'athist coup When: 1958-1963 Why: A nationalist Iraq leader who withdrew Iraq form Baghdad Pact in 1959, doing so significant weakened the Baghdad Pact and ultimately lead to its failure
Bernadotte Plan
Who: Count Folk Bernadotte of Sweden (UN Mediator) What/When/Where: Plan to end Arab-Israeli hostilities of 1948-49; terms of agreement were Arab states acquiesce existence of Israel, Jordan annex Arab portions of Palestine, all powers approve border alterations, Israel repatriate Palestinian refugees, international regime to govern Jerusalem; Obstacles: Bernadotte assassinated, Israeli and Arab opposition, renewal of war in the south (Israeli advance on Negev), U.S. domestic politics (support for Israel, elections) Why: Bernadotte Plan was one of the first U.S. responses to Arab-Israeli conflict after initial passivity, became engaged in the conflict
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Who: Egyptian nationalist leader who came to power during the 1952 Free Officers revolt in Cairo When: 1952-1970 What: Charismatic Egyptian nationalist leader who instituted political and economic reforms (Revolutionary Command Council); leader of pan-Arab movement, wrote Egypt's Liberation: The Philosophy of the Revolution; pioneered non-align movement, denounced Western powers and nationalized Suez Canal in 1956, sparking Suez Crisis and War Why: Nasser was a volatile pan-Arab leader to be contained by the United States, he presented new challenges, such as aligning with the Soviets, not previously encountered by Western leaders
Operation AJAX
Who: Eisenhower Administration What: Covert operation to overthrow rise of Muhammad Mossadegh and restore power to Reza Shah; Aug 15, 1953 operation initially fails when plans are discovered and Shah is exiled from Iran, CIA operatives continue despite failures and Mossadegh is captured on Aug 20, Aug 31 Shah returns to Iran Reasons for AJAX: 1) Mossadegh viewed as a pathway to communism (Tudeh Party), 2) nationalization as threat to other assets 3) support for British stature 4) Iran's role in "northern tier" concept (Baghdad Pact), 4) averting destabilizing Anglo-Iranian war 5) cultural and gender factors Aftermath: Shah bolstered, Mossadegh under house arrest, oil settlement, 20 years of stability, blowback?
Alpha Plan
Who: Eisenhower Administration, British officials, Israel, Egypt, Arabs What: comprehensive Middle East peace plan; proposed permanent Arab-Israeli peace settlement When: 1953-55 Where: Palestine/Israel How: Sought peace/diplomatic recognition between Arabs and Israelis, territorial readjustments, refugee repatriation/resettlement with compensation, corpus separatum of Jerusalem, sharing of water resources, end of economic boycott/Suez Canal blockade, $1 billion in US/British aid, security assurances Why/Result: Failed, tensions and conflict escalated, Israel carried out raids in Gaza, major war scare, UNSG Dag Hammerskjold and UN Sec State Robert Anderson failed to create peace in region; 1956 war; early failures lead Eisenhower to have passive posture for rest of his presidency
Middle East Command
Who: Eisenhower administration/U.S., Britain, France, Turkey, Egypt, other Arab states What: Safeguard against Soviets and assurance to Arab leaders, a security pact and integrated command structure on an Arab foundation, inspired by NATO alliance that would enlist Arab states as partners of the West Where: Middle East, based in Egypt When: 1951 Why: Rejected by Egypt and thus the other Arab states, as U.S. promoted plan they realized British and Turkish militaries were incapable of preventing a Soviet thrust in the region; lead US leaders to realize Britain was no longer a strong ally nor force in the region and that US should take charge; despite failures of MEC, Western leaders still desired a security pact in the region, which ultimately developed into the Baghdad Pact
Baghdad Pact
Who: Eisenhower, John Dulles, Iran, Turkey, France, Pakistan, Iraq What: Mutual defense and security pact along the "northern tier" of the Middle East to serve as a buffer against Soviet incursion into the region When: 1953-1955 Flaws: 1) combat forces of Baghdad Pact partners including Britain, could not fend off Soviets 2) northern tier state lacked infrastructure to offer a credible nuclear deterrent 3) Arab states opposed, directed by Egypt 4) opposed by Israel because weapons were funneled into Arab states; Eisenhower ultimately declined to accept formal membership into the pact although the US helped orchestrate it and financed 1/6 of budget, sent advisers to participate in discussions Outcome: Ultimately failed 1958-59 when Iraqi nationalist overthrew government, remaining members changed name to CENTO (Central Treaty Organization), finally collapsed in 1979
"Icebox Agreement"
Who: John F. Kennedy, Gamal Abdel Nasser What: Agreement between the two leaders via letter correspondence that they could not and would not reconcile over Israel and that US-Egyptian relations had been pushed into an "icebox." Thus, they discussed issues that they could solve, such as development in the Middle East and the US agreed to send food aid to Egypt. These relations ultimately soured when Egypt became involved in Yemen and Lyndon B Johnson became president after the assassination of JFK.
King Farouk
Who: King of Egypt When: occupied throne in 1936 at age 16, deposed during 1952 revolution What: Farouk lost favor with Egyptian population due to wealth, corruption, and inability to challenge British rule; unrest stirred revolutionary movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Egyptian Army, 1952 Free Officers rebellion (Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser) Why: Toppling of Farouk lead to a period of instability in Egyptian politics (Suez Canal Crisis, rejection of MEC), complications with US policies and influence of Soviets
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company
Who: Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Truman, Eisenhower, Muhammad Mossadegh What: British oil company located in Iran, 20% of profits given to Iranians; Iranian nationalists lead by Muhammad Mossadegh demanded a greater share of revenues, which were rejected by AIOC; refinery at Abadan nationalized by Mossadegh in 1951, resulted in Britain closing the refinery and instating a Western embargo of Iranian oil. Embargo brought Iranian economy to a standstill - Mossadegh demanded 1) greater royalties than 20% 2) More Iranian management 3) Workers' rights 4) Limits to British power and Shah's authority Britain's response - refusal to concede oil, pressure on shah to crack down, deployment of warships; US response with Operation AJAX under Eisenhower Oil settlement after contained revolution - AIOC devolved into consortium, National Iranian Oil Corporation Survived, 50-50 profit sharing
Muhammad Reza Pahlavi
Who: Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, king of Iran What: pro-Western leader of Iran opposed by Mohammad Mossadegh, nationalist Iranian prime minister, during the 1953 Iranian revolution over the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC); ultimately deposed by revolution but was reinstated to power by the Eisenhower administration through covert operations Why: The covert operations carried out to restore Reza Shah to power changed the course of Western involvement in the region, while the covert actions proved successful in the short-term, they ultimately proved to harm Western interests in the long-term by interfering with democratic movements and ultimately spurring an Islamic Revolution in Iran a generation later
David Ben-Gurion
Who: Zionist pioneer, writer, politician, Israel's defense (1948-1953) and prime minister (1955-1963) Where: Israel When: 1948-1963 What: Ben-Gurion was a key leader in the foundation of Israel, serving as the leader of the MAPAI party in Palestine