History: Chapter 21

Condensed Causes & Effects of Crimean War

Causes: The Eastern Question about whether or not Ottoman Empire should exist Russian expansion & distrust of Russians Desire for balance of power Effects: pan-Slavism Transition to modern warfare Halted Russian expansion Destruction of Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, & Prussia Opening for Otto von Bismarck

Ideas of liberals

Constitutions Rule of law Elected assemblies

Realpolitik

Realpolitik = realistic, practical policies (Enlightenment vision of rights or constitutions = less important than assessment of powers and interests) Realpolitik associated with conservative and pragmatic Otto von Bismarck (who played an imp role in German unification)

Cavour's Plan

Unifying Italy through wars and treaties, negotiations, wanted unification -> modern productive state; manipulated ppl on both sides (worked w/ Napoleon III against Austria and vice versa) Realpolitick Pursued ambitious but pragmatic reforms guided by the state- As prime minister, he promoted economic expansion, encouraged construction of a modern transportation infrastructure, reformed the currency, and sought to raise Piedmont-Sardinia's profile in international relations. Cavour's plan depended on diplomacy (since Piedmont-Sardinia did not have military capacity to counter Austrians in N. Italy, Cavour enlisted help of Napoleon III, who agreed to help drive Austrians from Italy if Piedmont ceded Savoy & Nice to France) War w/ Austria 1859; after conquest of Lombardy, Napoleon III withdrew, concerned he might lose battle or antagonize French Catholics (who were alienated by Cavour's hostility to the pope) Deserted by French, Piedmont could not expel Austrians from Venetia; but w/ addition of Lombardy, Tuscany, Parma, & Modena, Piedmont-Sardinia -> 2x original size + most powerful state in Italy As Cavour consolidated northern and central states, events in southern states made those available as well: Francis II (unpopular Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies) faced peasant revolt that rekindled hopes of earlier insurrections of 1820s and 1840s- that revolt got a boost from Garibaldi "The Thousand" = Garibaldi's volunteer fighters; embodied the support for Italian unification Garibaldi's troops took Sicily then continued to mainland; took Naples & toppled Francis II's kingdom- looked to room where French troops guarded pope Cavour worried that Garibaldi's forces would bring French or Austrian intervention; dispatched Emmanuel to Rome with an army & the king ordered Garibaldi to cede him military authority, who obeyed Most of the peninsula united under single rule, and Emmanuel assumed title of king of Italy (Cavour's vision of Italian nationhood won that day)

Britain and pressure to expand the franchise

GB under Queen Victoria continued changes that had begun in 1832 w/ the First Reform Bill Gov faced demands to extend the franchise beyond middle classes Industrial expansion sustained growing stratum of highly skilled & well-paid workers (mostly male) who turned away from tradition of militant radicalism that characterized Hungry 40s- instead, favored collective self-help thru cooperative societies or trade unions Some argued for vote in name of democracy Others borrowed arguments from earlier middle-class campaigns (responsible workers, upstanding members of society, w/ strong religious & patriotic feelings)- loyal to state, deserved vote/direct representation as much as the middle class These workers joined by middle-class dissenting reformers in Liberal party whose religious beliefs (as dissenters from Church of England) linked them to workers' reform campaign Dissenters had long faced discrimination- denied civil service and military posts, excluded from best universities, resented paying taxes to support Church of England Fact that community of dissent crossed class lines = vital to Liberal party politics and campaign for reforming the vote

Louis Napoleon

Louis Napoleon rallied Catholics by restoring the Church to its former role in education & sending expedition to Rome to rescue the pope from revolutionaries; banned radical activities, workers' associations, & suspended press freedoms Called for a plebiscite to give him the authority to change the constitution Established the Second Empire, ending the Republican experiment Assumed title of french emperor Napoleon III (r. 1852-70)

Italy before unification

Austria occupied the northern states of Lombardy & Venetia (most urban/industrial); Habsburg dependents also ruled Tuscany, Parma, & Modena The independent Italian states included southern kingdom of the Two Sicilies (governed by members of Bourbon family), the Papal States (ruled by Pope Gregory XVI) & Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by reform-minded monarch Charles Albert of House of Savoy) Charles Albert ≠ nationalist, but Piedmont-Sardinia's location, economic power, & opposition to Austrian influence gave it a central role in Italian nationalism

Why German unification almost didn't happen

1) Particularism Various dialects & local customs & dynastic thrones (king of certain territory didn't want to give up his kingdom for a greater Germany) Most people w/ any political capability against unification 2) Religious divisions Idea of Protestant Prussian state unifying Germany abhorred by Catholic Austrians and vice versa 3) No clear "Piedmont" to absorb the others No clear single strong independent power to conquer the other territories- just 2 major and several minor powers; unclear who would proceed + other powers did not want German unification 4) Determined opposition of the European Powers

How German unification managed to occur

1. Crimean War: End of "Concert of Europe" Russia lost (1856); Austria weakened Russia decided to go to war w/ Ottoman Empire for territories (common), but France & England decided to aid Ottomans (unheard of)- nobody came out ahead but ultimately Russia lost (would not be able to survive unless modernized- 80% = serfs so no mobile workforce or standing army) Russia's new tsar- Alexander II- retreated from gendarme roles of previous like Nicholas I- Russia pulled away from scenes, not engaged in rest of Europe Austria weakened, no longer in financial shape to stop what was happening elsewhere in Germany Created an opening 2. Prussian Domestic Crisis: Post-1848 liberal parliament, impasse over military budget, king- abdicate or coup (and face revolution?) King- Freidrich Wilheilm IV- on verge of mental breakdown; replaced by brother, Wilheilm the first (never planned to be king) His true love was military, wanted to reform Prussian army & expand it & increase length of military service to 3 years- needed permission (new idea- Prussia got a parliament from mostly failed 1848 revs) Parliament filled by mostly liberals, who needed to approve every new bill Parliament willing to expand army but didn't want to expand service to 3 years (militarizing civilians -> too much power to army) Deadlock b/w parliament and king (king is soveriegn and gets all final decisions but parliament controls military budget) Fear that if parliament got final say would turn king into figurehead- prussian monarchists against this; king kept dissolving this parliament but kept getting filled w/ more liberals when prussians voted Monarchists proposed getting rid of the constitution (coup de tat)- wilheilm had opposite idea- abdicate throne (feared revolution); if this had happened king's liberal son would have replaced him and agreed w/ this liberal parliament None of the reactionary aristocrats and conservatives would have accepted this, but didn't want to tear up constitution b/c fear of revolution At last moment, minister of war telegraphed an ambassador- Bismarck- to end this impasse (delay deydrus, make haste) 3. Bismarck: the Prussian "Cavour," solves the domestic crisis, takes advantage of the "opening" in the balance of power after Crimea Defused liberal's opposition, saved king, reinstated Prussian king power Coopted the liberal opposition (ignored them then convinced them to go along) Managed to end the constitutional crisis w/out abdication nor coup de'tat; raised military taxes, ignored liberals, going around constitution and parliament; by the time they could act it was too late (basically method = pretending they didnt exist) Created German Nation-State through series of wars- Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870) Institutionalized Prussia's conservative-authoritarian dominance in new state By going around parliament and getting other states to ally w/ prussia- reluctantly, b/c they feared greater enemy- institutionalized prussia's dominance (conservative and increasingly authoritarian gov)- parliament being disregarded entirely Liberal policies & regulations; folded into a Prussia very much like the conservative aristocratic regime they had from the start Transformed Prussia from weakest -> strongest power Pulled states -> a prussia that no longer included austria and declared itself a german empire- suddenly it was the most powerful of the great powers Powerful statesman under the monarch, knew how to play nations off each other to get what he wanted

Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary had common system of taxation, common army, and made foreign/military policy tg; Francis Joseph = emperor of Austria and king of Hungary Internal and constitutional affairs were separated- Ausgleich (or Settlement) allowed Hungarians to establish their own constitution, legislature, & capital (combined Buda and Pest) Official policy of the Dual Monarchy said other nationalities would not be discriminated against & they could use their own languages- loosely enforced though Elevating Hungarians & conferring on them alone benefits of political nationhood could only worsen relations w/ other groups

Prussian reform in Germany

1806- Prussia defeated by French under Napoleon -> Prussian reformers passed aggressive reforms (reconstituted the army, imitating Napoleon's policy of recruiting/promoting officers based on merit) 1807- serfdom estate system = abolished 1808- cities & towns allowed to elect councilmen and handle own finances (justice & security continued to be administered by the central gov in Berlin) The Prussian reformers expanded facilities for primary and secondary education Prussia aimed to establish itself as the leading German state + a counter to Austrian power Prussia's biggest victory came w/ the Zollverein (customs union) in 1834, which established free trade among German states & a uniform tariff against rest of the world (openly protectionist policy advocated by economist Friedrich List) By 1840s, the union included most of German states (except German Austria) Spread of railways after 1835 accelerated exchange w/in this expanded internal market Nationalists viewed this as a prelude to their goal of political unification -> new Germany 1840s- political clubs of students & radicals in Prussia & smaller German states joined middle-class groups to press new demands for rep gov & reform Newspapers multiplied (defying censorship), liberal reformers resented Prussian domination of German Confederation & conservatism of Habsburgs (who ruled Austrian Empire); attacked the autocracy & bureaucratic authority in Prussia and Austria (argued that German nationhood would break Austrian or Prussian domination & end the sectional fragmentation that made reform so difficult)

Austrian opposition to nationalism

Austrian emperor's opposition to nationalism = geopolitical and a defense of a dif relationship b.w the nation-state and culture Unlike govs of France, England, Italy, or Germany, Habsburgs did not seek to build a nation-state based on a common cultural identity; instead tried to build a state/administrative structure strong enough to keep "the pieces from spinning off" (playing dif minorities off against each other but also conceding greater autonomy to dif groups) Discontented subject nationalities would appeal to other powers (Serbia, Russia, Ottomans) in 19th century -> making this balancing act more difficult

Building Nation-States

After 1848 revolutions, new nation-states = consolidated Since French Rev of 1789, conservative politicians had associated nationhood w/ liberalism: constitutions, reforms, new political communities; however political ground dramatically shifted- states & govs took the national initiative (alarmed by revolutionary ferment, they promoted economic development & social/political reforms) Rather than allow popular nationalist movements to emerge from below, statesmen consolidated their governments' powers & built nations from above

Two choices after failure of Italian unification

After failure of Italian unification in 1848, nationalists in Italy faced a choice b/w 2 strategies for achieving statehood: 1) Mazzini and his follower Garibaldi envisioned a republican Italy built from below by a popular uprising 2) A second group of more moderate nationalists didn't trust democracy & sought to unify Italy as a constitutional monarchy from above under the leadership of the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia; King of Piedmont-Sardinia, Charles Albert, drew attention of Italian nationalists in 1848 when he took up the anti-Austrian cause- his son Victor Emmanuel II brought a man into his gov who would embody the conservative vision of nationhood: Camila Benso di Cavour

How was the Habsburg Empire of Austria paradoxically saved during the 1848 revolutions?

Although nationalists in Habsburg lands (especially Hungary) gained support, the fact that dif nationalist movements couldn't cooperate allowed new emperor, Josef, to defeat challenges to his authority & consolidate his rule (w/ Russian help) Josef would survive these crises until his death in 1916 during WWI (which destroyed the Habsburg Empire)

The Habsburg Lands

As heir to medieval Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg kings had ruled for centuries over a diverse array of central European ethnicities; but in 19th century Habsburgs found it harder to hold their empire tg as national demands of dif ppls in the realm escalated Popular sovereignty for ppls defined in terms of their ethnic identity (convergence b.w liberal ideas of popular sovereignty & national unification), implied a breakup of the Habsburg islands However, the existence of nationalist movements did not imply unity In the Polish territories of the empire, nationalist sentiment strongest among aristocrats (conscious of their historic role as leaders) Here, the Habsburg Empire successfully set Polish serfs against Polish lords to dampen ethnic nationalism In Hungarian region, national claims advanced by a small Magyar aristocracy; gained an audience under the leadership of Kossuth (member of lower nobility; protested closed-door policy of empire's barely representative Diet (parliament), campaigned for independence & separate Hungarian parliament) The other nationalist movement that troubled Habsburg Empire= pan-Slavism

Serfdom in Russia

Began to draw protest from intelligentsia under reign of Catherine the Great After European revs of 1789 & 1848, abolition of serfdom -> part of the larger and controversial project of building Russia as a modern nation 2 schools of thought emerged: 1) Slavophiles (Romantic nationalists)- sought to preserve Russia's distinctive features; idealized traditional Russian culture & peasant commune, rejecting Western secularism, urban commercialism, & bourgeois culture 2) Westernizers- wanted Russia to adopt European developments in science, technology, & education (which they said = foundation for Western liberalism) Both groups agreed serfdom should be abolished; but Russian nobility opposed emancipation Debates about how lords would be compensated for loss of serfs and how emancipated serfs would survive w/out full-scale land redistribution The Crimean War broke the impasse- after it, Alexander II forced the issue (worried that persistence of serfdom had sapped Russian strength & contributed to its defeat in the war, and convinced serfdom would cause more violent conflict, he ended it in 1861)

Creation of North German Confederation

Bismarck saw contrast b/w Austrian and Prussian interests- exploited Austria's economic disadvantages & Habsburgs' internal ethnic struggles Inflamed dispute w/ Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein (provinces peopled by Germans and Danes saying it belonged to German Confederation and Denmark) 1864- Danish king tried annexing provinces -> German nationalist outcry; Bismarck cast the conflict as a Prussian matter, persuaded Austria to join them in war against Denmark -> Danish ruler had to cede the 2 provinces to them As Bismarck hoped, Prussia and Austria argued over the provinces and in 1866 he declared war on Austria (claiming to be defender of larger German interests) Seven Weeks' War -> Prussian victory- Austria gave up claims to the provinces, surrendered Venetia, & agreed to dissolve German Confederation Bismarck created North German Confederation (union of German states north of Main River)

Otto von Bismarck

Born into Junker class of conservative land-owning aristocrats, Bismarck had opposed liberal movement of 1848-9; not a nationalist, was before all else a Prussian Instituted domestic reforms not b/c he favored rights of that group but b/c he thought policies would unify/strengthen Prussia When he maneuvered to bring other German states under Prussian domination, did so b/c he believed that union was inevitable and Prussia had to take initiative In Prussia, he defied parliamentary opposition- when liberal majority refused to pass a budget b/c of disagreements on army spending, he dissolved Parliament claiming that the constitution was not designed to subvert the state Played the national card to preempt his liberal opponents at home and make German nation building an accomplishment/extension of Prussian authority (his most decisive actions in foreign policy)

Crimean War prt 3.

Crimean war= very public b/c covered by first modern war correspondents & photojournalists Reports sent live by telegraph; care of troops -> scandals in press -> changes in military's administrative & logistical systems + made heroes of doctors & nurses The British gov and commercial publishers sent photographers to document the war's progress and perhaps also to counter charges that troops were undersupplied and malnourished These photographs introduced a new level of realism and immediacy to the European public's conception of war

Post Emancipation decree (Russia)

Emancipation decree of 1861- granted legal rates to 22mil serfs + authorized their entitlement to a portion of the land they had worked; required state to compensate landowners for properties they relinquished Large-scale landowners inflated their compensation claims & retained most profitable acreage for themselves so land granted to peasants often poor quality and insufficient to sustain them + their families Newly liberated serfs had to pay in installments for their land, which was not granted to them individually but rather to a village commune which collected their payments System of payment kept peasants in the villages as agricultural laborers for their former masters Russian state undertook reforms while expanding its territory; invaded/conquered many independent Islamic kingdoms Russian diplomacy -> commercial concessions from Chinese Governing made hard by racial, ethnic, & religious differences; Russian state usually did not try to assimilate populations of the new territories (acceptance of ethnic particularity = pragmatic response to heterogeneous population) When state tried to impose Russian culture, results = bad Expansion helped Russia create an empire that was geographically 1 piece but not one nation

Ideas of nationalism from certain thinkers

Ficthe: Ideal of political LEFT (liberals)- expansion of franchise, constitutions, nation as sovereign instead of king Mazzini: Awakening sense of nation vis-a-vis (in regard to) other nations Palacky: All these early cases= nationalism "from below"

Franco-Prussian War

Final step in completion of German unity= Franco-Prussian War (1870-1) Bismarck hoped conflict w/ France -> German nationalism in southern states outside confederation Diplomatic tempest concerning right of Hohenzollerns (Prussia's ruling family) to occupy Spanish throne -> opportunity to foment a Franco-German misunderstanding King William met w/ French ambassador to discuss Spanish succession- William initially acquiesced to French demands, but when French blundered by asking for "perpetual exclusion" of Hohenzollern family from Spanish throne, Bismarck edited a telegraph from King William to make it appear that Prussian king had rebuffed the French ambassador When the redacted report -> France, the nation called for war; Prussia echoed the call, and Bismarck published evidence that he claimed proved French designs on the Rhineland Once war declared, south German states -> Prussia's side Nobody helped France (Austria remained weakened from war w/ Prussia)- war ended w/ defeat of French and capture of Napoleon III 1871, in Hall of Mirrors at Versailles (symbol of French absolutism), German Empire proclaimed All German states that had not already been absorbed into Prussian fold (except Austria) + declared allegiance to William I At Frankfurt, treaty b/w French and Germans ceded Alsace to new German Empire & forced French to pay 5bil francs Prussia = 60% of new state's territory and population; Prussian kaiser, prime minister, army, & most bureaucracy remained intact, now German nation-state Not what Prussian liberals had hoped (marked rev from above rather than below); but optimists hoped they could eventually extend freedom thru unity

Crimean War prt 2- Russia & Britain/France

France & Britain declared war on Russia in 1854- landed on Russian peninsula of Crimea & headed for Russian naval base at Sevastopol (laid siege) France, Britain, & Ottomans joined in 1855 by Italian state Piedmont-Sardinia (all fighting against Russians) Bad hygiene & management -> epidemics among British and French troops (typhus, cholera) Despite British & French dominance of seas around Crimea, Russians were able to hold them off for a year Russian influence in Balkans -> curved; Moldavia & Walachia provinces = united as Romania -> independent nation Austria's refusal to help Russia cost Russia support of its powerful former ally Crimean War left Russia & Austria weaker (opening adv for Bismarck in 1860s)

The Frankfurt Assembly

German reformers organized the election of 800 delegates to an all-German assembly in Frankfurt (where representatives from Prussia, Austria, & small German states met to discuss creating a unified Germany) Most delegates were moderate liberals and from professional classes Delegates assumed that Frankfurt Assembly would draft a constitution for a liberal, unified Germany (like Frenchmen in 1789) However, French nation-state & centralized sovereign power had already existed, whereas Frankfurt Assembly had no legal code, army, etc At first, majority of assembly's delegates supported a "Great German" position (nation should include as many Germans as possible) Countered by a minority who wanted "Small Germany" (left out Habsburg Empire, including German Austria) Austrian emperor withdrew his support; the assembly retreated to Small German solution 1849- Frankfurt Assembly offered crown of new German nation to Prussian king- Frederick William IV

Causes of 1848 Revolutions

Gradual breakdown of political legitimacy (new ideas of political sovereignty, participation & liberalism -> disillusion of govs in power) Economic crisis of 1840s (hungry 40s)- business cycle of booms and busts, dramatic expansion of markets, prices drop, then factories closing, ppl unemployed Hunger Revolts, Irish potato famine (working class & peasant food)- destruction of potato crops across Europe combined w/ economic crisis -> hunger (especially in cities); food prices doubled, causing bread riots; grain harvest failed Govs "lose face" in their responses to crisis People expected state to provide welfare or work for them; states sent out troops to surpress the hungry riots, making gov seem impotent and a force of oppression Showed nationalism's power to mobilize opponents of the regime & potential to splinter revolutionary alliances

Effects of Italian & German Unification

Help make Central Europe a major player (Before Italy or Germany existed, strip of central Europe = place where balance of power could be easily maintained b/w the Great Powers on either side (Britain, France, Russia, Austria)) Changes balance of power (in some ways leads to WWI) Not an inevitable or natural result of nations "awakening" Rather, in Italy it was b/c of a series of conquests (little to do w/ early forms of nationalism coming from below- same idea w/ Germany) Italy- Piedmont's conquests (1859-70) Germany- more complex version of same thing Risorgimento: "Resurgence" (1848); Piedmont-Sardinia (King Emmanuel) Idea of resurgence of Italian nation; older ideas from below of Italians having common culture- but problem = all of these territories had been fighting for years, antagonistic; Rome & Vatican controlled many territories under Pope who was not interested in forming a secular state Piedmont-Sardinia emerged as an industrial power & independent state- made it possible for this unification process to occur (thru Benso)

State building (Russia & US)

In Russia, US, & Canada, nation building entailed territorial & economic expansion, incorporation of new ppls, and in Russia & Us contending w/ slavery & serfdom

Dynamics of the 1848 Revolution

Initial success, then divisions among revolution supporters, then reassertion of authoritarian control Louis Philippe's reign had been proudly bourgeois, but alienated many of its supporters, so key groups in middle class joined the opposition, allying w/ radicals who could not topple the regime alone Demands for reform led to fears of disorder & desire for a strong state -> collapse of republic & rule of Napoleon III Abandonment of the rev's social goals (most visibly evident in National Workshops) -> polarization along class lines w/ middle & working class ppl demanding dif things from state

US- Jeffersonian Revolution

Jeffersonian Revolution combined democratic aspirations w/ a drive to expand the nation's boundaries; leaders of the movement (under Dem-Rep presidency of Jefferson) campaigned to add Bill of Rights to Constitution Jeffersonian vision of republic depended on independence of yeoman farmers which depended on availability of new lands (made territorial expansion, ex 1803 Louisiana Purchase, central to Jeffersonian America) While expansion provided land for many yeoman farmers in north/south, it also added millions of acres of prime cotton land, extending empire of slavery Expansion & expropriation -> age of Jackson (1840s)

Women's suffrage: supporters and haters

John Stuart Mill-- utilitarian who supported liberty & human freedom; wrote On Liberty- defense of individual freedom in face of tyranny of the majority + supported women's rights Subjection of Women- argued that women had to be considered individuals = to men (his arguments didn't work; only militant suffrage movements + WWI -> women vote) Opposition to woman suffrage- female individuality (in voting, education, wage earning) would destabilize family life + casting a ballot = privilege granted only to specific social groups in return for their contributions to society

Frederick William

King Frederick William granted Prussian constitution in 1850 which established a 2-house parliament (lower house elected by universal male suffrage, but king preserved power of traditional elites by dividing voters into 3 classes based on amount of taxes they paid- therefore, large landowners had more voting power than working man Voting in public (so no secret ballot) 1861- William I -> king of Prussia; Prussia remained conservative, but industrial growth had expanded size/confidence of middle classes; by late 1850s Prussia had active liberal intelligentsia, engaged press, & liberal civil service dedicated to political/economic modernization These changes helped forge a liberal political movement that won a majority in elections to lower house & could confront king Liberals in Prussia opposed to king's high levels of military spending Opponents in Parliament suspected king of making the military his own private force 1859-62, relations deteriorated- when liberal protests went unanswered they refused to approve regular budget- faced w/ a crisis, William named Otto von Bismarck minister-president of Prussia (prime ministers answer to Parliament- he did not)

Establishment of Republic in France

King Louis Philippe gathered around him members of banking and industrial elite; refused demands to enlarge the franchise Building projects (ex railway) presented opportunities for work, & reputation of the gov suffered Republican associations proliferated in French cities; 1834 gov declared these organizations illegal -> rebellions in Paris & Lyon, bringing repression that resulted in deaths and arrests The gov's refusal to compromise drove even moderates into opposition 1847- opposition organized a campaign for electoral reform around repeated political "banquets"- an attempt to get around laws against assembly When they called for giant banquet in Feb 1848, king responded by banning the meeting -> popular revolution in the streets caused Louis Philippe to abdicate his throne days later -> French declared a republic for first time since 1792 Provisional gov of new French republic = liberals, republicans, and (for first time) socialists Produced a new constitution w/ elections based on universal male suffrage Abolished slavery in France & French colonies (had been abolished during rev in 1794, but reestablished in 1802 by Napoleon)

Mazzini

Leading Italian nationalist = Giuseppe Mazzini from Genoa, Piedmont Began as member of Carbonari- underground society pledged to resisting Austrian control of region & establishing constitutional rule Founded Young Italy (anti-Austrian, supported constitutional reforms and Italian unification); their preferred tactics (mutinies & armed rebellions) = ineffective Mazzini invaded kingdom of Sardinia but w/out enough support it failed & drove him into exile in England Mazzini's republican vision of unification clashed w/ goals of others; many liberals shared his commitment to creating a single Italian state but not his enthusiasm for ppl & popular movements Instead, they hoped to merge existing govs -> constitutional monarchy (some wanted to establish a gov under pope); Mazzini's insistence on democratic republic committed to social & political transformations struck pragmatic liberals as utopian & well-to-do middle-class as dangerous

What did each group want in 1848?

Liberals who wanted constitutional gov and limits on royal power Republicans wanted universal male suffrage Nationalists challenged the legitimacy of their hereditary rulers Socialists appeal lay in their claim to speak for laborers and poor

Similarities and Differences between French & German Revolution

Like French, liberal Germans also wanted a ruler who would abide by a constitution, allow for greater press freedoms, & accept some form of representative gov German artisans & urban laborers (like in France) preferred more radical ideologies of republicanism and socialism & protested against new methods of industrial production Difference b/w them- France already had a centralized state & unified territory (Germany did not) 1815 Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation (loose organization of 39 states, including parts of Catholic monarchy run Habsburg Austria & German territories of protestant Prussia) Revolutionaries in German states forced to reckon w/ the 2 conservative powers, Prussia and Austria (who competed to occupy the dominant position in German politics) as they struggled to find a path to national unity`

Struggle for Italian independence

March 1848, after revolution had toppled French monarchy, popular revolts broke out in provinces of Venetia & Lombardy (fueled by anger @ Austrian occupation) Charles Albert provided rebels w/ military support & supported Italian nationalism (but many said he was only interested in expanding his own power); he also pleased Italian liberals by creating an elected legislature & relaxing press censorship August 1848- insurrection of laborers in Bologna (challenging authority of pope in Papal States) Soon after, popular uprising in Rome confronted pope directly By Feb 1849 a new gov in Rome had declared itself a republic; Mazzini arrived from exile to join the revolutionary movement in Rome (neither coordinated nor successful) Charles Albert hesitated to confront Austrians so they regained upper hand in north French forces (under Louis Napoleon) intervened in Rome & Papal States (met resistance from Roman republicans joined by Garibaldi, but were able to restore pope's power and defeat Roman Republic) Propoganda of Garibaldi offering Pope liberty cap, offering boot to Emmanuel (shows initial ideals of unification had been around these liberal dem ideals of liberty, but later this has been transformed- more about Italy than about liberty) Venetian Republic = last of Italian revolutions to fall after a blockade & artillery bombardment from Austrian army in Aug 1849 Like most radical movements of 1848, these Italian uprisings all failed- yet still raised hopes of nationalists who spoke of a risorgimento (Italian resurgence) that would restore the nation to the position of leadership it had in Roman times & Renaissance

Metternich's Downfall

Metternich, the architect of the Concert of Europe, was forced to resign as minister of state in the Austrian capital of Vienna while a revolutionary crowd celebrated his departure Metternich's balance of powers b/w traditional dynastic rulers was swept aside for liberal political ideals mixed w/ popular anger Metternich's downfall & collapse of French monarchy made it clear that 1848 revolutions were linked to forces for change unleashed by 1789 French rev

Hungary and Austria Tensions

Nationalism and counter-nationalism in Hungary set the stage for final drama The Hungarian parliament had passed a series of laws including new provisions for the union of Hungary and Austria- In the heat of 1848, Ferdinand I had to accept them The Hungarian parliament abolished serfdom and ended noble privilege to prevent a peasant insurrection + established freedom of the press and of religion and changed the suffrage requirements, enfranchising small property holders Many of these measures (called the March laws) were hailed by Hungarian peasants, Jewish communities, and liberals. But other provisions (particularly the extension of Magyar control) provoked opposition from the Croats, Serbs, and Romanians within Hungary April 1848, Kossuth severed all ties between Hungary and Austria. The new Austrian emperor, Franz Josef, asked for military support from Nicholas I of Russia- they crushed Hungarian revolt . When economic crisis and unemployment-> second popular uprising, the emperor's forces, with Russian support, descended on the capital -> liberal government capitulated. The regime reestablished censorship, disbanded the national guard and student organizations, & put 25 revolutionary leaders to death Kossuth went into hiding and lived the rest of his life in exile.

How different groups felt about nationalism

Most imp political development in 19th century; First became prominent during the French Rev w/ the idea that it wasn't the king that was sovereign, but the nation Nationalism spread thru the example of the French and the French Rev of national sovereignty & the counterexample of ppl realizing they had some communal identity in the resistance against Napoleon Affiliation with romanticism: national identity as form of "organic solidarity" that binds ppl tg (a sense that each community had a historical development & those differences were meaningful & lasting and communities should organize around them) Many ways to define: language (not for Swiss), religion (not for Germany), territory (not for Jewish), voluntary affinity... Liberals and republicans often allied with nationalists; both want representation for the nation, expanded participation, constitutions- liberating force against idea of having a monarch from other dynasty Conservatives at first they saw nationalism as cause of revolts and unrest; wanted sovereignty to be based on tradition and hereditary monarchy (later found use of it- conservative govs would use it to mobilize popular support, Bismarck, Italian unification) Socialists wary of nationalism; look to class; said nationalism (like religion) = false consciousness- ppl who used it for sense of unity = mistaken, economic relationships b/w classes was the base (more in common w/ ur own class)

Why no revolutions in Britain?

Most progressive political structure at the time 1832 Reform Bill (which expanded the franchise, but still had property qualifications) Chartist Movement- trade union movement involving millions; goal was to gain rights for the working class

Why no revolutions in Russia?

Most restrictive political structure at the time Autocratic system- no organization possible, no free press Nicholas I (gendarme of Europe)

Napoleon III

Napoleon III believed in personal rule & centralized state; as emperor he controlled nation's finances, army, and foreign affairs The assembly (elected by universal male suffrage) could approve only legislation drafted at emperor's direction Napoleon's regime aimed to undermine French traditional elites by expanding bureaucracy & cultivating new relationship w/ the ppl In the cities, system of police informers rooted out revolutionary groups Believed that industrial expansion would bring prosperity & national glory; his gov encouraged new forms of financing, passed new limited-liability laws, signed a free-trade treaty w/ Britain (1860), created the Crédit Mobilier (investment banking institution that sold shares and financed railroads, insurance/gas companies, coal/construction companies, & building of Suez Canal) Reluctantly allowed trade unions & legalized strikes By appealing to workers & middle class, sought to gain support for goal of reestablishing France as leading world power Paris's medieval infrastructure buckling under population growth & economic development; cholera epidemics in 1832 & 1849 killed many Concerns about public health, crime, and revolutionary militancy in working-class neighborhoods Rebuilding project erected new buildings, installed new water pipes and sewer lines, new streets w/ rationalized traffic flow However, rising rents drove working ppl from city's center to segregated suburbs

Nationalism

Nation had come to mean "a sovereign people" Nationalism = based on assumption that govs could only be legitimate if they reflected the customs of the nation (common ppl) This idea undermined Europe's dynastic rule; hereditary monarchs emphasized differences b/w themselves and ppl- kings/aristocrats often did not even speak the same language as their subjects Intellectuals, revolutionaries, and governments propagated the radical new idea that nations of like people and the states that ruled over them should be congruent w/ one another- idea lay at nationalism, but debates about who best represented nation and what goals of a unified nationalist gov should be 1789-1848; Europeans commonly associated nationalism w/ liberalism

Paradox of nationalism in central Europe

No cultural majority could declare independence w/out prompting rebellion from other minority groups of same area (Bohemia Czechs & Germans) They had worked tg to pass reforms against feudalism; w/in 1 month nationalism began to fracture their alliance; German Bohemians went to attend Frankfurt Assembly, but Czech majority refused to send representatives & countered by convening a confederation of Slavs in Prague (majority preferred to be ruled by Habsburgs, w/ some autonomy, than to be dominated by Germans or Russians) These animosities allowed Austrians to divide and conquer May 1848, during the Slav Congress, an insurrection broke out in Prague- on the orders of newly installed liberal government, Austrian troops entered the city to restore order, sent away Slav Congress, and reasserted control in Bohemia; the regime also sent troops to regain control in the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia (made easy by quarrels among the Italians)

Crimean War prt 1- Russia and Turkey

Root cause of war lay in Eastern Question & decline of Ottoman Empire; crisis that provoked it involved religion (French and Russian claims to protect religious minorities & holy places of Jerusalem w/in Muslim Ottoman Empire) 1853- quarrel among France (on behalf of Roman Catholics), Russia (representing Eastern Orthodox Christians), & Turkey devolved -> Russian confrontation w. Turkish sultan Confident that Turkey would be unable to resist, concerned that other powers might take advantage of Turkish weakness, & mistakenly thinking they had British support, Russians moved troops into Ottoman-governed territories of Moldavia & Walachia Turkey (persuaded they would be supported by British) declared war on Russia; Turks lost their fleet at battle of Sinope, while Russian success alarmed British and French (considered Russian expansion a threat to their interests in Balkans, eastern Mediterranean, and (for British) route to india)

Magyarization

Only 47% actually Hungarians Now seeing self as a nation-state tried to force hungarian assimilation on non-hungairan populations which actually spurred their nationalist feelings for own ethnicities On Austrian side, minority nationalities (Poles, Czechs) resented second-class status; on Hungarian side, regime embarked on a project of Magyarization (attempting to make the state, civil service, & schools more Hungarian- disliked by Serbs and Croats) Austrian-Hungarian Empire managed for a time to create a dif kind of political/culture space in Europe that was increasingly given over to nation-states that perceived their interests to be opposed Austrian capital Vienna -> known for intellectual & cultural refinement (in part product of the many dif ppls who made up the Habsburg lands, including Germans, Jews, Hungarians, Italians, Czechs, Poles, Serbs, etc.)- polygot culture

Austria v Prussia

Strong rivalry b/w these 2 powers prevented a path to unification Austria = powerful, historical leader of Holy Roman empire, Catholic, multinational Prussia = most industrialized; but 3 mil poles, unpopular w/ other German lands (who associated Prussia w/ militarism)

After Prussian defeat of Austrians

Prussian victories weakened liberal opposition to the king and his president-minister After Austrian defeat, Prussian liberals gave up their battle over budgets, the military, and constitutional provisions. Bismarck also sought support among the masses- understood that Germans did not necessarily support business elites, bureaucracies of small states, or Austrian Habsburgs Constitution of North German Conf. gave appearance of a more liberal political body w/ bicameral legislature, freedom of press, and universal male suffrage in lower house; but its structure gave Prussia & conservative emperors a decisive position in German politics

"Eastern Questions": International Relations and Decline of Ottoman Power

Questions of national identity & international power connected to contests over territory War & diplomacy drew boundaries as European nations tried to find a balance of power Rise of new powers (German Empire) = challenge to continental order; so was waning power of older regimes Crimean War (1853-56) = gruesome attempt to cope w/ most serious collapse As Ottoman Empire lost control of provinces in SE Europe, the "Eastern Question" of who would benefit from Ottoman weakness drew Europe -> war (at stake= territorial gains, strategic interests, alliances, and balance of power) Though the war occurred before unification of German & Italian states, it structured system of Great Power politics that guided Europe -> first World War

Issues in 1848

Revolutionary regime change Territorial expansion Economic development Debates about who deserved citizenship All were related to spread of nationalism and nation building in Europe and the Americas

Nation Building (post 1848 Revolutions)

Shift in connections b/w liberalism, nationalism, and nation building US- territorial changes affected boundaries; Civil War caused change Unification of Germany & Italy involved conquest of territory, made possible by political reforms and new state structures Britain, Austria, Russia & France -> projects of administrative reform (overhauled their bureaucracies, expanded electorates, reorganized relations among ethnic groups) Russian tsar abolished serfdom, Lincoln abolished slavery These developments helped shame consensus that world = naturally organized -> nations defined by ppl, states, & territory As nation building continued, balance of power in Europe shifted -> states that were first to industrialize and most successful in building strong, centralized states Older imperial powers (Habsburg Empire in Austria-Hungary or Ottoman Empire) found their influence waning

pan-Slavism

Slavs = Russians, Poles, Ukranians, etc. Before 1848: pan-Slavism= cultural movement united by pro-Slavic sentiment, internally divided by competing claims of different Slavic languages/traditions Inspired works of Palacky (author of History of the Bohemian People) and Kollar (wrote Slava's Daughter) + poet Mickiewicz (who sought to rekindle Polish nationhood against foreign oppression) Since Russia & Austria = eastern Europe rivals, pan-Slavism -> unpredictable force Tsar Nicholas of Russia wanted to use it to make arguments about "Slavic" uniqueness part of his "autocracy, orthodoxy, nationality" ideology after 1825 (but this alienated Western-orientated Slavs who resented Russia's ambitions)

Friedrich William IV

Succeeded to Prussian throne in 1840 (did gesture toward liberalizing reforms, increased hopes) But when economic troubles hit, William asserted that his authority could not be questioned (sent army to crush a revolt, opposed constitutionalism & representative participation in issues of legislation & budgets) Liberals/radicals in Prussia & German states continued their reform campaigns When revolution -> France 1848, unrest spread across the Rhine When revolutionary movements appeared elsewhere, kings yielded quickly (govs promised elections, expanded suffrage, jury trials, etc) In Prussia, William (after seeing the unrest and after a showdown in Berlin b/w army and revolutionaries) promised to grant a constitution & met w/ representatives of the protest movement

Why 1848 French Revolutions failed (Second Republic)

Tensions b/w propertied republicans and socialists shattered unity of the coalition Suffering from economic crisis, working men & women demanded right to work -> provisional gov created National Workshops: program of public works headed by socialist Louis Blanc Voters in rural areas resented increase in taxation that was required to pay for the public works program When elections for parliament were held- France's first elections to take place under universal male suffrage- conservative voice won out, and majority of moderate republicans and monarchists were elected A majority in the new assembly believed the National Workshops = financial drain & threat to order; closed workshops to new enrollment, excluded recent arrivals to Paris, sent members b/w 18-25 into army, then abolished workshops In defense of this program, workers of Paris rose in revolt, building barricades across Paris June 23-26 fought against armed forces recruited from the provinces; repression of the June Days (many killed, arrested, or sent to Algerian labor camps) After this, support for a republic among workers in Paris declined rapidly Parliament wanted strong leader in presidential election and found one in Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Marx- first time a failure, second time a farce)

US- Jackson

Under Jackson, the Democrats (as some Dem-Reps were now called) campaigned to extend suffrage to all white males, argued that all officeholders should be elected, wanted frequent rotation of men in positions of political power- a doctrine that permitted politicians to use patronage to build national political parties Jacksonian view of democracy & nationhood -> a crusade to incorporate more territories into the republic - was the US's "Manifest Destiny" Territorial expansion good for nation building, but built on slavery

Italian Unification

Venetia = in hands of Austrians until 1866, when Austria defeated by Prussia & forced to relinquish their last Italian stronghold Rome had resisted conquest b/c of military protection Napoleon III accorded the pope; but in 1870 outbreak of Franco-Prussian war compelled Napoleon to withdraw troops; Italian soldiers -> Rome which became capital of united Italian kingdom Italian parliament passed Law of Papal Guarantees to define & limit pope's status 1871- Italy = state, but only minority spoke Italian (rest used diverse regional dialects) "Made Italy, but not Italians" Wide gap b/w industrialized north and poor/rural south; banditry in territory of former kingdom of the Two Sicilies compelled the central administration to dispatch troops to quell serious uprisings, killing more ppl than in the war of unification + Regional differences & social tenses made building Italian nation difficult `

Ausgleich of 1867

While Germany emerged from 1860s as stronger unified nation, Habsburg Empire emerged weakened, multiethnic dual monarchy (Austria-Hungary) Would only share foreign policy, currency, postal system (everything else0 hungary could decide separately from austria- even for shared thing like foreign policy hungary needed to give permission to austria for what it wanted to do- negotiations) Ethnic nationalism = powerful force in Habsburg monarchy in 1848; yet the Habsburg state (w/ military repression and tactics that divided its enemies) had proved more powerful Abolished serfdom but made few other concessions to opponents Hungarians (nearly won independence) were reconquered; administrative reforms -> more uniform legal system, rationalized taxation, 7 single-language policy that favored German Managing ethnic relations -> more difficult; 1850s/60s, subject nationalities protested military repression, cultural disenfranchisement, and powerlessness of their local diets (ex. Czechs in Bohemia grew alienated by policies that favored German minority of province; became more insistent on their Slavic identity, a movement welcomed by Russia- which became the sponsor of broad pan-Slavism) The Hungarians, or Magyars- most powerful of the subject nationalities- sought to reclaim autonomy Austria's defeats at hands of Piedmont-Sardinia (1859) and Prussia (1866) became imp.: 1866 war forced emperor Franz Josef to renegotiate empire's structure; to starve off a revolution by Hungarians, Francis Josef agreed to a federal structure in form of Dual Monarchy

Post Frankfurt Assembly

William used military to repress radical revolutionaries in Berlin Refused to become constitutional monarch on Frankfurt Assembly's terms- he wanted the crown and a larger German state but on his own terms, & he dissolved assembly before they could vote Frankfurt delegates went home, convinced that their liberal and national goals were incompatible (some fled repression by emigrating to US, others sacrificed liberal views for seemingly realistic goal of nationhood; in Prussia, army dispatched what remained of the revolutionary forces) Elsewhere in German-speaking states, many moderate liberals began to reconsider change; peasants ransacked tax offices, burned castles, workers smashed machines (against industrialization), citizen militias threatened power of established elites, newspapers and political clubs multiplied- many clubs now admitted women (but forbade them to speak) and newly founded women's clubs demanded rights (made moderate reformers uneasy- now considered universal male suffrage radical) Rulers took advantage of this shift in middle-class opinion to undo concessions granted in 1848 & to push thru counterrevolutionary measures For German liberals, national unification now seen as necessary to maintain political stability Nationhood stood for a new constitution and political community but also for a sternly enforced rule of law (popular sovereignty strengthened by authority of hereditary monarchy will repress violation of law) After failure of Frankfurt Assembly, German liberals looked to a strong Prussian state as only possible route toward national unification