History
Bartolome de las Casas
(1484-1566) Priest; "Defensor de los indios"; coined the term "Black Legend," referring to the idea that everything that's bad in Latin America came from Spain; condemned Spanish colonists' treatment of indigenous populations
Moctezuma
1466-1520; ruler of Tenochtitlan when Hernan Cortes and the Spanish arrived in 1519; killed in 1520, stoned to death by his own people, according to the Spanish
Hernan Cortes
1497-1547; conquered Tenochtitlan and the Mexica in 1521 with help from Tlaxcalans and Doña Marina/Malinche; first generation of Spanish conqueror-explorers in the Americas; first governor of New Spain
Atahualpa
1502-1533; last emperor of the Inca Empire, ruler of Quito; ambushed and imprisoned by Francisco Pizarro's soldiers in Nov. 1532, executed in July 1533 after being convinced to convert to the Catholic faith to save his life
Tupac Amaru Rebellion
1780-1783; multiethnic uprising against Bourbon Reforms in colonial Peru, included indigenous and mestizo fighteres; protested opressive treatment of indigenous peoples under mita and economic hardship; devolved into bloody caste war
Grito de Dolores
Sept 16, 1810; Mexican Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo's cry for Mexican independence from Spain; unified poor indigenous and mestizo civilians to fight Spanish forces and peninsulares; independence obtained in 1821--did not overturn social order--peninsulares's power replaced by criollos
Testimonio
Testimony; first-person narration; a solemn attestation of the truth
Mexica
the indigenous people living
Napolean III
Napolean III was president and emperor of France from 1848 to 1870. He sent troops to Mexico in 1861, in what is now known as the second French intervention in Mexico with the intention of establishing the Second Mexican Empire. Some Mexicans accepted and welcomed the French forces but the troops were eventually kicked out.
Haitian Revolution
1791-1804; successful rebellion against slavery and French colonial rule in Sant-Domingue aka Haiti; only successful slave uprising in the Americas--led to the founding of a state ruled by formerly enslaved peoples; precursor of Lat. Am. independence; impacted institution of slavery across the Americas--threatened social and political order, instilling fear in white slave owners
Pancho Villa
1878-1923; Mexican revolutionary general based in northern Mexico; commander of Division of the North and revolutionary governor of the state of Chihuahua; known as a social bandit/Robin Hood figure; attack on Columbus, NM in 1916 led to failed US Punitive Expedition into Mexico from 1916-1917; internationallly famous as revolutionary hero--Hollywood films and John Reed journalism (Insurgent Mexico, 1914)--celebrated in Mexican and global culture/art long after the Mexican Revolution
Emiliano Zapata
1879-1919; revolutionary leader from Morelos, Mexico who fought for land reform during the Mexican Revolution; author of Plan de Ayala; leader of peasant revolutionary army--Liberation Army of the South
Bourbon Reforms
18th century economic and political reforms under the Spanish Crown (house of Bourbon) intended to stimulate manufacturing and technology - it basically made it difficult for the criollos to acces power by reestablishing Spanish supremacy in the political power
Mexican Revolution
1910-1920; civil war that ended Porfirio Diaz's dictatorship and redefined Mexico's political and social order; resulted in the Constitution of 1917, which nationalized subsoil rights, guaranteed workers' rights, separation of church and state, and education and economic reforms; resulted in the uninterrupted rule of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) from 1929-2000
Falkland War
A 1982 conflict between Argentina and the UK over the the Falkland Island off the eastern coast of Argentina. Argentina invaded the British-occupied islands in an attempt to reestablish the sovereignty it claimed over them previously. British forces countered with a navy assault on the island. The conflict ended up lasting 74 days an ended with an Argentina surrender after a loss of over 600 soldiers and over 200 on the British side.
Guaman Poma
A Quecha nobleman from the colonial era known for depicting the atrocities of the spanish and their ill treatment of indigenous populations. His work Nueva Cronica y buen gobierno detials the spanish conquest from the indigenous perspective and include visal representations of the events he witnessed during the era.
Audiencia
A spanish court system that was implemenetd into the colonies. There were a total of 11 audiencias (Santo Domingo, Mexico City, Panama, Guatemala, Lima, Guadalajara, Santa Fe, Caracas, Quito, Chile, and Manila). These systems functioned as the highest court of appeals in the colonies. Audencias functioned both for the state and for the viceroy of a given territory.
Council of the Indies
An administrative body that was formed in 1524 by Charles V of Spain to oversee its colonies in the Americas and the Philippines. The body was created in response to Spanish conquest of the Aztecs and the need to
Panama Canal
An artifical waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It greatly reduced travel times from these bodies of water, avoiding more dangerous passages like Cape Horn and the Strait of Magellean. Construction of the canal took many lives and, started in 1904 by the United States, and was completed in 1914. The United States reaped many of the benefits of its construction and its involvement represents American imeperialism of the 20th century.
Special Period
An economic crisis in Cuba following the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989 that lasted until the turn of the century. During this time Cuba had shortages of oil and petro which affected other aspects of life on the island where people were forced to adapt without products they had become accustomed to. Stemming from this were sustainable agriculture projects and investment in the health system on the island.
Bay of Pigs
An infamous failed military invasion planned by the CIA on Cuba in 1961. The counter- revolutionary team was comprised of individuals who fled to the USA during the revolution. The invasion was silenced within three days by Castro and the cuban military. The effect were worsened relations between the US and Cuba still present todya.
Transculturation
Anthropological term adopted by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1947; describes the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures; result of colonial conquest and subjugation
Operacion Jaque
Colombian military operation against the FARC where they succesfully rescued 15 hostages. Its relevant because mlitary, with the assistance of the US army, was able to do so without a single bullet, but with an alternative tactical approach
Dom Pedro I
Dom Pedro I (1798-1834) was the first ruler of the Empire of Brazil. Pedro I was the son of the Portuguese king and fled with his family to Brazil in 1807 when Portugal was invaded by French troops. Pedro acted as regent of Brazil when his father returned to Portugal, and declared Brazil's independence from Portugal in 1822, becoming as Brazil's first emperor. Pedro I eventually abdicated from the throne in 1831, leading to a series of events that eventually led to the monarchy being overthrown by a military coup in 1889. Brazil's government was not perfect, but it was finally its own and without royal control.
*1937 Parsley Massacre
From September to October of 1937 between 9,000 and 20,000 Haitians living in the Dominican Republic were massacred simply for being Haitian. The massacre gained its name because Dominican soldiers would ask suspected Haitians of pronouncing the word "parsley" ("perejil," in Spanish), a word difficult to pronounce for those whose first language was Haitian creole. Haitian immigrants had become an economic scapegoat in the Dominican Republic during the Great Depression and the dictator Trujillo ordered the genocide. There are still many Haitian immigrants living in the D.R. today, and tensions continue to exist between the Dominicans and the usually darker-skinned Haitians.
War of the Triple Alliance
In 1865 Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil declared war on Brazil over tarrifs and border disputes between the three and Paraguay that had been occuring for years. The war lasted five years and is one of the bloodiest conflicts to date in Latin America. Lopez, dictator of Paraguay at the time had an army 50,000 strong that was quickly dismanteled. The loss at war also trickled over into the civilians of Paraguay. The population of the country following the war was reduced to half of its approximate 525,000 citizens at the time due to malnutrition and disease
Renacimiento mexicano
Journal published by Ignacio Manuel Altamirano with the intention of awakening the interest in literature all over Mexico; caused a cultural boom which allowed for a definite restauration of the nation; founded on January of 1869; described as "the most influential literary magazine ever published in Mexico"
La violencia (Guatemala)
La Violencia de Guatemala was a period of civil conflict, violence and death from about 1960-1996. During this time, 150,000-200,000 Guatemalans were killed and 1-1.5 million displaced. Confrontation was between the Guatemalan army and communist guerilla forces, but two truth commissions found that 80% of the violence during this time can be attributed to the government. Some scholars consider it a genocide against the indigenous Maya, as part of what fueled the violence was ethnic tension, and about 85% of those killed were indigenous. La Violencia illustrates the level of civil conflict found in certain Latin American countries, as well as how governments can push back against rebel groups with more violence to the population than the original guerillas.
Tenochtitlan
Mexican city-state founded in 1325; captial of Mexica/Aztec state at time of Spanish "conquest"/encounter--ruled by Moctezuma; captured by Hernan Cortes and the Spanish in 1521; *How Cortes was able to capture Tenochtitlan with so few Spanish forces: technology, disease, confusion, alliances with other indigenous groups; center of modern-day Mexico City built on top of Tenochtitlan
Nicolas Guillen
Nicolás Cristóbal Guillén Batista, Cuban poet of social protest and leader of the Afro-Cuban movement in the late 1920's through 1930's; considered the national poet of revolutionary Cuba; served as the director of Cuba's Union of Writers and Artists; member of the Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party.
Cuban Revolution of 1959
On December 31, 1958, Fulgencio Batista resigned after being in power since 1952, when he had helped head a military coup against the then-democratically elected but corrupt government of Carlos Prío. Fidel Castro, who had lead the failed attack on the Moncada Army Base on July 26, 1953, helped lead the Revolution to its "triumph" in 1959. The Revolution was not initially labelled as socialist, but because of growing tensions between Cuba and the U.S., Castro declared the Revolution socialist in 1961, leading to a U.S. embargo that continues to today. The results of the Revolution were mixed, with many Cubans fleeing to the U.S., but others improving their social and economic position. The U.S. still criticizes the Revolution and the Castro brothers' role in the government today, and continued tension between the two countries worries the U.S. while leading to further economic hardship in Cuba because of the embargo.
Corn Riot
On June 8, 1962, a giant riot occurred in Mexico City. The tipping point for the riot was a lack of corn in the market, and in the crowd a pregnant Indian woman fainted and died. Plebian citizens (indigenous but also poor mestizos and whites) brought her body and their complaints to the Viceroy's Palace in the form of a mob. When he wasn't there, they set fire to it and other buildings. The riot was quelled within a few hours and a total of ten people were executed as a result. The riot acts as an example of a (short-lived) social movement as the lower-class citizens of Mexico City made a (crass) political expression of their discontent with the current state of affairs.
Aponte Rebellion
The Aponte Rebellion was actually a series of revolts that occurred across the island of Cuba in the year 1812. The rebellion is one of the largest and most important slave rebellions in Caribbean history. The rebellion took inspiration from the 1791 Haitian Revolution and combined the efforts of both free and enslaved blacks and mulattos in the attempt to end slavery and perhaps Spanish rule. The various uprisings were eventually quelled and led to punishment and increased repression in Cuba of black slaves.
Codex Mendoza
The Codex Mendoza was created around 1542 as a book commissioned by the first viceroy of Nueva España to send to Charles V of Spain so that he would know more about the subjects of his new viceroyalty. It was painted on European paper and written in Spanish by a Spanish priest who spoke Nahautl, the language of the Aztec people, but included pictures/glyphs drawn by the Aztec. Today, the Codex is an important primary source document used to learn about the Aztec people, culture, and civilization. It contains images showing the founding of Tenochtitlan (converted into Mexico City after the conquest), images of daily life, an explanation of territories conquered by the Mexica, and more.
Plaza de Tlatelolco
The Plaza de Tlatelolco is also known as the Plaza of Three Cultures because it contains architectural symbols of three periods of Mexico City history: Aztec (indigenous) pyramids, a 17th-century (Spanish) church, and a modern (mestizo) apartment complex. In Aztec times the plaza was an important market and was where the Mexica made their last stand. In 1968, 300-400 student and civilian protesters were killed in the square by the Mexican military and police, in what is known as the Tlatelolco massacre. Today, the Plaza represents the deep, yet painful history, of Mexico City.
Reconquista
The Reconquista took place in Spain, but it is important to Latin America because it helped form tactics and attitudes that would be used by the Spanish conquistadors in the "New World." The Reconquista, or "Reconquest" took place between 711 and 1492 as the Spanish reconquered the Iberian Peninsula, taking back land from the Muslims. During the Reconquista the tactics of conquering by the 'cross and sword,' or by force and Christianity, were perfected. When the conquistadors started coming over to the Americas in the early sixteenth century, they brough with them both the ideology of an expanded Christian kingdom and the plan to create that expanded Christian kingdom through the cross and sword, thus affecting how they interacted with the American Indians that they found, killed off, and conquered.
Requerimiento
The Requerimiento (Requirement) was written in 1510 and was sent by the Spanish royalty with the conquistadors to the "New World." The Requerimiento was meant to announce to the Indians that the Spanish encountered that they should accept Spanish rule and Christianity, or they could be subjugated, enslaved, or put to death. Thus, the indigenous people were not technically required to convert, but if they did not then the Spanish could make war on them and it was the fault of the indigenous people. The requerimiento was often read in Latin or Spanish (thus, not understood by the Indians) or even to an empty beach, illustrating that the conquistadors were less concerned with justice and Christian preaching than with conquest and riches. The fact that the requerimiento was written and read illustrates the great power that the Spanish felt they had over the indigenous people and their future.
Sendero Luminoso
The Sendero Luminoso or "Shining Path" is a Peruvian terrorist group most active from 1970 through the late 1990s (though still in existence today), that has been responsible for about 40,000 deaths. The Shining Path's first leader, Abimael Guzmán, was a communist and former-philosophy professor in the city of Ayacucho. Senderistas, or followers of the Shining Path, used China's Cultural Revolution as a guiding movement, and enlisted peasant support. The Shining Path was most active in large portions of Southern Peru and practiced methods of terrorism, bombings, and assassinations. After Guzmán was captured in 1992, the Shining Path began a decline in impact and power.
Treaty of Tordesillas
The Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified in 1494, was an agreement between Spain and Portugal to divide the discovered land of the "New World." Portugal and Spain had both previously appealed to Popes to issue papal bulls giving them rights over discovered land, but disagreements over these papal bulls led the two countries to meet in Tordesillas in 1494 to construct the new treaty. The line of demarcation set out in the Treaty was at 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands, with Spain having rights to the land west of the line and Portugal having rights to the land east of the line. Other European countries were excluded but, as their settlement in the Americas shows, they simply ignored the Treaty. The treaty was a large part of which country—Spain or Portugal—influenced which parts of the Americas and explains why so much of the Americas were under Spanish control, and thus culture and language, and why Brazil was a Portuguese colony. The Treaty also acts as a symbol of control by colonial powers over the lands and people they encountered, becoming a legal justification for conquest, conversion, and land-grabbing.
Simón Bolivar
The Venezuelan liberator of several South American countries in the early 19th century. Bolivar's efforts helped establish Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Bolivar was born into a wealthy family and was educated in Spain and France where the ideas from the Enlightenment influenced him to liberate the Spanish colonies. Bolivar acted as President for Gran Colombia (Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, and Ecudaor) and played a crucial role in the administration of other recently independent latin american countries.
*War of 1898
The War of 1898, or the Spanish-American War, was fought between the U.S. and Spain after the explosion of the USS Maine. The war was actually just a segment of the Cuban War of Independence from 1895-1898, which was the last of three liberations wars that Cuba fought against Spain. The war lasted only ten weeks and resulted in the 1898 Treaty of Paris which gave the U.S. temporary control over Cuba and ceded to the U.S. from Spain control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine islands. The War was significant as an example of U.S. imperialism, an example of Spain's declining power, and for the country of Cuba who could not claim total victory and independence in a war that was meant to free them from colonizing powers.
The Columbian Exchange
The exchange of ideas, plants, animals, disease, technology, and human populations between the New World and the Old World at the end of the 15th century and into the 16th century.
Transatlantic Slave Trade
The forced migration of 12-15 million people from Africa to the Western Hemisphere from the middle of the 15th century to the end of the 19th century; the enslavement of African people who then were sold as property; often referred as the Middle Passage
Dollarization
The process of aligning a country's currency with the US dollar; often referred as currency substitution; mostly occurs in developing countries with a weak central government; allows for the creation of stability in the value of a foreign currency over a country's domestic currency
Garcilaso de la Vega
Vega chronicled the Spanish viceroyalty in Peru during the 16th century. Son of a Spanish conquistador and an Incan woman, he absorbed both traditions and wrote about them. His works detail Inca history and culure, explaining them from an unbiased account and justifying Inca society accordingly.
Encounter/Conquest
When Christopher Columbus stumbled across the Americas in 1492, he set the stage for the Spanish conquest of, or encounter with, the Americas. Hernán Cortés led the conquering of Tenochtitlan, in present-day Mexico, from 1519 to1521, while Francisco Pizarro led the charge further south to conquer the Inca, in modern-day Peru, around 1534. One important effect of the encounter is the Colombian exchange, which allowed foods, animals, diseases, and people to be traded between the Americas, Europe, and eventually Africa and Asia. The encounter also led to radical cultural devastation throughout the Americas as indigenous populations, especially in Mexico and the Caribbean, were devastated by disease and slavery.
Fidel Castro
charismatic leader of 1959 Cuban Revolution and 26th of July Movement (M-26-7); fought guerrilla war against US-backed Pres. Fulgencio Batista from the Sierra Maestra mountains; as Prime Minister of Cuba in 1959 and beyond, adopted Marxist-Leninist development model and initiated agrarian, education, and labor reforms in Cuba; driven by ideals of sovereignty, liberty, and anti-imperialism
Encomienda
colonial Lat. Am. land tenure and labor system; grant of labor and tribute on land, usually to a person who had done something for the crown; related terms: latifundio, minifundio, mita
Porfirio Diaz
dictatorship/presidency of Mexico 1876-1880, 1884-1911; achieved "supremacy and stability" through: violence, centralization of authority (lessening local autonomy), electoral fraud; pax porfiriana=economic modernization and development; presidency ended with beginning of Mexican Revolution in 1911 after bungled presidential election and calls for anti-reelection of Diaz, failure of export economy and labor strikes in early 1900s
Latifundio
large landholding, generally for commercial production of goods; part of tradition of land tenure and inequality in Latin America, dating back to colonial period; often targeted/broken up by state-mandated land reform efforts in 20th and 21st centuries
Cochabamba protests
protests that erupted in Bolivia for what was then termed the "Water Wars" after the government attempted to privatize water. It was important because it caused indigenous protests against multinational firms, and a huge increase in the price of an essential commodity.
Kuraka
quechua for the principal governor of a province, an official of the Inca Empire who held the role of the magistrate
Caudillos
strongment that have both military and political power. they find a strong base in the latifundistas, for they pormise protection in exchange for loyalty. political power was usually concentrated at the hands of caudillos, such was the case of the Dominican Republic under the control of Rafael Trujillo
Mita
system inherited from pre-colonial Peru, much list the encomienda system. In this sytem, laborers were forced to work, mostly in mines. The mita may be the prime example of transculturation, as something inherently Incan that was transformed