History of Science 133

Cognitive vs Affective Arguments

Scientists think cognitively with objective data and prefer to use/ listen to cognitive arguments. The public thinks affectively with emotional personal responses and prefer to use/listen to affective arguments. This is significant because it can cause a miscommunication between people and scientists. Also, it demonstrates why scientists and nonscientists have such divergent views on certain issues.

The Sick Role

Sick people are released from certain social obligations, but gain new obligations, such as taking care of themselves. If you don't follow the sick role, others may judge you or blame you for your continued illness. This is significant because everyone is at risk for future illnesses, so everyone is subject to self-manage risk of disease. Health-care advice can have moralizing undertones, such as the thought that smoking makes you a bad person. It is further important because life choices might not only be affecting you, but also future generations.

"Atoms for Peace" speech

The "Atoms for peace" speech was given by Eisenhower in 1953. His speech covered the initial restrictions on the flow of isotopes. The speech brought up the idea that science could be a way of bringing together nations and strengthen diplomatic ties. Furthermore, this shows that nuclear research and politics can overlap in a positive way.

Animal Welfare Act

The Animal Welfare Act was passed in 1966. It focused on how animals in research were acquired and created guidelines and regulations to help protect animal rights. It is significant because it was the first time the government got involved in animal research ethics. If a researcher wanted funding from the government, it had to follow these guidelines.

C elegans

model organism for the nervous system

UW Madison Primate Studies

proposed study on early life stressor and future risk of psychiatric disorders. caused lots of debate whether or not it was ethical.

"Back door" eugenics

"Back door" eugenics is Troy Duster's theory. He thinks eugenics can still be present in society without government intervention, but through societal norms and individual choices. This theory is significant because it demonstrates how eugenics is still present today. Also, that eugenics was not a one time thing, but can come back again in a different way through social prejudices.

Characteristics of Model organisms

-easy to work with in the lab - strong community of users - extensive research infrastructure - assumed to be representative of a larger group of organisms

Patent law viewpoints

1) Science norms have not changed -industry and science were never separate - good science can thrive in both academia and industry - pursuing similar projects 2) Practices have changed, but norms haven't - vitamin D milk 3) Norms have changed - motive for profit - harm doctor/ patient or researcher/ subject relationships - produces ghostwriting

20th vs 21st century biological explanations

20th century biology was deterministic. It was believed that genes controlled your fate, such as whether or not you would get a particular disease. 21st century biology is probabilistic. People may be more at risk for certain disease, but might not necessarily develop them. This is important because in the 20th century there was no motivation for people to take care of themselves, such as changing diet or to exercise. Deterministic viewpoints also led to eugenic policies that detrimental to certain people or groups of people. Probabilistic viewpoints were more optimistic. People have the motivation to be healthy in order to hopefully delay or prevent diseases that they are at risk of.

Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics

A court case in 2013 that questioned if the decision to treat genes as patentable subject matter should be reversed. The court decided that gene sequences are no longer patentable. This is important because it allowed many other companies to test BRCA genes, which could potentially lead to a variety of discoveries.

X-10 Reactor

A facility for fuel located in Tennessee in WWII. It turned Uranium 238 to Plutonium 239, which was needed to build the atomic bomb. This is of importance because it showed that science research needs more than just scientists to become a reality. There has to be infrastructure to support the needs of research. Also, this system led to making isotopes of other elements that can be useful for various research projects.

Baby M Case

A famous court case in 1988 where a couple, the Sterns, contact Mary Beth Whitehead to act as their surrogate. Whitehead's egg is inseminated with Stern's sperm and she agrees to carry the child for ten grand. After giving birth, she wants to keep the baby. She ended up having some custody rights to the baby. This is significant because it showed how the social and biological mother are split. Surrogacy was outlawed and eventually scientific inventions were created that break the genetic link between babies and surrogates.

Model Organisms

A model organism is a species that are intensively studied to understand something beyond themselves rather than to just understand the species itself. Model Organisms are important because it makes it easy for new researchers to start work with them as there is already so much research conducted prior and a large infrastructure built around them. However, model organisms are more prone to lock-in effects which means the model-organisms are used continuously and might not be the best organism for a particular study and that other organisms are ignored and overlooked.

Moral economy

A moral economy is unstated rules that define the mutual expectations and obligations of scientific research. A moral economy is important because it can determine who gets credit and helps the efficiency of research by promoting open exchange of research.

Human Genome Diversity Project

A project created to collect DNA samples from indigenous people to catalog genetic diversity. The project was never fully launched due to controversy. There were concerns about patenting and commercial gains. This is significant because it shows a breakdown of trust between scientists and indigenous people. Scientists must realize that scientific and social definitions of race are linked. Ignoring co-production can lead to the failure of scientific projects such as this one.

"Science: The endless Frontier"

A report published by Vannevar Bush post World War II in 1945. In the report he advocates for the formation of the National Research Foundation but thought that funding should be free from political influence and to focus on basic science that will eventually translate into benefits for society. This was significant because this was the plan chosen for the formation of the NSF. The government will now give money to research and should be mostly free of political influence so it will mainly be in the name of pure science, not to directly benefit the government/ military.

Buck V Bell

A test case for sterilization laws in 1927 when Carrie Buck was committed for being an "immoral imbecile" and having an illegitimate child. The case was upheld because it was the best for public welfare. This case is significant because it shows how the United States was a leader in eugenic reform and that it was international movement with popular support. Also, it demonstrates an era where there was an increase in the number of sterilizations.

Oppenheimer security hearings

A top Manhattan project scientist loses security clearance because he was thought to be a spy for the USSR in the 1940s. This is significant because it shows the tension between national security and openness of science. It brought up the debate whether important research should have secrecy during peace time.

Planaria

A type of worm that was associated with biochemical theory of memory in the 70s-80s. Planaria has properties similar to C elegant, which were the more preferred organism used of research. This shows that certain organisms might be ignored for research due to the lock-in effect. C elegant were locked in and Planaria were ignored for a time, even though Planaria could be just as useful for research.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A way to reproducing specific DNA sequences without isolating the sequence.

Academia vs Industry research

Academia - lots of freedom - no guaranteed funding - administration, teaching, writing grants, leaves less time for research Industry - choice of topic is controlled - don't have to apply for funding - focus mainly on research

Activist/Community-led Science

Activist/ community-led science are projects designed by non-scientists. They focus on issues that matter to the local communities involved in the project. It is significant because it showcases how the lay public can achieve scientific feats without the help of scientists; however, citizens science could raise security and safety concerns. Also, it demonstrates how ordinary citizens can impact science through organization.

Penicillin

Alexander Fleming in 1928 created anti-bacterial properties.

Asilomar conference

Asilomar conference was in 1975 when scientists gathered to discussed the risks recombinant DNA. They came up with a risk classification system and put a voluntary moratorium on the riskiest research. This conference is significant because it demonstrates scientists' efforts to self regulate were not enough to quell the concern about recombinant DNA. Also, it shows how scientists and nonscientists differed in their estimates of the risk of this research, and a lack of trust increased this divide.

UNESCO declaration of Race

Authorized by leading scientists in sociology, anthropology, and biology in 1950 that separates out biological from cultural definitions of race. It also describes race as myth that is dangerous. Genetic diversity is real, race is not. This is significant because if racial categories are so imperfect, then it brings into question whether they should be used at all. It further shows how the idea of race changes over time. Is race a social construct, biological, both, or neither?

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that behaviors are due to accumulated life experiences. The "Little Albert" experiment demonstrated this theory because "little albert" learned fear the rat after being conditioned with a loud sound but he was not scared before the conditioning. This is significant because it demonstrates the shift from eugenic thinking to behavioral thinking, by mid 20th century, behaviorism becomes the dominant model. Also, it shows how about mid 20th century there was change from nature oriented view back to nurture oriented view.

Havard College v Canada 2002

Can there be a patent on a genetically modified mouse? US: yes Canada: for the process, not the animal Europe: Challenged under the public order

How did the Animal Welfare Act change overtime?

Change of focus went from disease to suffering to well-being of animals

The Certainty Trough

Chart created by McKenzie in 1990 and it illustrates levels of certainty that the public has in regard to scientific information. The chart shows that those who are close to science but are not actually making the decisions are certain, the general public are uncertain, and scientists tend to be in the middle in the degree of uncertainty. This is significant because it shows why scientists and non-scientists have such divergent views on certain issues. Also, it shows the gap between academia and the public in American culture.

Cumbrian Sheep Farmers

Chernobyl radioactive fallout caused massive radiation waves throughout the English Isles. There was a conflict between farmers and scientists in assessing and solving the problems. This event is significant because it demonstrates the importance of lay expertise in science. Also, lay experts have a different kinds of knowledge than traditional experts and different assessment of risk which could prove to be crucial when solving a scientific problem.

Offshoring Clinical Trials

Clinical research done in locations that not the primary market for the drug. This is done because it is more studies can be done with larger number of patients and it is also faster and cheaper. There is a debate of the ethics behind this research because the drugs may be unsafe and if they are not, do the patients receive continuation of the drugs after the trial. This is significant because it calls into the question the effectiveness of the drugs. Companies can "tailor" patient populations to get more favorable outcomes. Also, studies conducted internationally may not be relevant for where the drugs will be marketed. As science becomes more globally integrated, it becomes harder to manage ethical concerns.

Colony collapse disorder

Colony collapse disorder is the widespread abandonment and death of bees and beehives. There was varying perspective on the cause of the problem between the beekeepers, government, and scientists. This event is significant because it demonstrates how lay expertise can be crucial is solving scientific problem. Also, it shows how lay expertise can be ignored by scientists when solving issues.

Diamond v. Chakrabarty

Diamond v. Charkrabarty is a case that ended up at the Supreme Court in 1980. It called into question whether a bacteria made through genetic transformation could be patented. It is significant because the court ruled that micro-organisms can be considered a manufacture. This means that alive organisms are patentable and opened the door for many other researchers to patent their inventions.

Donta Page Case

Donta Page was convicted of robbery, and was released in 1999. Four months after his release, Page raped and killed a female student. There was evidence that he had a history of severe physical abuse and suffered head injuries as a child. This suggests that he has brain dysfunction and is less culpable. This is significant because biological explanations can shift responsibility and blame. This could be beneficial or harmful depending on the circumstances. It could increase stigmatization against a particular group, such as Jensen's IQ argument comparing races, or it could relieve stigma, such as seeing alcoholism as a disease rather than a moral failing.

Earth Day

Earth Day was proposed by the Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson. The first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970. This event is significant because millions of Americans participated in peaceful protests for environmental reform. Also, it shows how the public participated in environmental reform and pressure for regulatory change around environmental issues comes largely from the public, not just the scientific community.

National Science Foundation

Established in 1950 it was a peer review process of distributing public funds to support basic research

Genetic Essentialism

Genetic Essentialism is reducing an individual down to their genes. Nelkin and Lindee proposed this idea in their article the "DNA Mystique" and argued that genetic essentialism allows people to be discriminated against on the basis of their genes. This concept is important because it demonstrates that legislation alone cannot resolve problems of discrimination. Also, it reflects the history of eugenics when genetic information is used for discrimination.

Genie and the Three Wishes

Genie - atoms of nuclear substances Wishes: 1) unlimited energy 2) Peace - Eisenhower's speech 3) Health - Cancer, medical imaging

Ghost Management

Ghost Management is formatting scientific articles with marketing in mind, particularly by the hands of pharmaceutical companies. It occurs when the author of scientific article is not credited with the research conducted and a journal decides to publish it. It is significant because it shows that not all research is conducted to find out the truth. The company funding the research most likely wants a specific outcome and so research may be biased and not true to science.

Human Growth Hormone Therapy

HGH therapy was developed by Genentech in the 1980s. It was intended for children with hormone deficiencies. Eventually, it was revised for children under the 1 percentile for height. This is significant because this could lead to a blurred line between treatment and enhancement. If commonly used, this could lead to a biological arms race.

Harley Kilgore

Harley Kilgore was a senator in mid 1940s. He believed that the National Science Foundation should support focused research that was set by citizens and funds should be spread geographically. He is significant because even though the NSF did not take up his vision, it still shows that people in politics are getting involved in science and how it should be organized.

Vitamin D milk

Harry Steenbock patented Vitamin D milk in 1920s at UW Madison. His reasons for patenting include protecting the public from "patent pirates", preventing advertisers from making unscientific claims, and to protect the Wisconsin dairy industry. This is important because it shows how practices might have changed due to technology transfer offices, but scientific norms have not. Steenbock conducted his research in the same manner as he would have if there were no technology transfer offices, but because there were, he could control the distribution of vitamin D milk. He was able to patent his research and gain profit, but still wanted to benefit the public.

Carson's Silent Spring

In 1962, Rachel Carson wrote a book called Silent Spring. The book focused on devastating environmental degradation cause by the widespread use of pesticides, especially DDT. This book is significant because it sparked the environmental movement in the 1960s. Also, the book's intended audience was the public which shows how pressure for regulatory change around environmental issues comes largely from the public.

"Ecology of justice" in urban asthma

In the 1960s in there rise in the number of asthma cases severely affect African Americans in poor urban neighborhoods. Scientists tried to find one major cause; however, it was found to be poor housing conditions and socioeconomic inequality that disproportionately affected African Americans in poor urban housing. This event is significant because it shows how systematic inequalities shapes the physical health of urban life. Also, the people there were other activists in the environmental movement in the 1960s other than hippies and middle class white housewives.

US/UK/Germany approach to governing biotechnology

In the US, decision about risky science and technology are made regulatory agencies or in the courts, and has a legalistic approach. In the UK, trusted civil servants lead public consultations exercises, and focuses on gathering different views and mediating between them. In Germany, representative groups are trusted with making decisions and they should explain the reasoning behind their decisions available for all to see. These differing approaches are significant because they show that different countries can come up with different structures for governing biotechnology. Also, they show that scientist's efforts to suppress concern about biotechnology was not enough and governments had to step in.

Scientist-Citizenship Partnerships

Involves non-scientists in the scientific process, but research questions and processes are set by the scientists. Focuses on education and awareness of scientific problems and methods. This is significant because it shows the collaborative nature between scientists and the lay public. Also, it shows how the degree of participation non-scientists in citizen science projects varies, they could be a source of labor or independent researchers.

Genetic Nondiscrimination Act

Is a federal law enacted in 2008 that protects individuals from genetic discrimination in health insurance and employment. The ELSI research program of the human genome project helped developed GINA. GINA is significant because it demonstrates the success of the ELSI research program. Also, shows that legislation alone cannot resolve problems of discrimination.

John Hinckley Jr

John Hinckley Jr. tried to assassinate President Reagan in 1981. Hinckley's attorney's tried to argue that he was schizophrenic and used a CAT scan to show a "shrunken" brain as evidence. Hinckley was found not guilty and was committed to a mental institution. This is significant because neuroscientists started to find themselves in demand as trial witnesses, and some neuroscientists claim they can identify people with "psychopathic brains". They can argue that these people are less culpable because they lack capacity for empathy, guilt, and remorse.

ELSI Research Program

Joint working group on the ethical, legal, and social implications of the human genome research funded in 1989. The research will aim to anticipate issues, examine the consequences, stimulate public discussion, and develop policy. This is significant because it develop GINA (genetic nondiscrimination act). Also, it shows how the ELSI approach still has gaps and that legislation alone cannot resolve problems of discrimination.

Biogenic Kinship

Kinship in Western cultures is biogenic meaning it is largely based on biological and especially genetic features. There is differentiation between biological and non-biological relatives. Relatedness remains even after social change, such as marriage. This is significant because as new reproductive technologies are introduced it can somewhat complicate kinship relations. There are now multiple ways of becoming a biological parent, which can be overwhelming and confusing to some people in Western cultures.

Lay Expertise

Lay expertise are individuals without formal credentials or training who have expertise on an issue, often through experience. Important in the case of colony collapse disorder on the varying perspectives between scientists and the beekeepers on the cause of the phenomena. Lay expertise is significant because lay experts often have different kinds of knowledge compared to traditional experts, and a different assessment of risk. Also, this difference in knowledge can be crucial in solving scientific problems.

Localized and Distributed Modes

Localized and Distributed modes are two different ways to tell a story. A localized story has a short length of time, has few actors, and typically contains an "aha" moment. Mullis' story is an example of Localized Mode. A distributed story takes place over a longer period of time. It contains many actors and contains more details, such as problems and barriers of the invention, and field tests. Rabinow's story is an example of distributed story telling. These types of story telling are important because it change how people perceive a concept. Localized stories attract people's attention, but may be inaccurate. Distributed stories might not be as enjoyable to hear, but are typically more accurate and give more insight to the scientific invention.

National Science Advisory Board for Bioterrorism

NSABB is a federal advisory committee that addresses related to biosecurity. In 2011, NSABB asked journal editors not to publish some details of influenza research. This is significant because it brings into question what is more important, global science or U.S. security concerns. This was the first time journals stalled publication and withheld information because of security concerns.

Mary Warnock

Mary Warnock is a British bioethicist. She came up with an ethical solution to the stem cell debate in the UK, which is the discussion between pre-embryo and embryo is set at 14 days. A researcher can use pre-embryos for stem cell research. This is significant because it shows how the governments of different countries get involved with biological research and debates. The U.S. still has not come up with a solution for the stem- cell debate that is as dependable as Mary Warnock's solution.

Melvin Calvin

Melvin Calvin won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1961. He grew plants in labeled CO2 for different lengths of time and separated out the radio-labeled compounds. He was able to trace photosynthesis this way. This is significant because it shows how scientific infrastructure can be repurposed for other forms of research. The system used for converting uranium into plutonium created the opportunity to make isotopes of other elements, such as carbon that was essential for Calvin's research.

Merton's norms for science

Merton's ideas of pure science that he wrote in 1942. The acronym CUDOS can be used. Communism, free sharing of information, Universalism, everybody should be able to do science, Disinterestedness, scientist should not have a stake in outcome, and Organized Skepticism, scientific community should critique other scientists' results. This is important because Merton believed this would produce science the fastest, but many others only saw it as an ideal that would not become reality.

Mr. Cycle

Mr. Cycle is an invention made in the 1980s that allowed PCR to be fully automated. The invention of PCR is important because it shows that PCR was not all that useful until it could be used in the lab on a larger scale. Without the invention of Mr. Cycle, PCR would just be a good idea, not an actual technique used because doing it manually would take too much time and resources.

Requirements for patentability

Novel (new), Non-obvious, and useful

Positive Eugenics

Positive eugenics is improving the genetic composition of the population by encouraging those with desirable traits to reproduce. Positive eugenics was promoted in the United States and Germany by "fitter family" competitions and the government giving incentives to upper class women to have babies. This is significant because it demonstrates how the eugenics movement was justified. Also, it shows how eugenics was an international movement with widespread popular support.

Non-medical Stimulant Use

Prescriptions for some psychotropic medications such as SSRIs and stimulants began to rise in the 1990s. Furthermore, the use of Adderall and Ritalin is increasingly common by college students. These drugs increase alertness and concentration. This is significant because these drugs prescribed to ADHD children already questioned if it is treatment or stimulants, but in college kids who do not have ADHD it is commonly believed to be a stimulant that alters the self. However, there is little evidence that stimulants enhance cognitive performance in healthy adolescents/adults. It does enhance well-being and motivation.

Previvors

Previvors are people who are somewhere in between being healthy and sick. For example, someone who had a high risk for breast cancer may have received a mastectomy. They did not have breast cancer, but they did have a new role to take on. This is important because being in this inbetween state creates new identities that society may not be conscious about. It also brings on new life-choices, such as whether to get a mastectomy or monitor the tissue.

Emergence of Big Science

Projects requiring large scale organization, massive funds, and complex technological systems ex) Manhattan Project, NASA, Human Genome Project

Pros and Cons about Patent Rights

Pros - provides protection for companies - Without patent protection, little incentive for commercial investment - gives companies time to develop new technologies without fear of competition Cons - Public pays twice, first for research, then for high cost of products - hampers openness and further downstream research - "winner takes all" approach - patents can lead to monopolies

Relational vs. Custodial pregnancy

Relational pregnancy is where the child will be kept and raised by the mother. Custodial pregnancy is a surrogate in which the child is not raised by this person. This is important because it complicates the definition of mother. Is the mother the one who raises the child, the one who carries it, or the one who is genetically related. When all three are not carried out by the same person, it can be confusing to define relationships.

Risk Society

Risk society is in modern times people with many resources can avoid risk while people with few resources are unable to avoid risk. Modernization of farming has brought new risks such as chemical fertilizers. This is significant because risks are unevenly distributed by American companies by operating outside of United States where safety standards are lower. Also, risk is a prevalent feature of society today and is tied to the development of science.

Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Rosalind Franklin was a scientist in 1955 that was studying Tobacco Mosaic Virus. She created X-ray diffractions of this virus. This research demonstrates that scientists at the time were more interested in studying RNA and proteins, not DNA.

Francis Peyton Rous

Rous was an editor for the Journal of Experimental Medicine from 1920s-40s. He exercised a form of "prior restraint" where he altered the presentation, description, and results of research involving animals subjects to bad publicity brought about by the antivivisectionists. This is important because this shows how politics crosses over science. Rous had to control what was acceptable in terms of morality to put in the article so that he would not upset the antivivisectionist or the general public. It further shows that reports on scientific research may be misleading to the public.

Moore vs Regents of the university of Cali (1990)

Ruled that Moore had no rights on the cells that were removed from his body. would produce a "chilling effect" on medical research.

Rosalind Franklin

Scientist in 1950s, x-ray crystallographer - diffraction pattern of DNA was important of development to double helix model.

Kennewick Man

Skeletal remains are found in 1996 in Washington that are 8000-9000 years old. Local tribes argued that the remains are Native American and should be reburied. Scientists argued that Kennewick man was not genetically related to local tribes, and therefore they had no claim. In 2016, Kennewick man was returned to a native tribe that showed there was a genetic between them and was reburied. This is significant because it shows how race is a genetic and social construct. Tribal leaders claim that social participation is more important than genetic relationships.

E.O. Wilson's Sociobiology

Sociobiology is book written by E.O Wilson in 1975. The book was aimed at understanding the biological basis of social behaviors. This is significant because it demonstrates how biological explanations for behavior gained popularity again in late 20th century. Also, it shows how biologists were worried that these explanations would cause social harm, and reinforce discrimination and prejudice.

Southern Wisconsin Training Colony and Training School

Southern Wisconsin Training colony and training school was sterilization institute. Women were sent there once they were deemed mentally deficient and then they were sterilized. This institute is significant because it shows how negative eugenics and sterilization was promoted in the state of Wisconsin. Also, it show how the United States was a leader in eugenic reform and that it was an international movement with popular support.

Raymond Gosling

Student who took the picture of DNA

Synthetic Detergents

Synthetic detergents were first marketed in the US in the 1940s. The detergents had high cleaning power; however, this lead to high phosphate concentration in the water and other environmental problems. Housewives contributed to phosphate reduction in several way such as consumer pressure on detergent manufacturers and advocating for local and state level detergent ban. This is significant because it shows how ordinary citizens can impact science through organization. Also, it shows how the public participated in environmental reform and pressure for regulatory change around environmental issues comes largely from the public, not just the scientific community.

Technology transfer offices

Technology transfer offices evaluate new inventions and helps researchers gain patent protection. Many of these offices were founded in the late 1980s-90s. This is important because it gave new roles to university professors. They could be a scientist as well as an entrepreneur by licensing their own inventions. Furthermore, this created an argument whether or not scientific norms have changed.

Bayh-Dole Act

The Bayh- Dole Act was passed In 1980. The act allowed universities to patent inventions developed with federal research funds. The act was important because it allowed the benefits of research to flow into society. It also gave incentive to universities to conduct research as they would make money off the patents.

The Bell Curve

The Bell Curve was a 1990s book written by psychologist Herenstein and political scientist Murray. The book argues that human intelligence is substantially influenced by both environmental and inherited factors, and there was a difference between races and classes. This is significant because it is a re emergence of eugenic thought patterns around the time of Human Genome Project. Also, it shows how biologists became worried that these scientific ideas would cause social harm, reinforcing discrimination and prejudice.

C57 Black 6

The Black 6 mouse is a popular model organism used in scientific research throughout late 1900s through present. The mouse has widespread use among research because it is more practical to build off research that has already been conducted on the mice. This is important because there is a whole infrastructure built around the Black-6 mouse. It is easy to obtain these mice and they are cheaper than other research organisms. It would difficult to stop using the mice for research because of this, even if the studies based on the black 6 may not transfer to other organisms and potentially harm research that way.

Brian Dugan Case

The Dugan Case took place in 2009. It was the first case in the U.S. (maybe in the world) where fMRI evidence is admitted to court. Dugan was accused of raping and murdering a ten year-old girl. Dugan's lawyer testifies that Dugan has a psychopathic brain. Dugan was eventually sentenced to death, but after long debate within the jury. This is significant because it shifts understanding of mental states and creates conflict within the courtroom, whether or not someone is actually guilty. Furthermore, this case started the potential to use biological evidence to help many people become less culpable.

The Green Revolution

The Green Revolution was the increasing concern about hunger post WWII, especially in growing populations. Charities such as the Rockefeller Foundation tried to tackle this problem. However, increased yield did not lead to decreased hunger. Only farmers could afford the equipment, water, and fertilizer needed to help solve this problem. This had long term consequences such as environmental pollution, changes in land ownership, and reliance in petroleum-based chemicals.

IOC Regulation of Caffeine

The International Olympic Committee set a threshold for caffeine use by athletes. Caffeine has been shown to enhance endurance. It is the only enhancement drug that is regulated and not outright banned. This is significant because it shows that some enhancements are socially acceptable, but others are not. It also shows that drug regulation can change over time based on the social acceptance of them at the time.

Love Canal

The Love Canal is a one mile stretch of canal in a Niagara Falls neighborhood that was used as a toxic waste dump. Lois Gibbs coordinated protests and media campaigns about the health concerns with the canal and its health effects on the nearby neighborhood. This is significant because it shows how ordinary citizens can impact science through organization. Also, it shows how citizen sciences advances democratic ideals by addressing issues of importance to local communities.

The "physicists' war"

The Physicists' War pertained to World War II that occurred in the 1940s. It was called this because the teaching of physics was encouraged and many military soldiers had to take physics courses. Also, the Manhattan Project, the making of the atomic bomb, also related to this name. This is significant because it was the first time that the government and the military got involved with science. Before the physicists war, science and military were completely separate, but during/after the war the government was particularly interested in funding research and education to soldiers.

RNA Tie Club

The RNA Tie Club was a "gentlemen's club" in the 1950s that included James Watson and Francis Crick. The club's main focus was to discover more about RNA and protein. This is significant because the club is not particularly interested in DNA, as many people would assume today. It also shows that not all scientists and researchers were in competition, but rather collaborated and worked with each other.

Rights based Philosophies

The Rights based philosophies was the idea created by Tom Regan in late 1900s that animals have some basic rights just as humans do. It is the opposite of utilitarianism. Animals have the right not be caused pain just because it promotes the common good. This is significant because it offers a new way of doing research. Animals should be used in research the same way humans are. It brings up the question, though, if new discoveries would be possible if research was constricted on animals.

Cambridge City Council Hearings

The city council hearings occurred on 1976 in Cambridge, MA where a moratorium on recombinant DNA research was being debated. City ended up voting on a three month moratorium and experiments had to be reviewed by both scientists and members of the public. These hearings were significant because they shows extreme concern from the public about research in this area. Also, it raises questions of whether lack of harm is evidence enough to prove that something is safe.

Co-Production

The concept that science and society evolve together, each responding to changes in the other. Race is a category of co-production. There are biological and social components that are defined by scientists and non-scientists. This is significant because ignoring this can lead to detrimental effects, such as immigration laws and other eugenic practices.

The "authentic" and the "medicated" self

The concern that if a child is taking medication such as Ritalin or Adderall for their ADHD, then it alters their real "authentic" self. However, many mothers feel that when their child is taking the medication, that is their real self and they are able to focus and have better chances at being successful. They see the ADHD behaviors as a limited version of their child. This is significant because it shows that there is a lack of distinction between medication and enhancement. Is it evening the "playing field" for ADHD children or giving them an advantage? It is further significant because it shows how people may view the self differently. Is the self the one that has the most potential to be successful or is it the one where they are displaying their "natural" behaviors.

Deficit Model

The deficient model says that public resistance to science is based on a lack of understanding, and therefore education will lead to acceptance. However, research and evidence has not supported the deficit model when it comes to accepting new technologies or science. This is significant because it shows that providing more information will not address the root of public concerns. Also, deficit model ignores religious, cultural, or personal reasons for opinions on science.

Biosociality

The formation of social relationships and the production of identity based on genetic or biological conditions. Allowed families with children with specific diseases to met up, share stories, and create a new collective identity. This is significant because it has consequences for individual identity, but also for collective action. Also, biologically-based collectives can become powerful interests groups that lobby government, raise money, and raise awareness.

Gene gun

The gene gun was invented in the early 1980s by Edward Wolf and John Sanford. The gene gun made it possible to emplace genes into plants. Wolf and Stanford each made millions. There were other people involved in helping making the gene gun but they do not receive credit. This story is of importance because it shows that even thought there are many people involved in an invention, only a few get credit for it and get rewarded for it.

Brain Death in Japan

The idea of brain death is very controversial in Japan. People in Japan are very hesitant to accept brain- death as actual death, whereas in the U.S. if a loved one is brain- dead it is commonly believed that the person is also dead despite the fact that all their other organs may still function properly. This might have to do with the fact that Western culture focuses more on the individual and Eastern societies focus more on the group as a whole. The organs of brain- death people in the U.S. are removed and given to others in need. In Japan, organ transplants are not common. This is significant because it shows how different cultures view the body, and therefore health and treatment differently. The healthcare of the West cannot always serve as a model for other countries because their morals and ethics differ.

Biological Determinism

The idea that heredity or biology strongly controls human behavior. This is important because it leaves little room for people to change and improve. It also reinforces discrimination against already disadvantaged groups. Furthermore, it leaves no role for policy measures.

Cornell Synchrotron

The laboratory for the synchrotron was set up at Cornell in the 1930s. The synchrotron was a very powerful source of x-rays that was used by physicists and then eventually biologists for their research. Synchrotron infrastructure shows funding switched from physicists to biologists as new information and knowledge is acquired. Also, it shows how big physics infrastructure make new biological discoveries possible.

Weird Subjects

The typical subjects of psychology research are WEIRD, standing for Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. WEIRD subjects are outliers on most psychological tests. This is significant because it shows how people with different backgrounds might process information differently than others. It shows that testing results are not only based on a person's DNA (biology) but also their social and cultural background (nurture).

Type 1/Type 2 Risk

Type I risk more stringent regulatory process while type II risk is a less stringent regulatory process. When assessing the risk of using pesticides in the wake of the colony collapse disorder beekeepers had differing opinions of assessing of risk compared to the scientists and government. This difference is significant because it determines the consequences coming from the different types of risk. For example, Type I risk farmers will stop using the pesticides but they lose money. On the other hand, Type 2 is the risk of the bees dying off and the ecosystem is altered.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is the idea to create the greatest good for the greatest number. Utilitarianism can be applied to animal research, such as stating use of animals in research is ethical if it produces great benefit for many people. Utilitarianism is significant because it created the question how much benefit is needed to outweigh the harm? It is difficult to measure harm and benefit and therefore utilitarianism caused many debates in the scientific community and general public.

Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF)

WARF was founded in 1925. It is a technology-transfer organization that allows the University of Wisconsin to have patents derived from research that was conducted on campus. WARF is significant because it creates incentive for research and it also helps contribute to the state's economy. WARF helps the benefits of research to flow into society.

Bio-prospecting/Bio-privacy

Western companies using the patent system to profit from indigenous knowledge. Western countries continue to extract biological resources from the developing countries, such as WARF with the Brazzein patent in the Global South. This is significant because developing countries have different consequences than developed countries in this situation. They have more precarious financial situations and have much less bargaining power with transnational companies. While developed countries profit from these patents, undeveloped countries may suffer more because of it.

Monsanto Canada Inc. v Schmeiser 2004

can Schmeiser be sued for growing non_GM canola if the seeds landed on his property? Yes. Unauthorized use of the invention

Thomas H Morgan and the Fly people

distinct community of fly labs formed in the early 20th century - share mutant flies and new technologies with each other - established a moral economy -- credit goes to person who did the work (not who had idea) -- if you get mutant stocks, you have give back stocks -- have to describe what you're doing with the stocks

Manhatten Project

established in 1942, nuclear weapons,

Rockefeller Foundation

one of the largest drug and chemical companies of scientific research before WWII

Radioisotopes

unstable isotopes that decay over time, emitting particles (radiation) - allowed to trace out movement of molecules through an ecosystem and trace photosynthesis