history paper III

tensions in the wartime alliance against the Axis powers- Potsdam Conference, July-August 1945

-Then Truman came into office and ordered the Potsdam Conference to meet with the USSR about what it's doing. Truman let Stalin make adjustments to the Polish-German border, but he did not agree to let the Russians claim any reparations from the American, French, and British zones of Germany. This caused Germany to now be divided with the west being friendly to the US and the east taken over by the USSR and made into a communist country -Issue warning to Japan to surrender unconditionally; hold war-crime trials of Nazi leaders

tensions in the wartime alliance against the Axis powers- Yalta Conference, February 1945 pt.2

-There was still no decision about what was going to happen to Poland though. Stalin's armies already occupied it and created communist governments in one part, while Roosevelt and Churchill were still against that. Stalin ended up agreeing to have a place for the people who were democratic in office and allowed for an unspecified election day for Poland to decide what they wanted. There was also still disruption about the future of Germany. Roosevelt wanted to reunite the country, while Stalin wanted to keep a strict dismemberment of the nation, and the end result was very vague and unstable. They decided that for the moment, the four of the five major powers would take control of different parts of Germany until they decided to reunite it in the future. -The division of Germany and Austria into Soviet, French, British and US zones of occupation was supposed to be temporary; however, the eastern zone in Germany under Soviet occupation gradually became a new Communist state, the German Democratic Republic. The conflict over Germany was in part a conflict over differing views of national security & economic needs -Soviets wanted weak Germany for security reasons and large war reparations for economic reasons - The US and Great Britain refused to allow reparations from their western zones bc both viewed economic recovery of Germany as important to the stability of Central Europe - The Soviets, fearing a restored Germany, tightened their control over East Germany

How important were the personalities of the leaders of the Great Powers in shaping the Cold War?

-Truman -Stubborn and willing to stick to something -Less of a politician/ schmoozer/ deal maker than Roosevelt -Did not want to be the one that gave up the world to Communism -Why we see the Truman doctrine/ containment -Stalin -Megalomaniac -Someone obsessed with power -Paranoid about the spreading out of the West -Worried about his self defense and wanting to provide a buffer for himself and the Soviets

After effects of airlift

By May 1949, Soviets finally opened highways to Berlin. A major long-term consequence of Berlin crisis was creation of 2 Germanies: Federal Republican of Germany (west germany, US ally), and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany, soviet satellite)

Reinterpretations of the Cold War in the light of new archival sources

Since the opening of the Soviet archives post 1990, there has been a shift to attributing prime responsibility to Stalin. This stance often seems very close to the traditional view. What counts is how appropriate the use of this kind of terminology is in relation to the extract, and how effectively the extract can be used to support it

How far were inherent tensions between East and West bound to resurface in 1945?

-The wartime alliance between the US and Soviet Union was just a temporary halt of poor relations in the past. -The Bolshevik Revolution established a Communist government in Russia (1917) → immediately viewed as a threat to all capitalist countries -Led to the Red Scare of 1919 in the US -The US refused to recognize the Soviet Union until 1933 -In the Non Aggression Pact of 1939, Stalin and Hitler agreed to divide up Eastern Europe → Roosevelt's advisers concluded that Joseph Stalin and Communists couldn't be trusted.

tensions in the wartime alliance against the Axis powers- Yalta Conference afterwards

- After the Yalta Conference, Roosevelt watched the Soviet Union establish many pro-communist governments throughout Europe and he had refused to make changes in Poland like he said he would - Distrust became hostility beginning in 1946 as Soviet forces still occupied countries of central and Eastern Europe - Elections were held by Soviets as promised by Stalin at Yalta, but the results were manipulated in favor of communist candidates - 1946 to 1948, communist dictators came to power -Although apologists argued that Russia needed buffer states or satellites (nations under control of a great power) as protection against another Hitler-like invasion from the West; the US and British govs were alarmed by Soviet takeover of eastern Europe. They believed it a flagrant violation of self-determination, genuine democracy, and open markets. British especially wanted free elections in Poland, whose independence had been the issue that started WWII

increasing tensions in a divided Europe- satelite states in Eastern Europe

-After the Yalta Conference, Roosevelt watched the Soviet Union establish many pro-communist governments throughout Europe and he had refused to make changes in Poland like he said he would. Then Truman came into office and wanted to change that -Satellite states in Eastern Europe -Beginning in 1946, distrust turned into hostility as Soviet forced remained in occupation of countries in central & Eastern Europe -Soviet elections were manipulated in favor of Communist candidates -1946-1948, communist dictators came to power and loyal to Moscow. -Apologists argued that Russia needed buffer states or satellites as protection against another invasion from the West -→ US and British gov were alarmed by Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe. They thought it was a flagrant violation of self-determination, genuine democracy, and open markets. The British especially wanted free elections in Poland, whose independence had been the issue that started WWII.

increasing tensions in a divided Europe- Occupation zones in Germany and Iron Curtain

-At the end of WWII, the division of Germany and Austria into Soviet, French, British, and US zones of occupation was supposed to be temporary. In Germany, though, eastern zone under soviet occupation gradually became a new communist state = the German democratic republic -Conflict over Germany was in part a conflict over differing views of national security and economic needs -Soviets wanted weak Germany for security and large war reparations for economy -The US and Great Britain didn't want reparations from their western zones because both viewed the economic recovery of Germany as important to the stability of Central Europe. -Soviets, fearing restored Germany, tightened their control over East Germany. Since Berlin was in their zone, they attempted to force Americans, British and French to give up their assigned sectors of the city -Iron curtain -Refers to Soviet Satellite states of Eastern Europe

How far was ideology the factor which created Cold War tensions?

-Both are isolationist and highly skeptical of foreigners -Communist vs. Capitalism -These are very different, competing philosophies, which created tensions. -Both wanted to spread their ideology

How far was economics the factor which created Cold war tensions?

-Communism vs. Capitalism -Both are world powers and have a history of exporting their doctrines. This means their expansionism would clash. -The US takes the lead in creating and funding the International Monetary Fund (regulated interest rates to promote world trading) and the World Bank (promote growth in war-ravaged areas). The USSR declines

tensions in the wartime alliance against the Axis powers- Yalta Conference, February 1945 pt.1

-During World War II, the Yalta Conference took place to discuss the reorganization of Europe. In this conference, the United Nations was distributed among the five major powers (US, Britain, France, USSR, and China) -Germany would be divided into occupation zones; there would be free elections in liberated countries of Eastern Europe (even tho Soviet troops technically controlled it); Soviets would enter war against Japan (August 1945); new world peace organization (UN) would be formed at a conference in San Francisco

Revisionist Approach

-Historians challenged this view and shifted more of the focus onto the United States, generally through an economic approach which stressed the alleged aim of the US to establish its economic dominance over Europe -Began in 1960s, during the time of public unhappiness over the Vietnam War -Praised Roosevelt for his understanding of Russia's historical needs for security on its eastern borders. Truman misunderstood and overreacted to Russia's historic need to secure its borders. -Truman was blamed for antagonizing the Soviets with his blunt challenge of their actions in Poland and the Balkans. -Some concluded that Truman dropped an atomic bomb on Japan to send a message to Stalin to remove his troops from Eastern Europe. -Others argued that US capitalism's need for open markets in Europe and Asia was the main reason for US govt's anticommunist policies

tensions in the wartime alliance against the Axis powers- Tehran Conference, November 1943

-In November of 1943 Roosevelt and Churchill went to Teheran to meet Stalin. In that conference, Stalin agreed to join the war in the pacific if the US needed it (invade Germany and eventually join the war against Japan), and Roosevelt said that he would establish a second front in Europe (British and Americans would begin their drive to liberate France in spring of 1944). While this conference was thought to be positive, there were also cracks in it. -The issue was because of the future of Poland after the war because Stalin wanted to add more territory to the USSR and include some of Poland, but he also wanted to create a communist government which Roosevelt and Churchill were against. They ended up not addressing it though. -Stalin also complained because the British and Americans waited until 1944 to open a second front in France.

How far was security the factor which created Cold war tensions- US?

-In response to Stalin spreading their influence, the US has a containment policy. This is evident in the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine. -The National Security Act 1947 created the -Department of Defense To coordinate operations of army, navy, air force) and Secretary of Defense. -The National Security Council advises the president on security matters and coordinate the making of foreign policy in the Cold War -1950, recommended in NSC-68 the following measures: quadruple US gov defense spending to 20% of GNP, form alliances w/ non-communist countries around the world; convince the American public that a costly arms building was imperative for the nation's defense. -The Central Intelligence Agency gathers facts in foreign governments. -Selective Service System (1948) and peacetime draft conscripts young men 19-25 -Atomic weapons -After the Berlin crisis, scientists in Soviet Union and US engaged in an arms race to develop superior weapons systems. -1945-1949, US = only nation to have atomic bomb -1949, Soviets tested their first atomic bomb -1952, hydrogen bomb (thousand times stronger than A-bomb) added to US arsenal

Traditional Approach

-Interpretations of the Cold War were generally produced after early WW2. They blame the Soviet Union and Stalin's expansionism for the Cold War. Truman's policies were a reasonable response to Soviet efforts to increase communist influence in the world -Soviet government under Stalin started the conflict by subjugating the countries of Eastern Europe in the late 1940s. -Franklin Roosevelt failed to understand the Soviets' intentions, so he is severely criticized for his agreement at Yalta. -The Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, and NATO finally checked Soviet expansion in Europe. -The US in the Cold War was viewed as the defender of the "free world."

Post-Revisionist ApproacheS

-Moved towards a more balanced view in which elements of blame were attached to both sides or that the conflict was inevitable -[on the exam, either say it was neither or both, and if inevitable, make sure to state inevitable (usually w/ neither)]. -Cold War as the unintended result of a series of misunderstandings on both sides. -Each action by one side to increase its security was judged as an act of aggression by the other side. -A prime example was the arms race in nuclear weapons

The emergence of the 'New' Cold War history

-Occurs as historians have had more access to Soviet archives after the fall of the Soviet Union in the beginning of the 1990s. -Sometimes this could be classified as Post-Post- Revisionist in that it stills claims that the Cold War was an inevitable global struggle between the two ideas and it is both of their faults, but it slightly ticks the blame towards Stalin because of his political set up where he had unilateral power to make decisions all on his own while Truman had to consider Congress and an opposing political party.

How far was security the factor which created Cold war tensions- USSR?

-Stalin wanted to guarantee the security of the Soviet Union -Stalin was determined to not make Germany a threat again. He spread into Eastern European countries after WWII to provide a buffer against Western Europe and Germany. -North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was for collective security; however, it strengthened the containment policy by stationing US troops in Western Europe as a deterrent against a Soviet invasion. Thus, the containment policy led to a military building and major commitments abroad. This resulted in helping Germany reintegrate and the militarization of the Cold War. -The Soviet Union makes the Warsaw Pact (soviet version) for the defense of the Communist states of Eastern Europe. -"Collective security" in Korean Conflict. US supports South Korea due to the domino theory, taking control and providing all the resources. -Evaluating US policy: -Critics of NATO and defense buildup argued that Truman only intensified Russian fears and started an unnecessary arms race. BUT time would prove that NATO was one of the most successful military alliances. In combination w/ deterrent (decreasing) power of nuclear weapons, NATO effectively checked Soviet expansion in Europe & thereby maintained uneasy peace until Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.

tensions in the wartime alliance against the axis powers- Casablanca, January 1943

-Tensions started with the alliance against the Axis powers in January 1943 when Roosevelt and Churchill met to discuss the Allied Strategy. Stalin was invited, but declined because the two leaders did not accept his demand- the immediate opening of a second front in Western Europe -Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to invade Sicily and demand Unconditional surrender" from the Axis powers

The Marshall Plan

-The Marshall Plan was also a part of the containment policy and it said that the US would provide economic assistance to all European nations that would join in drafting a program for recovery. Its overall effect was to keep democracy in the places that supported the US so that the USSR's communist ideas would not infiltrate them. It was in response to: -After WWII, Europe was destroyed, short of food, and deep in debt. The harsh winter of 1946-47 further demoralized Europeans, who already went through depression and war. Discontent encouraged the growth of the communist party (esp in France and Italy). The Truman administration feared the western democracies might actually vote Communists into power -Extensive program of US economic aid to help nations of Europe revive economies & also strengthen democratic govs -1947, Marshall Plan: $17 billion European Recovery Program -1948, $12 billion in aid for distribution to countries of Western Europe over 4 yrs -The Soviet Union & Eastern European satellites were also offered Marshall Plan aid, but they refused, fearing their countries might become dependent on the US -Effects -Worked: Massive infusion of US dollars helped Western Europe achieve self-sustaining growth by 1950s; Ended real threat of communist political successes in that region; Also bolstered US prosperity by greatly increasing US exports to Europe. -But, also deepens rift between non-Communist West and Communist East

peacemaking at the end of WWII

-The United Nations was created to preserve peace, capitalized on cooperation, and it was different from the League of Nations in that it gave veto power to the Security Council, which had the 5 major allies of wartime (including US and Soviet Union). Optimists hoped these nations would be able to reach agreement on international issues -Since any one of these have veto power, it can create tension between the US and Russia -There was some Failure in the UN, because it did nothing about the disarmament of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union rejected a plan for regulating nuclear energy and eliminating atomic weapons which is interpreted by some American leaders as proof that Moscow didn't have peaceful intentions -The US also offered the Soviets participation in the new International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) -Created at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. Initial purpose was to fund rebuilding of a war-torn world -The Soviets declined to participate, because they viewed the bank as an instrument of capitalism

The Truman Doctrine

-Truman and his three top advisors adopted "containment policy" -Believed only containment of Russian expansive tendencies would cause the Soviets to eventually back off their communist ideology of world domination and live in peace with other nations -In the Truman Doctrine, Truman started the containment policy to trap communism and its idea in Europe with the USSR and stop the country from invading other democratic countries and taking over -In response to 2 threats -Communist-led uprising against the gov in Greece -Soviet demands for some control of Turkey's Dardanelles -Truman asked Congress (1947) for $400 million in economic and military aid to assist the "free people" of Greece and Turkey against "totalitarian" regimes. -While Truman's alarmist speech may have oversimplified the situation in Greece & Turkey, it gained bipartisan support from republicans and democrats in congress

Berlin Airlift

-Truman did not want to do that, so instead he ordered a military challenge to the blockade which was an airlift to supply the city with food, fuel, and other needed goods. It continued for 10 months and was a symbol for the West's resolve to resist communist expansion -Truman sent 60 bombers capable of carrying atomic bombs to England bases. The world waited for war outbreak, but Stalin decided not to challenge the airlift

Berlin Blockade

-Truman had reached an agreement with England and France to merge the three western zones into a new West German republic. Stalin responded in 1948 with a tight blockade around the western sectors of Berlin. He did this because if Germany was not to be officially divided, the country's western government would have to abandon its outpost in the heart of the Soviet controlled eastern zone -June 1948, Soviets cut off all access by land to Berlin (german city). -Truman dismissed plans to withdraw from Berlin, but also rejected the idea of using force to open up roads through the Soviet-controlled eastern zone

How have the perspectives on the Cold War of Russian historians differed from those in the West?

-Western historians follow a more traditional approach that puts more of the blame on the Soviet Union -Russian historians follow a more Revisionist approach or Post-Revisionist approach that either blames the US or absolves the USSR of total responsibility