Hobbes

How does Hobbes respond on pp. 117-118 to the objection that the life of the subjects of a commonwealth is miserable?

Living under a miserable commonwealth is better than having no sovereign, which means there will be war. A state of war is much more unbearable than giving up some civil liberties to live in peace.

According to Hobbes on p. 76, what are the three main causes of quarrels among men? Explain how Hobbes thinks that each of these causes leads men to quarrel.

1. Competition a. Gain i. Master of other man's possessions (persons, wives, children, cattle) 2. Diffidence a. Safety i. Defend themselves 3. Glory a. Reputation i. For trifles or reflection in those around themselves

What six reasons does Hobbes offer on pp. 108-109 for rejecting Aristotle's claim that men are by nature political animals who are naturally capable of living sociably together? Explain.

1. Men are constantly in competition for honor and dignity a. Leads to envy, hatred, and war 2. Men's private good is more important to them than the common good a. Don't work together, selfish, pride, war 3. Men see themselves as wiser, better able to govern, and strive to innovate a. Leads to distraction and war 4. Men can say good that sounds evil and can say evil that sounds good a. Makes peace troubling, war 5. Men love to show their wisdom and control the actions of others a. Retaliation and war 6. Men's agreements are by covenant only a. Need a common power that keeps them in fear of breaking them, otherwise war

On p. 74, Hobbes claims that men are naturally equal to one another in body and mind. What evidence does he provide on pp. 74-75 to support this claim? Explain.

As for physical differences, the weak can gang together and defeat the strong. As for intelligence differences, that all comes down to time and practice. Practice and time -> equality All men are equal under the law.

How does Hobbes define "contract" on p. 82? What is the relationship between a contract and a right?

Contract: mutual transferring of a right. This is how rights are transferred amongst people, by mutual, beneficial agreement.

What does Hobbes mean when he says on p. 75 that men naturally will feel diffidence toward one another? What does Hobbes think that men will naturally do as a result of this feeling of diffidence? Explain.

Men feel inadequate and will see others as superior to themselves, but they think that they themselves should be superior. As a result, they go to war to show their dominance.

On pp. 75, Hobbes argues that two consequences will follow from the natural equality of ability between men. What are the two consequences? Why will they follow from the natural equality of men? Explain.

Diffidence/competition War Men will compete because if they feel inferior to someone else, but actually think they are superior to everyone, they will go to war to show their strength and not feel inferior.

How does Hobbes summarize the laws of nature on p. 99? How does Hobbes think that this summary of the laws of nature can help men understand the laws of nature? Explain.

Don't do anything to another which you would not do to yourself. This makes sense and is reasonable to everyone, and can be easily learned and applied.

According to Hobbes on pp. 87-88, what passion can we count upon to motivate men to keep their contracts? Why can we count on this passion but not on others? Explain.

Fear of the consequences of breaking them. The other passion is glory, which isn't as commonly found. Fear is innate to everyone and no one wants to have it. If people fear a stiff consequence if they choose to break a contract, they are much less likely to do so because everyone wants to feel and be safe.

According to Hobbes on p. 109, what is the only way that men can create a commonwealth that will enable them to fulfill their desires? Explain.

Give up their rights to one man (or body), called the sovereign, who leads by terror, so that they can live in peace and not war.

According to Hobbes on p. 94, can a man be injured by an action to which he consents? Why or why not? Explain.

No. A man cannot be injured by an action to which he consents because he explicitly agreed to it. Also, the perpetrator has a fundamental right to do as he pleases unless he made a previous covenant taking that right away. In this case, the new covenant allowing him to hurt another by their consent releases him from the old covenant.

How does Hobbes define "person" on p. 101? What is a natural person? What is an artificial person? Explain.

Person: Words/actions are considered either as his own, or as representing the words/actions of another man, or of any other thing to whom they are attributed, whether by fact or fiction. Natural person: Words and actions are their own. Artificial person: Words and actions are someone else's.

According to Hobbes on p. 104, how is it possible to make a multitude of men into one person? Explain.

Place all of their wills and opinions into one person who represents them.

How does Hobbes define "injustice" on p. 81? How does Hobbes think that injustice is related to the renunciation or transfer of a right?

Injustice is breaking a valid covenant. (contradiction) If you voluntarily renounce or transfer a right, and then try to take that right back, that is unjust.

What does Hobbes mean when he says on p. 99 that the laws of nature always bind in foro interno, but they do not always bind in foro externo? Explain this distinction in your own words, as clearly and simply as you can.

The laws of nature plant a desire for them to be followed in theory (in foro interno), but they are not always applicable and followed in practice (in foro externo).

If a group of men represents a multitude of men, why must the majority of the group be taken to speak for the entire multitude? Explain.

The majority could take out the minority by simple strength of numbers, so they are therefore superior.

According to Hobbes on p. 78, what three natural desires or passions of men naturally incline men to avoid war and seek peace? Explain in your own words why each of these passions would incline men toward peace and away from war.

• Fear of death o War has a high risk of dying, don't want to die, seek peace • Desire of comfortable living o Want to live our lives comfortably and safe, don't want to be constantly fighting • Hope by their industry to obtain them o Safe way to obtain and keep goods

What three examples of the existence of the state of war does Hobbes offer on pp. 77-78? Explain in your own words how each example displays the characteristics of what Hobbes calls the state of war.

• We arm ourselves when we travel/leave o Afraid of getting attacked/killed • We lock our doors when we sleep o Afraid of being broken into and killed • We lock our chests when we're in our house o Don't trust others

According to Hobbes on p. 80, what is the first law of nature? Why does Hobbes think that men should obey the first law of nature?

1st Law of Nature: Seek peace when it is possible to obtain If there is peace, there is a greater chance of survival.

According to Hobbes on p. 80, what is the second law of nature? Why does Hobbes think that men should obey the second law of nature?

2nd Law of Nature: If others will do so too, lay down rights to sovereign to obtain peace. Need to avoid war at all costs. If anything could lead to war, it needs to be given up

According to Hobbes on pp. 112-113, how, if at all, can a sovereign of a commonwealth injure the subjects?

A sovereign cannot injure the subjects because every subject is the author of all the sovereign's actions and judgments, while the sovereign only personates the subjects. This means you'd be accusing yourself of injuring yourself, which isn't just.

How does Hobbes define "actor" and "author" on pp. 101-102? Explain.

Actor: acts and represents someone else. Author: owns own words and actions and has authority.

According to Hobbes on pp. 109-110, how is a commonwealth by acquisition created? How is a commonwealth by institution created? Explain.

By acquisition: through war, sovereign subdues enemies to his will and grants them their lives if they follow. By institution: through politics, men agree to submit to one man voluntarily.

What two reasons does Hobbes give on pp. 91-92 for concluding that it is foolish to think that there is no such thing as justice? Explain both of Hobbes's reasons in your own words, as clearly and simply as you can.

Can't kill the sovereign and gain power without showing others that you can be killed after. Have to have the help of others in a state of war.

How does Hobbes define "justice" on p. 89?

Justice: honoring agreements (covenants) Injustice: breaking agreements (covenants)

According to Hobbes on p. 110, how does a multitude of men institute a commonwealth?

Everyone agrees and covenants that one man or an assembly can represent (be an actor) the person of them all. Must obey the sovereign they put in place in order to have peace and safety.

According to Hobbes on p. 89, when does justice begin to play a role in human life? Why does it begin to play a role at this time and not before? Explain.

If begins to play a role when there is a covenant and a powerful, fearful sovereign. Without these, no covenants are made. It doesn't play a role prior because if there is no powerful sovereign, nothing is unjust and covenants are frequently broken.

What evidence does Hobbes offer on pp. 76-77 to support his claim that men naturally tend to invade and destroy one another? Explain.

If people are in a state of war, they want to exert their dominance so they no longer feel inferior. If successful, they can then be in a state of peace.

How does Hobbes define "law of nature", "right of nature", and "liberty" on p. 79? Explain the definitions in your own words, as clearly and simply as you can.

Law of Nature: a precept or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to so something that harms his own life or takes away the means of preserving his life Right of Nature: liberty each man has to use his own power to preserve his life Liberty: absence of external impediments taking away man's power to defend himself

According to Hobbes on p. 80, what is the right of nature? Why does Hobbes think that men have this right?

Right of Nature: Right to defend yourself at all costs Men have this right because they also have the right to everything, including life.

According to Hobbes on p. 106, what is the desire that motivates men to create a commonwealth? Explain.

The desire to get out of war and gain peace. Life is safer this way.

According to Hobbes on pp. 115-116, how, if at all, should the powers of sovereignty be divided among different branches of government in order to preserve the liberties of the subjects of the commonwealth?

The powers of the sovereignty should not be divided up because "a house divided among itself cannot stand." Separating powers -> division amongst groups -> competition -> war.

What evidence does Hobbes offer on p. 78 to support his claim that in the state of war, nothing is unjust? Explain.

There is no common ruler/power among the combatants Thus, no laws Thus, no injustice

According to Hobbes on pp. 111-112, under what circumstances, if any, does the sovereign forfeit the sovereign's right to govern the subjects of the commonwealth? Why?

The sovereign cannot forfeit his right to power. Giving up power -> Division -> War. We don't want war, so the sovereign cannot give up his power.

According to Hobbes on p. 114, what property rights do the subjects of a commonwealth have? Why?

The sovereign decides what property rights each of the subjects have so that things cannot be taken from them by other subjects. Before this, men have a right to everything, which causes war. Propriety is necessary to peace because men like to own and keep things.

According to Hobbes on pp. 113-114, to what freedoms of belief, thought, and expression are the subjects of a commonwealth entitled? Why?

The subjects of a commonwealth only have the freedoms the sovereign says they are entitled to. Anything seen as dangerous to the commonwealth by the sovereign can be outlawed. This is because new and controversial ideas can often lead to civil war.

How does Hobbes describe human life during the periods when "men live without a common power to keep them all in awe"? (p. 76) What name does Hobbes assign to such periods? What name does Hobbes assign to all other periods?

They are in a state of war, in which there is: • No state of society, knowledge, time, etc. • Continual fear and danger of violent death • The "life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" All other periods are times of peace.

According to Hobbes on pp. 110-111, under what circumstances, if any, can the subjects of a commonwealth abolish the commonwealth or alter its form of government? Why?

They cannot abolish the commonwealth or attempt to alter it because they've all entered into a covenant with the sovereign that they will be unconditionally obedient. Unless the sovereign gives them permission to, the commonwealth can't be changed.

According to Hobbes on pp. 84-85, under what circumstances is a contract or covenant of mutual trust void? Why is such a contract void under these circumstances? Explain.

War. Words are easily broken in a state of war. The covenant is much less likely to be followed.

How does Hobbes respond on pp. 92-93 to those who say that the law of nature is not based upon the preservation of man's earthly life but upon man's attainment of eternal happiness? Explain.

We can't contract with God because we don't understand God, there is no third party to judge these agreements, and God is a divisive issue which can lead to war. Natural law only deals with natural things.

According to Hobbes on p. 86, is a contract or covenant made in fear binding? Why or why not? Explain.

Yes, and it is more likely to be followed if there's fear in not fulfilling the obligation.