HRM Exam #3

Charisma is an attributional process; people will ascribe charisma to a leader based on:

1. Degree of discrepancy between status quo and leader's vision/goals 2. Innovative means are used to create change 3. Realism of assessments of resources available for change and barriers to change 4. Impression management effectiveness

Most effective influence tactics for each outcome

* commitment to a task - Inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, consultation * Compliance - Exchange, ingratiation * Resistance - Coalition, pressure, upward appeals

causes of conflict (personal)

- Attitudes and values - Skills, abilities, and/or competencies - Personality clashes - Emotional "flare-ups" - Cultural differences

consequences of dysfunctional conflict

- Diverts energy from work - Threatens psychological well-being - Wastes resources - Creates a negative climate - Breaks down group cohesion - Can increase hostility and aggression behaviors

personal traits associated with leadership

- Drive (conscientiousness, extraversion, need for achievement) - Desire to lead (need for power) - Honesty/integrity (agreeableness, values) - Self-confidence (self-esteem, self-efficacy) and emotional stability - Conceptual and analytical cognitive abilities (IQ), and knowledge of their business (human capital)

Leaders often use influence and impression management tactics to:

- Enhance cooperation - Create consensus in how things are perceived - Clarify and inspire goal-directed team performance

consequences for others when politics are perceived as self-serving by others

- Increased stress, and intention to turnover - Decreased satisfaction, commitment, and performance - Increased likelihood of others engaging in political behavior themselves - Decreased perceptions of justice/fairness

what impression different tactics generate

- Ingratiation: appear likeable, attractive - self-promotion: appear competent, expert - Exemplification: appear loyal, conscientious, dependable, reliable - intimidation: appear aggressive, powerful, dangerous - supplication: appear weak, compliant

causes of conflict (structural)

- Inter-Role conflict ( ex. A husband and father who is also Chief of Police) - Intra-Role conflict (when two supervisors ask an employee to do a task, and both cannot be accomplished at the same time.) - Status differences (leader vs. follower) - Specialization (of tasks or rules) - Interdependence (requires cooperation) - Common resources

consequences of functional conflict

- Leads to new ideas - Stimulates creativity - Motivates change - Promotes organizational vitality - Helps individuals and groups establish identities - Serves as a safety valve to indicate problems (Doesn't just resolve the issue, it builds the capacity to keep future conflicts functional)

leaders perform 2 types of behaviors

1. Initiating structure (task-oriented) 2. Consideration (person-oriented)

Primary approach to reduce likelihood of political behavior and POPS arising in the first place:

- Transparent communication and feedback (reduces uncertainty) - Managing and clarifying resource allocation - Participative management and involvement (neutralizes threat in felt accountability) - Encouraging cooperation among groups - Managing scarce resources equitably

What is the key to effective political behavior?

- defensive (reactive) blame someone else - assertive (proactive) get ahead - tactical (short-term) - strategic (long-term) reputation building

negotiation strategies (Integrative bargaining)

- in which numerous interests are considered, resulting in an agreement that is satisfactory for both parties Consequences: can be more time-consuming than distributive negotiation due to the need to explore multiple options and find mutually beneficial solutions

Power

- is a measure of person's ability to influence the attitudes and behaviors of other individuals; it is based in a dyadic (two-person) relationship - the discretion and the means to enforce your will over others - its all about influencing others

negotiation strategies (distributive bargaining)

- usually concerns a single issue- "a fixed pie" - in which one person gains at the expense of another. Consequences: parties compete for power so that can cause damaged relationships, and missed opportunities for joint problem-solving (ex. haggling over a price of a car. you have a particular price you want, and you get it only if the seller compromises)

4 dimensions of political skill

1. social astuteness 2. interpersonal influence 3. networking ability 4. sincerity

conflict management styles (collaborating)

1. to find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised 2. when your objective is to learn 3. to merge insights from people with different perspectives 4. to gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus 5. to work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship

conflict management styles (avoiding)

1. when an issue is trivial or more important issues are pressing 2. when you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns 3. when potential disrupion outweighs the benefits of resolution 4. to let people cool down and reign perspective 5. when gathering information supersedes immediate decision 6. when others can resolve the conflict more effectively 7. when issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues

conflict management styles (compromising)

1. when goals are important but not worth the effort or potential disruption of more assertive modes 2. when opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals 3. to achieve temporary settlements to complex issues 4. to arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure 5. as a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful

conflict management styles (competing)

1. when quick, decisive action is vital (ex. emergencies) 2. On important issues where unpopular actions need implementing (ex. cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline) 3. On issues vital to company welfare when you know you are right 4.Against people who take advantage of noncompetitive behavior

conflict management styles (accommodating)

1. when you find you are wrong - to allow a better position to be heard, to learn, and to show your reasonableness 2. when issues are more important to others than to yourself - to satisfy others and maintain cooperation 3. to build social credits for later issues 4. to minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing 5. when harmony and stability are especially important 6 to allow employees to develop by learning from mistakes

Which traits are associated with the likelihood of leading?

Although things like height have been found to predict leader emergence: 1. Personality is a better predictor of outcomes 2. Task-oriented traits (e.g., conscientiousness, IQ) predict performance and effectiveness 3. Interpersonal traits (i.e., extraversion, agreeableness) predict attitudes

4 dimensions of political skill (apparent sincerity)

Appear authentic

negotiations

Are a specific type of conflict management wherein two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempts to agree on an exchange rate for them

conflict management (cooperative strategies)

Assume win-win is possible, engage in honest communication, trust, and openness to risk/vulnerability

four dimensions/behavioral categories of Transformational Leadership (individualized consideration)

Concern for each follower's unique goals and needs, and providing personalized mentoring

4 dimensions of political skill (networking ability)

Develop social relations and alliances, obtain resources

empowerment: 2 pitfalls to avoid #2

Empowerment is a matter of degree, not an either-or proposition. Power can be shifted to the hands of non managers step by step. The overriding goal is to increase productivity and competitiveness in organizations. Each step in this evolution increases the power of organizational contributors who traditionally were told what, when, and how to do things.

empowerment: 2 pitfalls to avoid #1

Empowerment is not a zero-sum game in which one's person's gain is another's loss. Sharing power via empowerment is a means of increasing your own power. Think of it this way: you cannot be everywhere, all the time, with all the answers. But if you allow competent others to act, then you've increased your reach and influence.

Out-group members experience:

Fewer rewards, less attention, guidance based on policy and procedure, less responsibility

Transformational leadership predicts:

Firm performance, extra effort exerted towards job performance, positive attitudes (e.g., satisfaction, commitment)

4. Bargaining and problem solving

Make concessions

influence tactics

a direct means of influencing others, by altering their behavior and thoughts

charismatic leadership theory

a leadership theory that states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors

contingency theories

assert that the leadership style must be appropriate for the particular situation in order to enhance worker performance

Fiedler's Contingency Theory

asserts that leaders are either task-oriented or relationship-oriented (assessed via LPC), and function more or less effectively based on the favorableness of the context in which they function

Conflict management (competitive strategies)

assume win-lose will happen, dishonest communication, rigid positions

trait approach

attempt to identify distinctive characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers

Transformational Leadership

behaves according to deeply held values that can then influence the values and goals of followers, and inspire followers to achieve superior levels of performance (have strong personal characteristics; they are able to transcend their personal goals and loyalties in order to advance core beliefs and values)

conflict management styles

competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating

political model of organizations

Recognizes that effectiveness and organizational behavior is driven by people with competing interests who are using informal social processes to achieve goals

2. Definition of ground rules

Set people, issues to cover, place, time allotted

four dimensions/behavioral categories of Transformational Leadership (idealized influence)

Strong personal qualities, values, or beliefs that elicit liking/attraction and regard; exceptional role model or image

LMX is strongly related to:

Subordinate job performance, satisfaction with supervisor, job satisfaction, commitment, positive role perceptions, competence

In-group members experience:

Trust, autonomy/discretion in developing role, attention, resources, challenging tasks, rewards, clearer understanding of leader expectations

4 dimensions of political skill (social astuteness)

Understanding of social dynamics, self-awareness

leaders perform 2 types of behaviors (consideration: person-oriented)

Nurturing friendly and warm working relationships, encouraging mutual trust and respect

intergroup conflict ("in-group" bias)

When in a group, members develop shared perceptions of conflict (ex. conflict states). Conflict states often reinforce group cognitions and escalate through these ex.: - In-group members view themselves as unique individuals, yet stereotypes members of other groups - In-group members see themselves as morally correct, and outsiders as immoral - Outsiders are viewed as threats - Differences between other groups are distorted

Escalation of conflict

While conflict can often begin in a functional way, it can escalate and turn dysfunctional - Use of threatening tactics or "power plays" - More issues are brought into the conflict - Issues move from specific to general - More people and groups get involved - Goals shift from 'resolution' to 'winning' or even just harming the other party

Rational model of organizations

considers effectiveness and behavior as being driven by objective, measureable, and formal processes

empowerment

consists of efforts to enhance employee performance, well-being, and positive attitudes - has been shown to favorably influence many outcomes in the organizing framework, such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, performance, turnover, and employee stress

Functional Conflict

constructive and cooperative, it is characterized by consultative interaction, a focus on the issues, mutual respect, and useful give-and-take; it may involve challenging ideas, standards, or processes that are ineffective

Transformational leadership is as effective as....

contingent reward leadership (one part of TXL), yet is less dependent on access to resources and it more stable over time

5. Closure and implementation

contract, if needed

Transactional leaders (TXL)

engage in exchanges enforced by rewards and punishments

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

finds that leaders form different unique relationships with different followers, they do not treat them all the same - Leaders informally (and perhaps non-consciously) assign subordinates to the in-group or the out-group because they have limited resources (e.g., time, attention) to distribute among employees

2 forms of empowerment

structural and psychological

Task-oriented leaders are effective in

highly favorably or unfavorable situations

political behavior

is any action not sanctioned by the organization that is taken to influence others in order to meet one's personal goals

Information power

is based on access to and control over the presentation of useful information; actor's framing of information can influence/bias recipient's interpretation

5 bases of power (coercive power)

is based on an influencer's control over punishments; target must believe conformity will avoid punishment

5 bases of power (reward power)

is based on an influencer's control over rewards desired by a target; employee must see a clear and strong link to the reward

5 bases of power (referent power)

is based on interpersonal attraction and feelings of identity with an influencer; targets will seek to behave and perceive in similar ways to influencers and may not realize the existence of referent power

5 Bases of power (Legitimate power)

is based on one's position and mutual agreement that an influencer has the authority to affect/dictate the behavior of a target; only affects behavior within the scope of the position or authority

5 bases of power (Expert Power)

is based on the perception of an influencer's knowledge and effectiveness in a particular domain; such expertise must be important to target

political skill

is the ability effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or organizational objective - has been found to enhance the social and organizational effectiveness of employees and leaders

influence

is the actual process of affecting attitudes or behaviors

organizational politics

is the use of power and social influence to obtain desired outcomes in organizations - The "rules" of politics in any organization are informal (they arise organically), often unspoken, and learned either through indirect/vicarious experience or directly from those with political power

Charisma

means "favor given" or "gift of grace" in Greek, and is associated with charm, kindness, being blessed - resides in the relationship between leader and followers, wherein followers ascribe highly positive inspirational qualities to a leader

Relationship-oriented leaders are effective in

moderately favorable situations

Dysfunctional Conflict

places the focus on the conflict, rather than the interest of the organization; it is often personal, involving aggression or threats directed at specific people

Legitimate power (authority)

power that is voluntarily accepted by those who are subject to it - managers who obtain compliance primarily by using their formal authority to make decisions

primary reasons different people use influence tactics on superiors

request approval or resources, obtain personal benefits

primary reasons different people use influence tactics on Peers

request help

5 basis of power

reward, coercive, legitimate, expert, referent

The key to successful influence or impression management is....

to appear sincere and genuine in one's actions or requests

Structural empowerment

transfers authority and responsibilities from management to employees - managers and employers can boost employee empowerment by changing policies, procedures, job responsibilities and team designs

Impression management tactics

which are an indirect means of influencing others and gaining power by creating a desired image of oneself in the minds of others, which then alters their behavior (ex. positioning themselves as socially responsible, companies can create positive impressions with many stakeholders, such as potential customers, and in turn boost sales)

functions of political skill

1. Neutralize stressors (e.g., role conflict, role overload, supervisor conflict, POPS for oneself) 2. Increases effectiveness of political behavior (e.g., enhance likelihood of desired outcome, reduce the likelihood that they will be perceived as solely self-serving) 3. Enhancing work outcomes (e.g., job performance, leader effectiveness, trust

The quality of LMX depends on:

1. Perceived contribution to the exchange 2. Loyalty, expression of support 3. Affect, mutual attraction

Negotiation Process (5 Steps)

1. Preparation and planning 2. Definition of ground rules 3. Clarification and justification 4. Bargaining and problem solving 5. Closure and implementation

Two employee experiences that can help reduce the negative effects of POPS:

1. Understanding the causes, expectations, norms, and general nature of politics in one's context 2. Having a sense of control over the arising and enactment of politics in one's context

4 dimensions of political skill (interpersonal influence)

Adapting one's behavior to meet situational demands and elicit desired responses in others

four dimensions/behavioral categories of Transformational Leadership (intellectual stimulation)

Challenging followers to take new perspectives, move beyond their habitual or ineffective behaviors, innovate, challenge organizational norms

1. Preparation and planning

Define own goals, anticipate partner's goals, gather data on similar negotiations, develop strategy, identify least acceptable outcomes (for all parties)

leaders perform 2 types of behaviors (Initiating structure: task-oriented)

Defining and organizing work relationships and roles, establishing patterns of communication and task accomplishment

3. Clarification and justification

Elaborate on positions

four dimensions/behavioral categories of Transformational Leadership

Idealized influence, inspirational motivation (charisma), individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation

_____________ targets will be more likely to suspect ulterior or self - interested motives when the influence/impression behavior is not consistent with social norms or not appropriate for the goal

Influence

four dimensions/behavioral categories of Transformational Leadership (inspirational motivation [charisma])

Infusing work with personal meaning, generating a vision for the future, setting challenging performance standards

perception of politics (POPS)

Is the degree to which people attribute other people's behavior to self-interested motives at the cost of organizational success, or perceive their organization's formal processes to be biased by social influence

Experienced conflict

Perceived and felt conflict define the actual conflict that the parties then attempt to resolve; this definition can be affected by many things: - The importance of what is affected by the structural or personal factor - The motives that parties attribute for the others' actions, the assumptions they're making - The existing relationship between the parties (e.g., trusting, critical, power inequalities, etc.)

TXL Higher-order exchanges (the "in-group") involve:

Physical and social/emotional quantities, like relationships, trust, respect, emotional support; workers and manager fulfill goals and maintain a relationship

TXL Lower-order exchanges (the "out-group") involve:

Physical quantities, like money in exchange for hours worked, scheduling, performance-based bonuses; both workers and manager fulfill a goal

Conflict

a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party values

primary reasons different people use influence tactics on subordinates

change behavior, assign tasks

interpersonal conflict

conflict that occurs between two or more individuals

psychological empowerment

occurs when we feel a sense of meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact at work

leadership

the process of influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals (they encourage effective change in organizations; is most effective when it taps into the beliefs and fundamental motivations of people, and uses that to transform them)